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BIOMOLECULES,POLYMER & POC Page # 3
CARBOHYDRATES
1. Introduction:
Carbohydrates received their name becasue of their general formula Cx(H2O)y, according to which
they appear to be hydrates of carbon.
Sunlight,chlorphyll
xCO2 + yH2O  Cx (H2O)y + xO2
carbohydrate
2. Classification and structure of Carbohydrates:

Carbohydrats are polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones and substances hich hydrolyse to polyhydroxy
aldehydes and ketones.
The simplest carbohydrates are called sugars or saccharides, (Latin: Saccharum, sugar). Carbohydrates
can be classified as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides and polysacchaides.
3. General Characteristic of Monosaccharides:

The important characteristics of monosaccharides as follows:
(i) All monosaccahrides are water soluble due to the presence of hydrogen bonding between the
different OH groups and surrounding water molecules.
(ii) Monosaccharides have sweet taste and upon heating they get charred and give the smell of
burning sugar.
(iii) Monosaccharides are optically active in nature due to the presence of chiral carbon atoms.
(iv) The chemical characteristics of monosaccharides are due to OH groups and carbonyl group
which may be either aldehydic or ketonic group.
Glyceraldehyde contains one asymmetric carbon atom (marked by an astrisk) and can thus exist in two
optically active forms, called the D-form and the L-form. Clearly, the two forms are mirror images that
cannot be superimposed, that is they are enantiomers.
CHO CHO
H C OH OH C H
H2C OH H2C OH
D-Glyceraldehyde L-Glyceraldehyde
D Means on
HC O the right HC O
1 1
H C OH OH C H L Means on
2 2
the left
H2C OH H2C OH
3 3
D-Glyceraldehyde L-Glyceraldehyde
All four isomers have been prepared synthetically. The D-and L-erythrose are mirror images, that is,
they are enantiomers. They have exactly the same degree of rotation but in opposite directions. Equal
amounts of the two would constitute a racemic mixture, that is a mixture that would allow a plane-
polarised light to pass through the solution unchanged.
C — C — C — C — C – CHO
OH OH OH OH OH
Supplying hydrogen atoms to the five carbon atoms to satisfy their tetravalency, following structure
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Page # 4 BIOMOLECULES,POLYMER & POC
(open chain) may be assigned to glucose: (* indicates assymetric carbon atom).
H H H H H
H C — C — C — C — C – CHO
OH OH OH OH OH
6. Configuration* of Glucose:
Since the above structure possesses four asymmetric carbon atoms (shown by asterisks), it an exist in
24 = 16 optically active forms, i.e., eight pairs of enantiomers. All these are known and correspond to
the D- and L-forms of glucose, mannose, galactose, allose, glucose, idose and talose.
The naturally occuring dextrorotatory glucose (+)-glucose is only one of the 16-stereoisomers.
CHO
1
|
H— C — OH
2
|
HO—3C — H CHO
| |
H—4 C — OH H— C — OH
| |
H—5 C — OH H2C — OH
6|
H2C — OH
D(+)Gucose (+)-Glyceradehyde
Notations D- and L- for denoting configuration were given by Rosanof; according to this convention
any compound whose bottom asymmetric carbon atoms has the configuration similar to the configuration
of dextrorotatory glyceraldehyde (drawn above, i.e. the bottom carbon atom has –OH to the left and
H to the right is given L-configuration. Remember that the symbols D-and L- have no relation with the
specific rotation value, i.e., with (+) or (–) value. For example, the natural (–) fructose belongs to D-
series, i.e., it is D(–)-fructose)
7. Objections to open-chain structure of glucose:
Even through open chain structure of (+) glucose exaplains most of its reactions, it fails to explain the
following facts about it.
i) Glucose does not restore Schiff’s reagent colour.
ii) Glucose does not form a bisulphite and aldehyde-ammonia compound.
iii) Glucose forms two isomeric penta-acetates neither of which reacts with carbonyl reagents.
iv) The existence of the two isomeric glucoses and the change in specific rotation (mutarotation) is not
explained by an open-chain formula.
v) Glucose reacts with methanol in presence of dry HCl gas to form two isomeric glucosides.
Since glucose is less soluble in ethanol, it separates out on cooling the reaction mixture. Commercially,
it is obtained by the hydrolysis of starch which is available from relatively inexpensive source such as
maize, potatoes and rice.
Constitution of Glucose:
1. Molecular Formula: By the usual analytical methods, the molecular formula glucose is found to be
C6H12O6.
2. Straight Chain of six carbon atoms:
i) Reduction of glucose with conc. HI and phosphorus gives 2-iodohexane and n-hexane. This indicates
that six carbon atoms in glucose are present in a straigth chain
HI/P
C6H12O6 CH3 – (CH2)4 – CH3
Prolonged
heating
Glucose n-hexane
ii) Glucose when oxidized with bromine water gives gluconic acid which when reduced with excesss of HI
gives n-hexanoic acid, CH3.(CH2)4.COOH confirming the presence of a straigth chain of six carbon
atoms in glucose.
3. Presence of five hydroxyl groups: When treates with acetic anhydride, glucose forms penta-acetate
indicating the presence of 5 – OH groups and since glucose is a stable compound, the five –OH groups
must be attached to 5 different carbon atoms.
C6H5NHNH2
C6H12O 6 C6H5N
CHO
Glucose |
(CHOCOCH3)4
|
CH2OCOCH3
Glucose pentaacetate
4. Presence of an aldehydic groups:

i) Glucose forms a cyanohdrin with hydrogen cyaide and a mono-oxime with hydroxylamine suggesting
the presence of a carbonyl group.
HCN
C6H12O6 CN
Glucose |
(CHOH)5
|
CH2OH
Glucose cyanohydrin
ii) Glucose reduces Fehling solution and Tollen’s reagent indicating that the carbonyl group is aldehydic in
nature.
iii) The presence of aldehydic gruop in glucose is confirmed by its oxidation to gluconic acid having the
same number of carbon atoms.
Br2
C 5H 11 . CHO + (O) C 5H 11O5 . COOH
Glucose Gluconic acid
Now since aldehydic group is monovalent, it must be present on the end of the chain.
5. Open chain structure: On the basis of the abov points, glucose may be assigned following prt
structure orientation shown in the  anomer has the –OH trans to the –CH2OH group and the  anomer
has the –OH cis to the –CH2OH group.
STRUCTURE FORMULAS FOR MONOSACCHARIDES:

Although many of the properties of D(+)-glucose can be explained in terms of an open-chain strcuture
(1, 2, or 3), a considerable body of evidence indicates that the open-chain strcuture exists, primarily,
in equilibrium with two cyclic forms. These can be represented by structures 4 and 5 or 6 and 7. The
cyclic forms of D(+)-glucose are hemiacetals formed by an intramolecular reaction of the –OH group at
C5 with the aldehyde grup. Cycliation creates a new stereogenic centre at C1, and this stereogenic
centre explains how two cyclic forms are possible. These two cyclic forms are diastereomers that
different only in the configuration of C1. In carbohydrate cheistry diastereomers of this type of called
anomers, and the hemiacetal carbn atom is called the anomeric carbon atom.
Structures 4 and 5 for the glucose anomers are called Haworth formulas and, although they do not give
an accuate picture of the shap of the six-membered ring, they have many practical uses. Demonstrates
how the representation of each stereogenic centre of the open-chain form can be correlated with its
representation in the Haworth formula.
Each glucose anomer is designated as an  anomer or a  anomer depending on the location of the –OH
gruop of Cl. When we draw the cyclic forms of a D sugar in the
MUTAROTATION:
Ordinary D(+)-glucose has a melting point of 146°C. However, when D(+)-glucose is crystallized by
evaporating an aqueous solution kept above 98°C, a second form of D(+)-glucose with a melting point
of 150°C can be obtained. When the optical rotations of these two forms are measured, they are found
to be significantly differnt, but when an aqueous solutin of either form is allowed to stand, its rotation
changes. The specific rotation of one form decreases and the rotation of the other increases, until
both solutions.
show the same value. A solution of original D-(+)glucose (mp 146°C) has an initial specific rotaiton of
+112°, but, ultimately, the speciic rotation of this solution falls to +52.7°. A solution of second form of
D(+) glucose (mp 150°C) has an initial specific rotation of +18.7°, but slowly, the specific rotation of
this solution rises to +52.7°. This change in rotation towards an equilibrium value is called mutarotation.
The explanation for this mutarotation lies in th existence of an equilibrium between the open-chain
form of D(+) gucose an the  and  forms of the cyclic hemiacetals.
GLYCOSIDE FORMATION
When a small amount of gaseous hydrogen chloride is passed into a solution of D(+)glucose in methanol,
a reaction takes place that results in the fomation o anomeric methyl acetals:
Carbohydrate acetals, generally, are called glycosides (see the following mechanism), and an acetal of
glucose is callled a glucoside. (Acetls of mannose are mannosides, acetals of fructose are fructosides,
and so on) the methyl D-glucosides have been shown to have six-membered rings so they are properly
nameds methyl -D-glucopyranoside and methyl -D-glucopyranoside.
The mechanisms for the formation of the methyl glucosides (starting arbitrarily with -D-glucopyranose)
is as follows:
Formation of a Glycoside:
Hydrolysis of a Glycoside:
Glycosides may be as simple as the methyl glucosides that we have jut studies or they may be
considerably more complex. Many naturally occuring compounds are glycosides. An example is salicin, a
compound found in the bark of willow trees:
CONVERSION TO ESTERS:
Treating a monosaccharide with excess acetic anhydride and a weak base (such as pyridine or sodium
acetate) converts all of the hydroxyl groups, including the anomeric hydroxyl, to ester groups. If the
reaction is carried out at a low temperature (e.g., 0°C), the reaction occurs stereospecifically; the 
anomer gives the -acetate and the  anomer gives the -acetate. Acetate esters are common
protecting groups for carbohydrate hydroxyls.
BENEDICT’S OR TOLLENS’ REAGENTS: REDUCING SUGARS

Benedict’s reagent (A alkaline solution containing a cupric citrate complex ion) and Tollen’s solution
[Ag+(NH3)2OH]– oxidize and thus give positive tests with aldoses and ketoses. The tests are positive
even though aldoses and ketoses exist primarily as cyclic hemiacetals.
Sugars that give positive tests with Tollen’s or Benedict’s solutions are known as readucing sugars, and
all carbohydrates that contain a hemiacetal group given positive tests. In aqueous solution these
hemiacetals exist in equilibrium with relatively small, but not insignificant, concentratiosn of noncyclic
aldehydes or -hydroxy ketones. It is the latter two that undergoes the oxidation until one reactant is
exhausted.
Carbohydrates that contain only acetal groups do not given positive tests with Benedict’s or Tollen’s
solutions, and they are called non-reducing sugars. Acetals do not exist in equilibrium with aldehydes
or -hydroxy ketones in the basic aqueous media of the test reagents.
BROMINE WATER : THE SYNTHESIS OF ALDONIC ACID

Monosaccharides do not undergo isomerization and fragmentation reactions in mildly acids solution.
Thus, a useful oxidizing reagent for preparative purposes is bromine in water (pH 6.0). Bromine water is
a general reagent that selectively oxidizes the –CHO group to a –CO2H group. It converts an aldose to
an aldonic acid.
Experiments with aldopyranoses have shown that the actual course of the reaction is somewhat more
complex than we have indicated above. Bromine water specifically oxidizes the  anomer, and the initial
product that forms is a -aldonolactone. This compound may then hydrolyze to an aldonic acid, and
the aldonic acid may undergo a subsequent rign closure to form a -aldonolactone:
NITRIC ACID OXIDATION: ALDARIC ACID

Dilute nitric acid – a stronger oxidizing agent than bromine watre – oxidizes the both –CHO group and
the terminal –CH2OH group of an aldose to –CO2H groups. These dicarboxylic acids are known as aldaric
acids:
O H O CH
O C
CH
HC OH O
H OH HC OH
HC OH O
HO H –H2 O
or CH2
CH
H OH HC OH
HC OH
H OH C
C
CH2 OH OH O
O
This aldaric acid obtained from D-glucose is called D-glucoaric acid.
PERIODATE OXIDATIOSN: OXIDATIVE CLEAVAGE OF POLYHYDROXY COMPOUNDS

Compounds that have hydroxyl groups on adjacent atoms undergo oxidative cleavage when they are
treated with aqueous periodic acid (HIO4). The reaction breaks carbon-carbon bonds and produces
carbonyl compounds (aldehydes, ketones, or acids).
H C OH
O
+ HIO4 2 C + HIO3 + H2O
C OH
Since the reaction usually takes place in quantitative yield, valuable information can often be gained
by measuring the nubmer of molar equivalents of periodic acid that is consumed in the reaction as well
as by identifying the carbonyl products.
Periodate oxidations are though to take place through a cyclic intermediate:
Before we discuss the use of periodic acid in carbohydrate chemistry, we should illustrate the course of
the reaction with several simple examples. Notice in these periodate oxidations that for every C – C
bond broken, a C – O bond is formed at each carbon.
1. When three or more –CHOH groups are continuous, the internal ones are obtained as formic acid.
Periodate oxidation of glycerol, for example, gives two molar equivalents of formuladehyde and one
molar equivalent of formic acid;
2. Oxidative cleavage also take place when an – OH group is adjacent to the carbonyl group of an
aldehyde or ketone (but not that of an acid or an ester). Glyceradehyde yields two molar equivalents
of formic acid and one molar equivalent of formaldehyde, while dihydroxyacetone gives two molar
equivalents of formaldehyde and one molar equivalent of carbon dioxide.
Periodic acid does not cleave compound in which th hydroxyl gruops are separated by an intervening –
CH2 group, nor those in which a hydroxyl group is adjacent to an ether or acetal.
REDUCTION OF MONOSACCHARIDES: ALDITOLS

Aldoses (and ketoses) can be reduced with sodium borohydride to compounds called alditols:
Reduction of D-glucose, for example, yields D-glucitol.
REACTIONS OF MONOSACCHARDIES WITH PHENYLHYDRAZINE: OSAZONES

The aldehyde group of an aldose reacts with such carbonyl reagents as hydroxylamine and
phenylhydrazine. With hydroxylamine, the product is the expected oxime. With enought phenylhydrazine,
however, three molar equivalents of phenylhydrazine are consumed and a second phenylhydrazeone
group is introduced at C2. The product is called a phenylosazone. Phenylosazones crystallize readily
(unlike sugars) and are useful derivatives for identifying sugars.
C N
The mechanism for osazone formation probably depends on a series of reaction in which
C O in giving a nitrogen version of an enol.

behaves very much like
A Mechanism for the Reaction

Phenylosazone Formation
H A H H
tautomerization HC N N C6H5
HC N NHC6H5
A: C O H
H C OH
:A
Formed from the aldose

HC NH C NHHC6H5
(–C H NH )
6 5 2
(+2 C6H 5NHNH 2)
C O C NHHC6H5 + NH3 + H2O
Osazone formation result in a loss of the stereogenic centre at C2 but does not affect other stereogenic
carbons; D-glucose and D-mannose, for example, yield the same phenylosazone:
CHO CH NHHC6H5 CHO

H OH C NHHC6H5 HO H
HO H HO H HO H
C6H5NHNH 2 C6H5NHNH2
H OH H OH H OH
H OH H OH H OH
CH2 OH CH2 OH CH2 OH

D-Glucose Same Phenylosazone D-Mannose
This experiment, first done by Emil Fischer, established that D-glucose and D-mannose have the same
configuration about C3, C4 and C5. Diastereomeric aldoses that differ in configuration at only one
carbon (such as D-glucose and D-mannose) are called epimers. In genral, any pair of diastereomers
that differ in configuration at only a single tetrahedral stereogenic carbon can be called epimers.
SYNTHESIS AND DEGRADATION OF MONOSACCHARIDES
Kiliani-Fischer Synthesis:
In 1885, Heinrich Kiliani (Freiburg, Germany) discovered that an aldose can be converted to the
epimeric aldonic acids having one additional carbon through the addition of hydrogen cyanide and
subsequent hydrolysis of the epimeric cyanohydrins. Fischer later extended this method by showing
that aldonolactones obtained from the aldonic acids can be reduced to aldoses. Today, this method for
legnthening the carbon chain of an aldose is called the Kiliani - Fischer synthesis.
We can illustrate the Kiliani - Fischer synthesis with the synthesis of D-threose and D-erythrose
(aldotetroses) from D-glyceraldehyde (an aldotriose).
Addition of hydrogen cyanide to glyceraldehyde produces two epimeric cyanohydrines because the
reaction creates a new stereogenic centre, the cyanohydrins can be separated easily (since they are
diastereomers), and each can be converted to an aldose through hydrolysis, acidification, lactonization,
and reducion with Na-Hg at pH 3-5. One cyanohydrine ultimately yields D(–) erythrose and the other
yields D(–) threose.
We can be sure that the aldotetroses that we obtain from this Kiliani - Fischer synhesis aare both D
sugars because the starting compound is D-glyceraldehyde and its stereogenic carbon is unaffected
by the synthesis. On the basis of the Kiliani - Fischer synthesis, we cannot know just which aldotetrose
has both –OH groups on the right and which has the top –OH on the left in the Fischer projection.
However, if we oxidize both aldotetroses to aldaric acids, one (D(–) erythrose) will yield and optically
inactive (meso) product while the other [D(–)threose] will yield a product that is optically inactive
(meso) producct while the other [D(–)erythrose] will yield a product that is optically active.
THE RUFF DEGRADATION

Just as the Kiliani - Fischer synthesis can be used to lengthen the chain of an aldose by one carbon
atom, the Ruff degradation can be used to shorten the chain by a similar unit. The Ruff degradation
involves (1) oxidation of the aldose to an aldonic acid using bromine water and (2) oxidative
decarboxylation of th aldonic acid to the next lower aldose using hydrogen peroxide and ferric sulfate.
D(–) Ribose, for example, can be degraed to D(–)erythrose:
Epimers:
Many common sugars are closely related, differing only by the stereochemistry at a single carbon
atom. For example, glucose and mannose differ only at C2, the first asymetric carbon atom. Sugars
that differs only by the stereochemistry at a single carbon are called epimers. and the carbon atom
where they differ is generally stated. If the number of a carbon atom is not specified, it is assumed to
be C2. Therefore, glucose and mannose are “C2 epimers” or simply “epimers”. The C4 epimer of glucose
is galactose and the C2 epimer of erythrose is threose.
Cyclic structure of Fructose:

Like glucose, fructose also has a cyclic structure. Since fructose contains a keto group, it forms an
intramolecular hemiketal. In the hemiketal formation, C5–OH of the fructose combins with C2-keto
group. As a result, C2 becomes chiral and thus has two possible arrangements of CH2OH and OH group
around it. Thus,
D-fructose exists in two stereoisomeric forms, i.e., -fructopyranose and -D fructopyranose. However
in the combined state (such as sucrose), fructose exists in furanose form as shown below:
Hydroylsis of Sucrose:
6
CH2OH
5
H O H
H 1
4
OH H
2
-link
OH 3
O Glycosidic
H OH linkage
(Glucose unit)
CH2OH O
-link
H OH
H CH2OH
OH H
(Fructose unit) Sucrose
(Invert Sugar or Invertose). Hydrolysis of sucrose with hot dilute acid yields D-glucose and D-fructose.
+
C12H 22O 11 + H2O H C6H12O 6 + C6H12O 6

Sucrose D(+)-glucose D(–)-Fructose
[]D = +66.5° []D = +53° []D = –92°
Invert Sugar
[]D = (+53°) – (–92°) = 39°

Surose is dextrorotatory, its specific rotation being +66.5%, D-glucose is also dextrorortatory, []D =
+53°, but D-fructose has a large negative rotation, []D = –92°. Since D-fructose has a greater
specific rotation than D-glucose, the resulting mixture is laevorotatory. Because of this the hydrolysis
of sucrose is known as the inversion of sucrose, and the equimolecular mixture of glucose and fructose
is known as invert sugar or invertose.
POLYSACCHARIDES
Polysacchardies are the polymers of monosacchardies. The natural polysacchardies generally contain
about 100-3000 monosacchardie units. The three most abundant natural polysaccharides-cellulose,
starch and glycogen are derived from the same monomer, i.e., glucose.
Starch: It is a polymer of glucose. Its molecular formular is (C6H10O5)n where the value of n(200 –
1000) varies from source to source. It is the chief food reserve material or storage polysacchardie of
plants and is found mainly in seeds, roots, tubers, etc. Wheat, rice, potatoes, corn, bannans etc., are
rich source of starch.
Starch is not a single compound but is a mixture of two components – a water soluble component
called amylose (20%) and a water insoluble component called amylopectin (80%). Both amylose and
amylopectin are polymers of -D glucose.
Amylose is a linear polymer of -D glucose. It contains about 200 glucose units which are linked to one
another through -linkage involving C1 of one gluose unit with C4 of the other.
Amlopectin, on the other hand, is a highly branched polymer. It consists of a large number (several
branches) of short chains each containnig 20-25 glucose units which are joined together through -
linkages involving C1 of one glucose unit with C4 of the other. The C1 of terminal glucose unit in each
chain is further linked to C6 of the other glucose.
unit in the next chain through C1-C6 -linkage. This gives amylopectine a highly branched structure as
shown below:
C1 – C4 -linkage
Glucose – Glucose – Glucose
Hydrolysis:
Hydrolysis of starch with hot dilute acids or by enzmyes give dextrins of varying complexity, maltose
and finally D-glucose. Starch does not reduce Tollen’s reagent and Fehling’s solution.
Uses:
It is used as a food. It is encountered daily in the form of potatoes, bread, cakes, rice etc. It is used
in coating and sizing paper to improve the writing qualities. Strch is used to treat textile fibres before
they are woven into cloth so that they can be woven without breaking. It is used in manufacture of
dextrins, glucose and ethyl alcohol. Starch is also used in manufacture of starch nitrate, which is used
as an explosive.
Cellulose:
Cellulose is the chief component of wood and plane fibres; cotton, for instance, is nearly pure cellulose.
It is insoluble in watre and tasteless; it is a non-reducing carbohdrate. These properties, in part at
least, are due to extremely high molecular weight.
OH H
H H HO OH
O HO
O O O
HO O HO
O O
H OHH
H OH
HO
H
Cellulose
Cellulose has the formula (C6H10O5)n. Complete hydrolysis by acid yields D(+)-glucose as the
monosaccharide. Hydrolysis of completely methylated cellulose gives a high yield of 2, 3, 6-tri-O-
methyl-D-glucose. Like starch, therefore, cellulose is made up of chains of D-glucose units, each unit
joined by a glycoside linkage of C-4 of the next.
Cellulose differs from starch, however, in the configuration of the glycoside linkage. Upon treatment
with acetic anhydride and sulfuric acid, cellulose yields octa-O-acetylecllobiose, there is evidence that
all glycoside linkages in cellulose, like the one in (+) cellobiose, are beta linkages.
Physical methods give molecular weights for cellulose ranging from 250000 to 1000000 or more; it
seems likely that there are at least 1500 glucose units per molecule. End group analysis by both
methylation and periodic acid oxidation gives a chain legnth of 1000 glucose units or more. X-ray
analysis and electron microscopy indicate that these long chains lie side by side in bundles, undoubtedly
held together by hydrogen bonds between the numerous neighbouring –OH groups. These bundles are
twisted togethr to form.
Rope like structure which themselvs are grouped to from the fibers we can see. In wood these cellulose
“ropes” are embedded in lignin to give a structure that has been likened to reinforced concrete.
Properties of Cellulose:
We have seen that the glycoside linkages of cellulose are broken by the action of acid, each cellulose
molecule yielding many molecules of D(+)-glucose. Now let us look briefly at reactions of cellulose in
which the chain remains essentially intact. EAch glucose unit in cellulose contains three free – OH
groups; these are the positions at which reactions occurs.
These reactions of cellulose, carried out to odify the properties of a cheap, available ready-made
polymer, are of tremendous industrial importance.
Like any alcohol, cellulose forms esters. Treatment with a mixture of nitric and sulfuric acid converts
cellulose into cellulose nitrate. The properties and uses of the product depend upon the extent of
nitration. Guncotton, which is used in making smokeless powder, is very nearly completely nitrated
cellulose, and is often called cellulose trinitrate (three nitrate groups per glucose unit). Pyroxylin is less
highly nitrated material containing between two and three nitrate groups per glucose unit. It is used in
the manufacture of plastics like celluloid and collodion, in photographic film, and in lacquers. It has the
disadvantage of being flammable, and forms hihgly toxic nitrogen oxides upon burning.
Industrially, cellulose is alkylated to ethers by the action of alkyl chlorides (cheaper than sulfates) in
the presence of alkali. Considerable degradation of the long chain is unavoidable in these reactions.
Methyl, ethyl, and benzyl others of cellulose are important in the production of textiles, films, and
various plastic objects.
AMINO ACIDS
1. Intorudction:
Amino acids are the compounds which contain both an amino group and a carboxy group in their
molecules. They constitute a particularly imortant class of difunctional compounds as they are the
building blocks of proteins.
While several hundred different amino acids are known to occur naturally, 20 of them deserve special
mention as they ae preesent in proteins. These amino acids are listed in Table. As given in this table,
for amino acids trivial names are common. The convention to use a three letter code, as an abbreviation,
for each amino acid is also given in the table. These abbreviations are particularly useful in designating
the sequence of amino acids in peptides and proteins which your will study.
OH
R
Name Abbreviation
NH2
H2N
OH Glycine Gly
OH
Alanine Ala
H3C
NH2
3
H3C
Valine Val
NH2
HO
CH3 Leucine
HO Leu
NH2 CH3
O
NH2 Isoleucine Ile
CH3
CH3
OH Aspartic Acid Asp

HO
NH2 O
HO OH Glutamic Acid Glu
2 2
Lysine Lys
NH NH2
O Arginin Arg
NH2
OH
N Histidine His
OH
NH2
S Methionine Met
HO CH 3
NH2
N O Proline Pro
O
Phenylalanine Phe
H 2N OH
OH
Tryptophan Trp
NH2
N
OH Serine Ser
H2 N
H 3C
NH2 Threonine Thr
HO
O
threonine
OH Cysteine Cys
H2 N
2
Tyrosine Tyr
O OH
AMINO ACID AS DIPOLAR IONS:

Amino Acids contain both a basic group (–NH2) and an acidic group (–COOH). In the dry solid state,
amino acids exist as dipolar ions, a form in which the carboxyl group is present as a carboxylate ion, –
CO2–, and the amino group is present as an aminium ion, –NH3+ (Dipolar ions are also called zwitterions.)
In aqueous solution, an equilibrium exists between the dipolar ion and the anionic and cationic forms of
an amino acids.
+ OH– +
– –
H3 N CHCO2H +
H3 N CHCO2 H2NCHCO2
H3O
R R R
Cationic form (Predominant in strongly Dipolar ion Anionic form (Predominant in strongly
acidic solutions, e.g., At pH 0) basic solutions, e.g., At pH 14)
If alanine is dissolved in a strongly acidic solution (e.g. pH 0), it is present in mainly a net cationic form.
In this state the amine group is protonoted (bears a formal +1 charge) and the carboxylic acid group is
neutral (has no formal charge). As is typical of -amino acids, the pKa for the carboxylic acid hydrogen
of alanine is considerably lower (2.3) than the pKa of an ordinary carboxylic acid (e.g., propanoic acid,
pKa 4.89):
The reason for this enhanced acidity of the carboxyl group in an -amino acid is the inductive effect of
the neighboring aminium cation, which helps to stablize the carboxylate anion formed when it loses a
proton. Loss of proton from the carboxyl group in a cationic -amino acid leaves the molecule electrically
neutral (in the form of a dipolar ion). This equilibrium is shown in the red-shaded portion of the equation
below.
The protonated amine group of an -amino acid is also acidic, but less so that the carboxylic acid
group. The pKa of the animium group in alanine is 9.7. The equilibrium for loss of an aminium proton is
shown in the blue-shaded portion of the equation below. The carboxylic acid proton is always lost
before a proton from the aminium group in an -amino acid.
The state of an -amino acid at any given pH is governed by a combination of two euilibrium, as shown
in the above equation for alanine. The isoelectric point (pI) of an amino acid such as alanine is the
average of pKa1 and pKa2;
pI = ½ (2.3 + 9.7) = 6.0 (isoelectric point of alanine)
When a base is added to a solution of the net cationic form of alanine (initially at pH 0, for example),
the first proton removed is the carboxylic acid proton, as we have said. In the case of alanine, when a
pH of 2.3 is reached, the acid proton will have been removed from half of the molecules. This pH
represents the pKa of the alanine carboxylic acid proton, as can be demonstrated using the Henderson-
Hasselbalch equation. The Henderson - Hasselbalch equation shows that for an acid (HA) and its
conjugate base (A–),

HA
pKa = pH + log
[A  ]
When the acid is half neutralized,
b) Co-polymers are another tye of polymer. These contains more than one sub-unit (or monomer).
Example:
In the above example styrene and maleic anhydride monomers laternate. Co-polymer can be a block
co-polymer.
Example:
Co-polymers can be random as well.
— B – A – A – B – A – B – B – A – B – A –B – B – A —
A and B are monomers.
6. There are many polymers in nature.
Example: Cellulose, starch, pepsin, insulin, egg albumin, rubber, DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) etc.
These are called Biopolymers.
Man made polymers are, Nylon, Terylene, Polythene, Polystyrene, PVC (Polyvinyl chloride), Bakelite,
Perspex, Polysiloxane etc.
7. The propertis of a polymer solution are strikingly different from those of a true solution. For example,
when polyvinyl alcohol is added to water, it swells.
a) Its shape gets distorted and after a long time it dissolves.
b) When more of polymer is added to a given solvent, saturation point is not reached. The mixture of
polymer and solvent assumes a soft dough-like consistency.
8. Addition polymers and condensation polymers are two important types of polymers.
9. Polymer can be described as linear, branched and network.
POLYMERS AND POLYMERIZATION:

Macromolecules, both natural and man-made, own their great size to the fact they are polymers
(Greek: many parts); that is, each one is made up of a graet many simpler unit - identical to each
other or at least chemically similar - joined together in a regular way. Theyare formed by a process we
touched on earlier: polymerizatioin, the joining together of many small molecules to form very large
molecules. The simple compounds from which polymers are made are called monomers.
PETIDES AND PROTEINS:
In the last section, you studied the polymers of monosaccharides which act as structural components
in plants and serve as energy storage in animals. In this section, you will study another kind of natural
polymers called peptides and proteins.
Peptides are biologically important polymers in which 2-amino acids are joined by the amide linkages,
formed by the reaction of the carbóxy group of one amino acid with the amino group of another amino
acid. These amide linkages are also called peptide bonds. The general structure of a peptide is shown
below:
Peptides can be classified as dipeptides, tripeptides and tetrapeptides, depending on whether the
number of amino acids, two, three or four, respectively. Peptides containing upto 50 amino acids are
called polypeptides. Bradykinin is an important naturally occurring nonapeptide which is present in
blood plasma and is involved in the regulation of blood pressure.
Arg—Pro — Pro — Gly — Phe — Ser — Pro — Phe — Arg
Bradykinin
SOLVED SUBJECTIVE PROBLEMS
Problem 1: Write the hemiacetal formation for glucose.

Solution:
Problem 2: The pKa of the carboxyl group in an amino acid valine, (CH3)2CHCH(NH2)(COOH) is 2.31
and the pKa for the amino group of the same amino acid is 9.69. compute the Isolectric point
(pI) for valine and draw the structure of this amino acid when the pH of the solution equals
top1. Also draw the structures of valine that predominate at pH =2 and pOH =2.
Solution: The isoelectric point (p1) is the pH at which the amino acid exists only as a dipolar ion with net
charge zero.
At isoelectric point, for a neutral amino acid,
The dissociation of cationic form of valine can be represented as
The species with zero net charge exists between species with (+1) and (—I) net charges.
When the p1-I of the solution equals to p1, the structwe of valine is
When the pH of the solution is two, the structure of valine is
When the pH of the solution is 12, the structure of valine is
Problem 3: Sucrose on hydrolysis yields a mixture which is

(a) Optically inactive (b) Dextrorotatory (c) Laevorotatory (d) Racemic
Solution: (c) Sucrose on hydrolysis yields equimolar mixture of D-(—)-fructose and D-(+)glycose. Since
specific rotation of (—)-fructose is greater than (+)-glucose D the mixture is laevorotatory.
Problem 4: A high molecular weight molecule which does not contain repeating structural units is called a
(a) Polymer (b) Macromolecule (c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these
Solution: (b) A polymer has always repeating structural units derived from monomer. For example proteins
and nucleic acid are regarded as macromolecules, but not polymers because their molecules do not
contain repeating structural units. All polymers are macromolecules, but all macromolecules are not
polymers.
Problem 5: The force of attraction between the neighbouring peptide chains is

(a) van der Waal’s force (b) Covalent bond
(c) Hydrogen bond (d) Peptide linkage
Solution: (c) Neighbouring peptide chains are held by hydrogen bonds between —CO— and
— NH—.
Problem 6: Peptides on hydrolysis give

(a) Ammonia (b) Amines (c) Amino acids (d) Hydroxy acids
Solution: (c) Peptides are formed by condensation of -amino acids. Therefore, on hydrolysis they yield -
amino acids.
Problem 7: An example of a condensation polymer is

(a) PVC (b) terylene
(c) polypropylene (d) polystyrene
Solution: (b) In condensation polymerization, a series of condensation reactions between the (generally
two) monomers containing atleast two functiønal groups each occur with the loss of a small molecule
such as H2O, CH3OH or HX (X = halogen). Terylene is a condensation polymer of ethylene glycol and
terephthalic acid.
Problem 8: Suggest a mechanism for the process. Is polymerisaton of the chain reaction or step
reaction type ?
Problem 9: Although both polymers are prepared by free radical processes, poly (vinyl chloride) is
amorphous and poly (vinylidene chloride) (saran) is highly crystalline. How do you account for
the different ? (vinylidene chloride is 1,1-dichloroethene).
Solution: As poly (vinyl chloride) is able to show stereoisomerism and further it is formed by a free radical
process, it is atactic (chlorine atoms (distributed randomly), the molecules fit together poorly.
Poly (vinylidene chloride) has two identical substitutents on each carbon and the chains fit together
well.
Problem 10: Compound A C5H10O4, is oxidized by Br2 – H2O to the acid, C5H10O5. (A) Forms a triacetate
(Ac2O) and is reduced by HI to n-pentane. Oxidation of (A) with HIO4 gives, among other product,
1 molecule of CH2O and 1 molecule of HCO2H. What are the possible strcutures of (A) and how
could you distinguish between them ?
Solution: (A) is an aldehyde, contains three hydroxyl groups and the carbon skeleton consists of five
carbon atoms in a straight chain. Also, the formula C5H10O4 therefore suggests that (A) is a deoxy-
sugar. If we now try to work out the possibilities based directly on the periodic oxidation of (A), we
shall find it.
Problem 11: Convert
Solution:
Problem 12: i) Sulphanilic acid although has acidic as well as basic group, it is soluble in alkali but
insoluble in mineral acid.
ii) Sulphanilic acid is not solube in organic solvents.
Solution: i) Sulphanic acid exist as Zwitterion
The weakly acidic –NH3+ transfers H+ to OH– to form a soluble salt, P–NH2–C6H4–SO3–Na+ on the other
hand –SO3– is too weakly basic to accept H+ from strong acids.
iii) Due to its ionic character it is insoluble in organic solvents.
Problem 13: Compound (A) C5H10O5, give a tetra-acetate with Ac2O and oxidation of (A) with Br2 –
H2O gives an acid, C5H10O6. Reduction of (A) with HI and red phosphorous gives 3-methylbutane.
What is structure of (A) ?
Solution: The formation of tetracetate indicates of 4OH group and oxidation with bromine water indicates
presence of CHO group. Reduction with red phosphorous and HI indicates presence of one carbon in
the side chain. Thus, the structure of (A) would be
Problem 14: What is the structure of nylon-6, made by alkaline polymerisation of caprolactum ?
Solution: The configuration of these carbons which are unchanged in the reactions, must be identical in
order to get the same osazone.
a) Nylon-6: Another polymer of this class is nylon-6. It is a monomer of caprolactum which is obtained
from cyclohexane.
It used for making tyre cords, fabrics and ropes.

b) Nylon-6, 10: A polymer of hexamethylene diamine (six carbon atoms) and sebacic acid (ten carbon
atoms).
These polymers are formed by the condensation of two or more monomers with the elimination of
simple molecules like H2O, NH3, ROH etc.
Problem 15: Supply structures for H through K. Given :
An Aldohexose H I J K.
(b) Explain the last step (c). What is net structural change (d) Name this overall method. (c)
Discuss the possibility of epimer formation.
Solution: a) H is an oxime HOCH2 (CHOH)4CH = NOH; 1 s the completely acetylated oxime, AcOCH2(CHOH)4CH
= NoAc that loses 1 mole of HOAc to form J, AcOCH2(CHOAc)4 C  N; K is an aldopentose,
HOCH2(CHOH)3CHO.
b) The acetates undergo transesterification to give methyl acetate freeing all the sugar OH’s. This is
followed by reversal of HCN addition.
c) There is loss of one C from the carbon chain.
d) Wohl Degradation
e) The -CHOH becomes the –CH = O without any configurational changes of the other chiral carbons.
Thus no epimers are formed.
Problem 16: Glycine exists as (H3N + CH2COO–) while anthranilic acid (P – NH2 – C6H4 – COOH) does not exist
as dipolar ion.
Solution: –COOH is too weakly acidic to transfer H+ to the weakly basic –NH2 attached to the electron
withdrawing bezene ring. When attached to an aliphatic carbon, the –NH2 is sufficiently basic to
accept H+ from –COOH group.
Problem 17: Why should isoelectric oint for Aspartic acid (2.98) be so much lower than that of leucine ?
Solution: This may be explained by considering following ion equilibrium
It is apparent that ions (A) and (B) are neutral, while (C) is a cation and (D) is dianion. In species (D),
the anion is derived from the second –COOH group present in aspartic acid and is not possible in leucine.
At neutral pH a significant concentration of (D), will be present in aqueous solution. It will therefore, be
necessary to decrease the pH of such a solution if the formation of (D) is to be suppressed to a stage
where anions and cations are present in equal concentration (the isoelectric point).
Problem 18: (a) Show how an aldohexose can be used to synthesize 2-ketohexose.
(b) Since glucose is converted to fructose by this method, what can you say about the configuration
of C3, C4 and C5 in the sugars.
CHO
Solution: (CH2OH)4 + 3C6H5NH.NH2
–C6H5NH2
CH2OH –H2O
–NH3
Here aldohexose reacts with one molecule of phenylhydrazine which condenses with the aldehyde
group to give phenylhydrazone. When warmed with excess of phenyl hydrazine, the secondary alcoholic
group adjacent to the aldehyde group is oxidised by another molecule of phenylhydrazine, to a ketonic
group. With this ketonic group, the third molecule of phenylhydrazine condenses to given osazone. The
pheynlhydrazinyl group is transferred from osazone to C6H5CHO giving C6H5CH = N.NHC6H5 and a dicarbonyl
compound called an osone. The more reactive aldehyde group of the osone is reduced, not the less
reactive keto group and it give the 2-ketohexose.
Problem 19: Starch is polymer of

(a) Fructose (b) Glucose (c) Lactose (d) None
Solution: (b) Starch is homopolysaccharide of glucose having 24 — 30 ghcose units.
Problem 20: The commonest disaccharide has the molecular formula

(a) C10H18O9 (b) C10H20O10 (c) C11H22O11 (d) C12H22O11
Solution: (d) The most common disaccharide is sucrose, whose molecular formula is
C11H22O11.
Problem 21: The structure ofglyclne (amino acid) is H3N+ CH2 COO– (Zwitter Ion.)
Select the correct statement of the following.
(a) Glycine, as well as other amino acids are amphoteric.
(b) The acidic functional group in amino acids is — NH3+
(c) The basic functional group in amino acids is —CO2–
(d) All the statements are correct
Solution: (d) Glycinc and all other amino acids are amphoteric because of the presence of NH2 and CO2H
group both. The amino acid exists and Zwitter ion and acidic group is —NH3+ while basic group is —CO2–
Problem 22: Sugars are characterised by the preparation of osazone derivatives. Which sugar have identical
osazones.
(a) Glucose and lactose (b) Glucose and fructose
(c) Glucose and arabinose (d) Glucose and maltose
Solution: (b) The reaction with phenyl hydrazone gives same osazone because glucose and fructose differ
only on carbon atoms 1 and 2 which are involved in osazone formation.
Problem 23: Cane sugar on hydrolysis yields

(a) Glucose and maltose (b) Glucose and lactose
(c) Glucose and fructose (d) Only glucose
HOH
Solution : (c) C12H22O11 
H
 C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
Glucose Fructose
The process is known as inversion of cane sugar.
POLYMERS
The term polymer is used to describe a very large molecule that is made up of many repeating small
molecular units. These small molecular units from which the polymer is formed are called monomers.
The chemical reaction that joins the monomers together is called polymerisation. Starting from n
moleculer of a compound M, linking in a linear manner will form polymer x–M–(M)n–2–M–y. The nature of
linkages at the terminal units i.e. M–x and M–y depends upon the mode of reaction used in making the
polymers.
Homopolymers and Copolymers

Polymers which are formed by only one type of monomer are called Homopolymers. Some examples of
homopolymers and their monomers are given below :
Homopolymer Monomer
Starch Glucose
Cellulose Glucose
Glycogen Glucose
Dextrin Glucose
Inulin Fuctose
Polyethylene Ethylene
Polyvinyl chloride Vinyl chloride
Teflon Tetrafluoro ethylene
Nylon–6 Caprolactam
Polystyrene Styrene
Orlon (Acrilan) Acrylonitrile
Plexiglas (Lucite) Methyl methaacrylate
Polyvinyl acetate Vinyl acetate
Polymers, which are formed by more than one type of monomers are known as copolymers. Some
examples are given below in the table:
Copolymer Monomers
Saran Vinyl chloride and vinylidene chloride
SAN Styrene and acrylonitrile
ABS Acrylonitrile, butadiene and styrene
Butyl rubber Isobutylene and Isoprene
Buna–S, SBR Styrene and Butadiene
Buna–N, NBR Acrylonitrile and Butadiene
Nylon–66 Hexamethylen diamine and Adipic acid
Terylene Terephthalic acid and ethylene glycol
Types of copolymers
Depending upon the distribution of monomer units, the following types of copolymers are possible.
(1) Random Copolymer
If the monomer units have random distribution throughout the chain, it is called random copolymer. For
example, if the monomer A and monomer B undergo copolymerisation then the structure of the random
copolymer is
nA + nB –A–A–B–A–B–B–A–B–A–A–A B 
segment of random copolymer
(2) Alternating Copolymer
If the two monomer units occur alternatively throughout the polymer chain, it is said to be alternating
copolymer. For example,
nA + nB –A–B–A–B–A B 
segment of alternating copolymer
The exact distribution depends upon the proportion of the two reactant monomers and their relative
reactivities. In practice neither perfectly random nor perfectly alternating copolymers are usually
formed. However, most copolymers tend more towards alternating type but have many random
imperfections.
(3) Block Copolymer

Polymers in which different blocks of identical monomer units alternate with each other are called block
copolymers.
For example,
–B–B–A–A–A–A–A–A–B–B–B–B–B–B–A–A–
segment of block copolymer
Block copolymer can be prepared by initiating the radical polymerisation of one monomer to grow
homopolymer chains, followed by addition of an excess of the second monomer.
(4) Graft Copolymer

Polymers in which homopolymer branches of one monomer unit are grafted onto a homopolymer chain
of another monomer unit are called graft co–polymers. For example:
–A–A–A–A–A–A–A–A–A–A–
B B B B
B B B B
B B B B
(Segment of a graft copolymer)

Graft copolymers are prepared by -irradiation of a homopolymer chain in the presence of a second
monomer. The high energy radiation knock out H-atoms from the homopolymer chain at random points
thus generating radical sites that can initiate polymerisation of the second monomer.
CLASSIFICATION OF POLYMERS
Polymers are classified in following ways:
(I) CLASSIFICATION BASED UPON SOURCE

(1) Natural polymers
Polymers which are obtained from animals and plants are known as natural polymers, Examples of
natural polymers are given below.
Natural polymer Monomers
1. Polysaccharide Monosaccharide
2. Proteins -L-Amino acids
3. Nucleic acid Nucleotide
4. Silk Amino acids
5. Natural Rubber (cis polyisoprene) Isoprene (2-Methyl-1, 3-butadiene)
6. Gutta purcha (trans polyisoprene) Isoprene
Natural polymers which take part in metabolic processes are known as bioplymers. Examples are
polysaccharides, proteins, RNA and DNA.
(2) Semisynthetic polymers

Polymers which are prepared from natural polymers are known as semisynthetic polymers. Most of the
semisynthetic polymers are prepared from cellulose.
Examples are: cellulose acetate, cellulose nitrate, cellulose xanthate and Rayon.
(3) Synthetic polymers

Man-made polymers, i.e. polymers prepared in laboratory are known as synthetic polymers.
Example are : PVC, polyethylene, polystyrene, nylon-6, nylon-66, nylon-610, terylene, synthetic
rubbers etc.
(II) CLASSIFICATION BASED UPON SHAPE

(1) Linear polymers
Polymer whose structure is linear is known as linear polymer. The various linear polymeric chains are
stacked over one another to give a well packed structure.
The chains are highly ordered with respect to one another. The structure is close packed in nature,
due to which they have high densities, high melting point and high tensile (pulling) strength. Linear
polymers can be converted into fibres.
Note :
(i) All fibers are linear polymers. Examples are cellulose, silk, nylon, terylene etc.
(ii) Linear polymers may be condensation as well as addition polymers. Examples are cellulose,
Polypeptide, nucleic acid, nylon, terylene etc.
(2) Branched chain polymers

Branched chain polymers are those in which the monomeric units constitute a branched chain. Due to
the presence of branches, these polymers do not pack well. As a result branched chain polymers have
lower melting points, low densities and tensile strength as compared to linear polymers.
(3) Cross-linked or Three Dimensional network polymers

In these polymers the initially formed linear polymeric chains are joined together to form a three
dimensional network structure. These polymers are hard, rigid and brittle. Cross-linked polymers are
always condensation polymers. Resins are corss linked polymers.
CLASSIFICATION BASED UPON SYNTHESIS

(1) Condensation polymerisation
(i) They are formed due to condensation reactions.
(ii) Condensation polymerisation is also known as step growth polymerisation.
(iii) For condensation polymerisation, monomers should have at least two functional groups. Both
functional groups may be same or different.
(iv) Monomers having only two functional group always give linear polymer.
For example,
O O
Condensati on
nNH2–R–NH2 + nHOOC–R’–COOH    
reaction
+ (n–1)H2O
–NH–R–NH–C–R’–C– n
Polyamide
O O
O O
Condensati on
nHO–R–OH + nHO –C–R’–C–OH    
reaction
+ (n–1)H2O
–O–R–O–C–R’–C– n
Polyester
O
Condensation n 
nNH2–R–COOH    
reaction
+   1  H2O
–NH–R–C– n  2 
(v) Condensation polymers do not contain all atoms initially present in the monomers.
Some atoms are lost in the form of small molecules.
(vi) Monomer having three functional groups always gives cross-linked polymer.
Examples are : Urea-formaldehyde resin, phenol-formaldehyde resin.
(3) Addition polymerisation

(i) Polymers which are formed by addition reaction are knowns as addition polymers.
(ii) If monomer is ethylene or its derivative, then addition polymer is either linear polymer of
branch-chain polymer.
Examples are : polystyrene, polytetrafluoroethylene, polyacrylonitrile etc.
CH2=C–CH=CH2
(iii) If monomer is 1, 3-butadiene or 2-substituted-1, 3-butadiene G , then
polymer is always branched chain polymer.

G G
nCH2=C–CH=CH2 –CH2–C=CH–CH2–
(Monomer) (Polymer) n
(Monomer) (Polymer)
(i) G = H: 1, 3-Butadiene (i) Polybutadiene
(ii) G = CH3; 2-Methyl-1, 3-butadiene or isoprene (ii) Polyisoprene
(iii) G = Cl; 2-Chloro-1, 3-butadiene or chloroprene (iii) Polychloroprene (Neoprene)
(iv) Addition polymers retain all the atoms of the monomer units in the polymer.
(v) Addition polymerisation takes place in three steps:
Initiation, chain propagation and chain termination.
(vi) Addition polymers are called as chain growth polymers.
Types of Addition Polymerization

(A) Radical Polymerisation:
(i) Radical polymerisation takes place in the presence of radical initiators. The radical initiator may
be any of the following :
CH3 O O CH3 CH3
H2O2, CH3–C–O–O–H , KO–S–O–O–S–OK CH3–C–O–O–C–CH3
CH3 O O CH3 CH3
O O CH 3 CH 3
C 6H5–C–O–O–C–C 6H5 and CH 3–C–N=N–C–CH 3
CN CN
(ii) Reaction intermediate of radical polymerization is a free radical.
(iii) Radical polymerization has more chance for those monomers whose free radicals are more
stable.
Examples are:
O
C6H5–CH=CH2, CH2=CH–Cl, CH2=CH–O– C –CH3
Styrene Vinyl chloride Vinyl acetate
CH2=C–CH3 G
CH 2=CH–CN C–O–CH3 CH2=C–CH=CH2(G=H, CH3 and Cl)
Acrylonitrile O
(vinyl cyanide) Methyl methacrylate 2-substituted-1,3-butadiene
(iv) Radical polymer has linear as well as branched chain structure
Most of the commercial addition polymers are vinyl polymers obtained from alkenes and their
derivatives CH2=CH [G is H, C6H5, R etc.]
G
This type of polymerization is preformed by heating the monomer with only a very small amount of the
initiator or by exposing the monomer to light. The general mode of radical polymerization of vinyl
monomers is depicted below:
Chain initiation step :
Initiator  In •
•
In• + CH 2=CH  In–CH 2–CH
G G
Chain propagating step :

• • •
CH2=CH+In–CH2–CH  In–CH2–CH–CH2–CH  In–(CH2–CH)–CH
n 2–CH
G G G G G G
Chain terminating step :
•
2In–(CH 2–CH)–n CH2–CH  In–(CH2–CH)–CH
n 2–CH– CH–CH2 –
(CH2–CH)–n In
G G G G G G
Polymer
In vinylic polymerization, various other reaction of free radicals with some other compounds present
may compete with the parent addition chain reactions. One such reaction takes place with molecules
that can react with the growing chain to interrupt the further growth. This leads to the lowering of the
average molecular mass of the polymer. Such reagents are called as chain transfer agents and include
CCl 4 , CBr4 etc.
For example, in the presence of CCl4, styrene polymerises to form plystyrene of a lower average
molecular mass which also contains some chlorine what happens here is that growing polystyrene
radical which normally would add on a monomer reacts with the chain transfer agent to end the original
chain and produces a new radical. The latter initiates a new polymerization chain and thereby forms a
new polymer as depicted below.
• •
–CH2–CH + CCl4  –CH2–CH–Cl + CCl3
C6H5 C6H5
• • Styrene
CCl3+CH2=CH  Cl3C–CH2–CH    Cl3C–CH2–CH–(CH2–CH)
–n etc.
C 6 H5 C6H5 C6H5 C6H5

If the chain transfer agent a radical, which is highly unreactive, the reaction chain gets terminated
such a compound thus inhibits or arrests polymerisation. Many amines, phenols, quinones etc. act as
inhibitors. So, even traces of certain impurities, which can act as chain transfer agent or an inhibitor
can interfere with the original polymerisation chain reaction. Hence, the monomers chould be free from
such inhibitors.
In case the alkene is a diene, the following kinds of polymerisation is possible:
(1) 1, 4-polymerisation
When the polymerisation takes place at C1 and C4 of butadiene, an unbranched polymer is formed. This
product is different from that formed from an alkene having a double bond, which at each of its
carbons is substituted by different groups and hence can exist either as trans-polybutadiene or
cis-polybutadiene or a mixture as shown below.
• •
R• + CH2=CH–CH=CH2 R–CH2–CH–CH=CH2–CH R–CH2–CH=CH–CH2
H CH2 H H
C=C and C=C
R CH2 H n R CH2 CH2 n
trans-1,4 structure cis-1,4 structure

(2) 1, 2-polymerisation
Alternatively, 1, 3-butadiene can undergo polymerisation at C1 and C2 to yield the polymeric product,
polyvinly polythene.
4 4
CH2 CH2
3 3
CH CH
1 2 3 4 R• 1 2 2
2n CH2=CH–CH=CH2 R–(CH2–CH–CH2–CH)–n
The double bonds in these initial polymers can be linked by further treatment with chemicals
to modify the properties of the polymers. These reactions form the basis of the formation of
rubber.
(B) Cationic Polymerisation :
(i) Polymerisation which is initiated by an electrophile is known as cationic polymerisation.
(ii) Reaction intermediate of cationic polymerisation is a carbocation.
(iii) Carbocations can undergo rearrangement leading to the formation of a more stable carbocation.
(iv) The electrophile commonly used for initiation is BF3.OEt2.
(v) Monomers that are best able to undergo polymersation by a cationic mechanism are those with
electron - donating substituents that can stabilise the carboncation. Some examples are:
CH2=CH–CH2 CH3–C–CH2 CH2=CH–O–C C6H5–CH=CH2

Propene CH3 CH3 Styrene
Isobutene Vinyl acetate
(v) It is terminated by a base.
Thus, when the initiator is cationic in nature, it would generate a cationic intermediate on addition
to the double bond for propagating the addition chain process and is termed as catioic
addition polymerisation. The process is initiated by an acid. The stages of polymerisation are depicted
below.
 
H + CH2 = CH CH2 – CH
G G
 
CH3–CH + CH2 = CH CH3–CH–CH2–CH So on
G G G G
 A–
CH3–CH–(CH2–CH)–CH2–CH CH3–CH–(CH2–CH)–n CH=CH + HA
G G G G G G
Cationic polymerisation is facilitated in monomers containing electron - releasing groups. Thus, isobutylene
undergoes cationic polymerisation easily as it has two electron releasing –CH3 groups that will stabilize
the intermediate carbo cation.
CH3 CH3
 
H + CH2 = C – CH3 CH3 – C
CH3
CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3

 
CH3–C + CH2 =C + CH2 = C CH3–C–CH2–C–CH2–C
CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3
(Butyl Rubber)
(C) Anionic Polymerisation:

(i) Anionic polymerisation takes place in the presence of base or nucleopile, which is initiator in this
polymerisation.
(ii) Reaction intermediate in propagation steps are carboanion.
(iii) the suitable initiator can be NaNH2 or RLi.
(iv) Those monomers undergo anionic polymerisation reaction whose anion is stable.
Example of monomers are:
CH2=CH–Cl CH2=CH–CN CH2=C–CH3 C6H5–CH=CN2

Vinyl chloride Acrylonitrile C–O–CH3 Styrene
O
Methyl methacrylate
(v) Anionic polymerisation always give linear polymer.
(iv) Anionic polymerisation termnated by an acid.
The formation of polystyrene from styrene in the presene of potassium amide is an important
example of this category of polymerisation. The mode of anionic polymerisation is depicted
below:
 –
K+NH2 + CH2=CH NH2–CH2–CHK +
X X
– – +
NH2–CH2–CH + nCH2=CH NH2–CH2–(CH 2–CH2)–n CH K
X X X X
+
– H
NH2–CH2–(CH2–CH2)–n CH H2N–CH2–(CH2–CH2)–CH
n 2
X X X X
(D) Ziegler- Natta polymerisation :

(i) Addition polymerisation which takes place in the presence of Ziegler- Natta catalyst [(C2H5)3Al
and TiCl4] is known as Ziegler- Natta polymerisation or co-ordination polymerisation.
(ii) Ziegler- Natta polymerisation always gives linear, stereo-regular polymers.
(iii) Ziegler- Natta catalyst revolutionised the field of polymer chemistry because they allow the
synthesis of stronger and stiffer polymers (due to linear geometry) that have greater resistance
to cracking and heat. High density polyethylene is prepared using a Ziegler- Natta catalyst.
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON INTERMOLECULAR FORCES (SECONDARY FORCES)

(i) Intermolecular forces present between polymeric chains are (a) Van der waals forces (b)Hydrogen
bonds and (c) Dipole - dipole attractions.
(ii) Mechanical properties such as tensile strength, elasticity, toughness etc. depend upon the
secondary force present between the polymeric chains.
(iii) Magnitude of secondary forces depends upon the size of the molecule and the number of
functional groups along the polymeric chains.
Magnitude of secondary forces is directly proportional to the length of the polymeric chain. On the
basis of magnitude of secondary forces, polymers can be diveided into the following
Five categories.
(1) Elastomes
An elastomer is a plastic that stretches and then reverts back to its original shape. It is randomly
oriented amorphous polymer. It must have some cross-links so that the chains do not slip over one
another. Very weak Van der waal forces are present in between polymeric chains.
When elastomers are stretched, the random chains stretch out, but there are insufficient Van der Waal
forces to maintain them in that configuration and position. When the stretching force is removed, they
go back to their random shape. Elastomers have the ability to stretch out over ten times their normal
length.
Important examples are vulcanized rubbers.
Note : Addition polymers obtained from butadiene and its derivatives are elastomers.
(2) Fibres
Fibres are linear polymers in which the individual chains of a polymer are held together by hydrogen
bonds and / or dipole-dipole attraction. In the fibres, the polymeric chains are highly ordered with
respect to one another.
Due to strong intermolecular forces of attraction and highly ordered geometry, fibres have high tensile
strength and least elasticity. They have crystalline character and have high melting points and low
solubility. Examples are cellulose, nylon, terylene, wool, silk etc.
Note: (i) Condensation polymers formed from bifunctional monomers are fibres in character.
(ii) Addition polymers of alkene derivatives having strong-I group are fibres in character.
(3) Thermoplastic Polymers

Thermoplastic polymers are polymers that have both ordered crystaline regions (the regions of the
polymer in which the chains are highly ordered with respect to one another) and amorphous, non
crystalline regions (the regions of the polymer in which the chains are randomly oriented).
The intermolecular forces of attraction are in between elastomers and fibres. There are no cross-links
between the polymeric chains. Thermoplastic polymers are hard at room temperature, but when they
are heated, the individual chains can slip past one another and the polymer become soft and viscus.
This soft and viscous material become rigid on cooling. The process of heating softening and cooling
can be repeated as many times as desired without any change in chemical composition and mechanical
properties of the plastic. As a result, these plastics can be moulded into toys, buckets, telephone and
television cases.
Some common examples are : polyethene polypropylene, polystyrene, polyvinylchloride, teflon etc.
Note : Addition polymers obtained from ethylene and ethylene derivatives are thermoplastic polymers.
(4) Thermosetting Polymers

Polymers which become hard on heating are called thermosetting polymers. Thermosetting polymers
can be heated only once when it permanently sets into a solid, which cannot be remelted by heating.
Thermosetting polymers are cross-linked polymers. Greater the degree of cross- linking that exist, the
more rigid is the polymer. Cross-linking reduces the mobility of the polymer chains, causing them to be
relatively brittle materials, the hardening on heating is due to the extensive cross-linking between
different polymer chains to give a three dimensional network solid. Examples are : phenol formaldehyde
resin, urea-formaldehyde resin, melamine- formaldehyde resin.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THERMOPLASTIC AND THERMOSETTING POLYMERS

S.No. Thermoplatic polymers Themosetting polymers
1. Soften and melt on heating and become Become hard on heating and process is
hard on cooling i.e. process is reversible irreversible.
2. Can be moulded and remoulded and They can be moulded once and cannot
reshaped. be remoulded or reshaped.
3. They are addition polymers They are condensation polymers.
4. Structure is generally linear Structure is cross - linked.
RUBBER
1. Natural Rubber
Natural rubber is obtained from nearly five hundred different plants but the main source is a braziliensis
tree. It is obtained in the form of milky sap known as latex. This latex is coagulated with acetic acid
and formic acid. The coagulated mass is then squeezed.
The raw natural rubber is a soft gummy and sticky mass. It is insoluble in water, dilute acids and
alkalies but soluble in non-polar solvents. It has low elasticity and low tensile strength. Natural rubberis
a polymer of 2-methyl-1, 3-butadiene (isoprene). On average, a molecule of rubber contains 5000
isoprene units held together by head to tail. All the double bonds in rubber are cis, hence natural
rubber is cis-polyisoprene.
+ + + +.....
Polymerisation(1,4 addition reaction)
n
Gutta - percha is a naturally occurring isomer of rubber in which all the double bonds trans. Thus,
gutta-percha is trans-polyisoprene.
CH 3 H3C CH2
Polymerisa tion C=C
nCH2=C–C H=CH2 1,  
4addition reaction H2C H n
It is harder and more brittle than rubber. It is filling material that dentists use in root canal treatment.
In order to give strength and elasticity to natural rubber, it is vulcanized. Heating of rubber with
sulphur or sulphur containing compound at 150oC for few hours is known as vulcanisation. The essential
feature of the vulcanisation is the formation of cross-linking between the polymeric chains. This cross-
linking gives mechanical strength to the rubber. Vulcanisation process can be enhanced in the presence
of certain organic compounds known as accelerator. The common accelerators are:
CH3 S S
CH3
Ph – NH – C – NH – Ph N–C–S–S–C–N
CH3 CH3
NH
Diphenyl guanidine Tetramethylthioureadisulph
In addition, fillers such as carbon black and zinc oxide are usually added to the crude rubber before
vulcanisation in order to imporve its wearing characteristics.
Natural rubber is used for making shoes, water - proof coats and golf balls. Vulcanised rubber is used
for manufacture of rubber bands, gloves tubing and car tyres.
SYNTHETIC RUBBER OR POLYMERISATION OF DIENES
Polymers of 1, 3 - butadienes are called synthetic rubbers because they have some of the properties
of natural rubbers including the fact that they are water proof and elastic.
Synthetic rubbers have some improved properties. They are more flexible, tougher and more durable
than natural rubber.
1. Homopolymers
Monomer of this class is 2-substituted-1, 3-butadienes.
G
CH2=C–C H=CH 2 where G=H, CH3 or Cl.
polymerisation is always carried out in the presence of Zieglar-natta catalyst which gives stereo
regular polymers.
+ +
Zieglar - Natta catalyst
n
cis poly (1,3 butadiene)
Neoprene was the first synthetic rubber manufactured on large scale. It is also called dieprene. Its
monomer, chloroprene (2-chlorobutadiene) is prepared from acetylene.
C
Cu2Cl2 HCl
2HCCH   CH2=CH–CCH  CH2=CH–C=CH2
NH Cl 4
Acetylene Vinyl acetylene Chloroprene
Chloroprene undergoes free radical polymerisation to form neoprene (polychloroprene).
Cl
Cl CH 2
Zieglar Natta
nCH=C–C
2 H=CH2     C=C
Catalyst
2-chloro-1,3 butadiene CH2 CH 3

or (Trans polymer
chloroprene Trans polychloroprene
or neoprene)
Many of the properties of neoprene are similar to natural rubber but neoprene is more resistant to
action of oils, gasoline and other hydrocarbons. It is also resistant to sunlight, oxygen, ozone and
heat. It is non-inflammable.
It is used for making automobile and refrigerator parts, hoses for petrol and oil containers, insulation of
electric wires and conveyor belts.
2. Copolymers
The following synthetic rubbers are example of copolymers.
Synthetic rubber Monomers
1. Buna-S, SBR (styrene-Butadiene rubber) C6H5–CH=CH2 + CH2=CH–CH=CH2
(25%) (75%)
2. Buna-N, NBR (Nitrile-Butadiene rubber) CH2=CH–CN + CH2=CH–CH=CH2
(25%) (75%)
3. Butyl rubber CH3–C=CH2 + Butadiene

CH3 2%
98%
4. ABS; Acrylonitrile, Butadiene, Styrene CH2=CH–CN + CH2=CH–CH=CH2
+C6H5CH= CH2
(a) Thiokol : Thiokol is made by polymerising ethylene chloride and sodium polysulphide.
Cl–CH2–CH2–Cl + Na–S–S–Na + Cl–CH2–CH2–Cl
Polymerisation
–CH2–CH2–S–S–CH2–CH2–S–S–CH2–CH2–
Thiokol rubber
The repeating unit is –CH2–S–S–CH2–
Thiokol is chemically resistant polymer. It is used in the manufacture of hoses and tank linings, engine
gaskets and rocket fuel when mixed with oxidising agents.
(b) Buna–S (SBR : Styrene-butadiene rubber) : Buna-S rubber is a copolymer of three moles of butadiene
and one mole of styrene. In buna-S, ‘Bu’ stands for butadiene, ‘na’ for symbol of sodium (Na) which is
a polymerizing agent and ‘S’ stands for styrene. It is an elastomer (General purpose styrene Rubber or
GRS).
CH=CH2
nCH2=CH–CH=CH2 + n —CH2–CH=CH–CH2–CH–CH2—
1,3-Butadiene
n
Styrene
Buna-S
Buna-S is generally compounded with carbon black and vulcanised with sulpur. It is extremely resistant
to wear and tear therefore used in the manufacture of tyres and other mechanical rubber goods. It is
obtained as a result of free radical copolymerisation of its monomers.
(c) Buna-N : It is obtained by copolymerisation of butadiene and acrylonitirile (General purpose Rubber
acrylonitirle or GRA).
CN
nCH2=CH–CH=CH2 + nCH 2=CH —CH2–CH=CH–CH 2–CH–CH—

n
CN
It is very rigid and is very resistant to action of petrol, lubricating oil and many organic solvents. It is
mainly used for making fuel tanks.
(d) Cold Rubber : Cold rubber is obtained by polymerization of butadiene and styrene at –18o to 5oC
temperature in the presence of redox system. Cold rubber has a greater tensile strength and greater
resistance to abrasion than SBR.
NYLON
Nylon is used as a general name for all synthetic fibres forming polyamides, i.e., having a protein like
structure. A number is usually suffixed with the name ‘nylon’ which refers to the number of carbon
atoms present in the monomers.
(1) NYLON -66 (Nylon six, six)
It is obtained by the condensation polymerzation of hexamethylenediamine (a diamine with six carbon
atoms) and adipic acid (a dibasic acid having 6 carbon atoms).
280ºC
nHOOC(CH2)4COOH + nH2N(CH2)6NH2 —OC(CH2) 4CONH(CH2)6NH—
High pressure
Adipic acid Hexamethylene –(n–1)H 2O n
diamine Nylon-66
(2) NYON-6, 10 (Nylon six, ten)
It is obtained by condensation polymerisation of hexamethylenediamine (six carbon atoms) and sebacic
acid (a dibasic acid with 10 carbon atoms).
Nylon fibres are stronger than natural fibres and so are used in making cords and ropes. The fibres are
elastic, light, very strong and flexible. They have drip dry property and retain creases. It is inert
towards chemicals and biological agents. It can be blended with wool. Nylon fibres are used in making
garments, carpets, fabrics, tyre cords, ropes etc.
(3) NYON-6 (Perlon L)

A polyamide closely related to nylon is known as perlon L (Germany) or Nylon-6 (USA). It is prepared by
prolonged heating of caprolactum at 260o-270oC. It is formed by self condensation of a large number of
molecules of amino caproic acid. Since, caprolactum is more easily available, it is used for polymerization, with
is carried out in the presence of H2O that first hydrolyses the lactam to amino acid. Subsequently, the amino
acid can react with the lactam and the process goes on and into form the polyamide polymer.
Carpolactam is obtained by Backmann rearrangement of cyclohexanone oxime.
OH O NOH
[O] [O] NH2OH
Cyclohexane Cyclohexanol Cyclohexanone Cyclohexanone

Oxime
NOH
H2SO4 O
Backmann O 260–270ºC
–C–(CH2)5–NH–
rearrangement H2O
NH
(six carbon atoms in the
repeating units)
Nylon-6
(4) NYON-2 – NYLON-6

It is in alternating polyamide copolymerof glycine and amino caproic acid and is biodegradable.
POLYETHYLENE
Polyethylene is of two types:
(a) Low Density Poly Ethylene (LDPE) : It is manufactured by heating ethylene at 200oC under a pressure
of 1500 atmospheres and in the presence of traces of oxygen. This polymerisation is a free radical
polymerisation.
200 ºC
nCH2=CH2 1500
  —CH2–CH 2—
atm.
n
The polyethylene produced has a molecular mass of about 20,000 and has a branched structure. Due
to this, polyethylene has a low density (0.92) and low melting point (110oC). That is why polyethylene
prepared by free radical polymerisation is called low density polyethylene. It is a transparent polymer
of moderate tensile strength and high toughness. It is widely used as a packing material and as
insulation for electrical wires and cables.
(b) High Density Poly Ethylene (HDPE) : It is prepared by the use of Zieglar - Natta catalyst at 160ºC
under pressure of 6 to 7 atmosphere.
The polymer is linear chain, hence it has high density (0.97) and has high melting point (130oC). That
is why it is called high density polyethylene. It is a translucent polymer. It has greater toughness,
hardness and tensile strength than low density polyethylene. It is used in the manufacture of containers
(buckets, tubes), house wares, bottles and toys.
PLASTICISER
A plasticiser is an organic compound that dissolves in the polymer and allows the polymer chains
to slide past one another. This makes polymer more flexible. Dibutylphthalate is a commonly use
plasticiser.
C–O–(CH2)3CH3
C–O–(CH2)3CH3
MELAMINE - FORMALDEHYDE RESIN

This resin is formed by condensation polymerisation of melamine and formaldehyde.
H2N N NH2 H2N N NHCH2OH —H2N N NH–CH2—

•
+ HCHO
Polymerisation
N N N N N N
NH2 NH2 NH2 n

(Intermediate) Melamine-formaldehyde polymer
It is a quite hard polymer and is used widely for making plastic crockery under the name melamine. The
articles made from this polymer do not break even when dropped from considerable
height.
BAKELITE
Phenol-formaldehyde resins are obtained by the reaction of phenol and formaldehyde in the presence
of either an acid or a basic catalyst. The reaction starts with the initial formation of ortho and para-
hydroxymethyl phenol derivatives, which further react with phenol to form compouds where rings are
joined to each other with –CH2 groups. The reaction involves the formation of methylene bridges in
ortho, para or both ortho and para positions. Linear or cross - linded materials are obtained depending
on the conditions of the reaction.
OH OH OH
CH 2OH
H+or OH –
+ HCHO +
(Intermediate) CH2OH
o-and p-hydroxymethyl phenol
OH
OH OH
CH2OH
Polymerisation CH2
n
n
Linear polymer
Novolac
OH OH
OH OH OH
CH2OH
Polymerisation
n + n CH 2 CH2 CH2 CH2
CH2OH
CH2 CH2
CH 2 CH2 CH2 CH2
OH OH OH
Cross-linked polymer (Bakelite)
POLYESTERS
Dacron is a common polyester, prepared using ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid. The reaction is
carried out at 140o to 180o C in the presence of zinc acetate and Sb2O3 as catalyst.
nHOCH2CH2OH + nHO2C CO2H OCH2CH2–C C

n
O O
Dacron
The terylene fibre (Dacron) is crease resistant and has low moisture absorption. It has high tensile
strength. It is mainly used in making wash and wear garments, in blending with wood to provide better
crease and wrinkle resistance.
BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS
By far the largest use of synthetic polymers is as plastic. A major portion of it is used as throwaway
containers and packing materials. Since plastics do not disintergrate by themselves, they are not
biodegradable over a period of time. Non-biodegradability is due the carbon-carbon bonds of
addition polymers which are inert to enzyme catalysed reaction. These polymers create pollution
problem.
Biodegradable polymers are the polymers that can be broken into small segments by enzyme catalysed
reactions using enzymes produced by microorganisms. In biodegradable polymers, bonds that can be
broken by the enzymes are inserted into the polymers. Therefore, when they are buried as waste,
enzymes present in the ground can degrade the polymer.
One method involves inserting hydrolysable ester group into the polymer. For example, when acetal (I)
is added during the polymerzation of alkene, ester group is inserted into the polymeric chains.
O
O–CH2–CH2 Peroxide
nR–CH=CH2 + nCH2=C —CH2–CH–CH2–C–O–CH2–CH2–CH 2–CH 2—
O–CH2–CH2
n
R
Ester linkage attacked by enzyme
Aliphatic polyesters are important class of biodegradable polymers. Some examples are described
below:
(1) Poly - Hydroxybutyrate-CO--Hydroxyvalerate (PHBV)

It is a copolymer of 3-hydroxybutanoic acid and 3 hydroxypentanoic acid, in which the monomer units
are connected by ester linkages.
CH3–CH(OH)–CH2–COOH + CH3–CH2–CH(OH)–CH2–COOH 
(
—O–CH–CH ) where R = CH3,C2H5
2 –C–O—
n
R O
The properties of PHBV very according to the ratio of both the acids. 3-Hydroxybutanoic acid provides
stiffness and 3-hydroxypentanoic acid imparts flexibility to the co-polymer. It is used in specialty
packaging, orthopaedic devices and even in controlled drug relase. When a drug is put in a capsule of
PHBV. It is released only after the polymer is degraded. PHBV also undergoes bacterial degradation in
the environment.
(2) POLY (GLYCOLIC ACID) AND POLY (LACTIC ACID)

They constitute commercially successful biodegradable polymers such as sutures. Dextron was the
first bioadsorbable suture made for biodegradable polyesters for post - operative stitches.
MOLECULAR MASS OF POLYMER

Normally, a polymer contains chains of varying lengths and therefore, its molecular mass is always
expressed as an average. In contrast, natural polymers such as protein contains chain of identical
length and hence, have definite molecular mass.
The molecular mass of a polymer is expressed as
(a) Number average molecular mass ( M n)
Mn 
NM i i
N i
i
Where Ni is the number of molecules of molecular mass Mi

(b) Weight average molecular mass ( M w)
2
Mw 
 NM i i
 NM
i
i i
Where Ni is the number of molecules of molecular mass Mi. Methods such as light scattering and
ultracentrifuge depend on the mass of individual molecules and yield weight average molecular masses.
Mn is determined by employing methods which depend upon the number of molecules present in the
polymer sample viz. Colligative properties like osmotic pressure.
The ratio of the weight and number average molecular masses ( M w/ M n) is called Poly Dispersity Index
(PDI). Some natural polymers, which are generally monodisperesed, the PDI is unity (i.e. M w= Mn ).
In synthetic polymers, which are always polydispersed, PDI > 1 because is always higher than
M n.
COMMON POLYMERS
Monomer Repeating unit Polymer
1. CH2=CH2 –CH2–CH2– Polyethylene

Ethylene
CH3
2. CH3–CH=CH2 –CH 2–CH2– Polypropene

Propene
3. C 6H 5–CH=CH2 –CH2–CH– Polystyrene
Styrene
C6H5
4. CF2=CF2 –CF2–CF2– Polytetrafluoro
Tetrafluoroethylene ethylene (PTFE), Teflon
Cl
5. CH2=CH–Cl –CH2–CH– Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)

Vinyl chloride
CN
6. CH2=CH–CN –CH2–CH– Polyvinyl cyanide,

Vinyl cyanide or poly acrylonitrile,
Acrylonitrile Orlon.
H3C O COOCH3
7. CH 2=C–C–O–CH3 –CH2–C– Polymethyl metha acrylate,

Methyl methacrylate
CH3
Plexiglas, Lucite
O OCOCH3
8. CH2=CH–O–C–CH3 –CH2–CH– Polyvinyl Acetate

Vinyl acetate
9. CH2 =CH–CH=CH2 –CH2–CH–CH–CH2– Polybutadiene,

1, 3-butadiene Buna rubber
Cl
10. CH2=CH–Cl (vinyl chloride) –CH2–CH–CCl2–CH 2– Saran

+
CH2=CCl2 (Vinylidene chloride)
C6H5 CN
11. C6H5–CH=CH2 (Styrene) –CH 2–CH—CH–CH2– SAN

+
CH2=CH–CN (acrylonitrile)
12. CH2=CH–CN + CH2=CH–CH=CH2 – ABS

+
C6H5–CH=CH2
CH 3
13. CH 2=C–CH 2+CH 2=C–CH=CH2 – Butyl rubber
CH3
14. C6H5–CH=CH2+CH2=CH–CH=CH2 – Buna-S, SBR
15. CH2=CH–CN + C6H5–CH=CH2 – Buna-N, NBR

Cl Cl
16. CH2=C–CH=CH2 –CH2–C=CH–CH2– Neoprene

Cloroprene
COOH
O O
17. + HO–CH 2–CH 2–OH –C– –C–O–CH2–CH2–O– Poly(ethylene
COOH
terephthalate,
Terylene, Dacron or Mylar
COOH OH
O O
18. + –C– –C–O– –O– Kodel Polyster
COOH OH
O
C–OH
19. O +HO–CH2–CH2–OH –C C–O–CH2–CH2–O– Polyethylene
C–OH O O
phthatate alkyd resin
(Glyptal)
O O
20. (CH2)5 C —NH(CH2)5–C– Nylon-6
NH
Caprolactam
O O
21. NH2(CH2)6–NH2 —NH–(CH2)6–NH–C–(CH2)4–C– Nylon-66

Hexamethylenediamine
+
O O
HO–C–(CH2)4–C–OH
Adipic Acid
O O
22. NH 2— —NH2 —NH— —NH–C— —C— Kelvar
1, 4-Diaminobenzene
+
O O
Cl–C— —C—Cl
Terephthaloyl chloride
OH
23. + HCHO – Bakelite or resol
24. NH2–C–NH2 + HCHO – Urea-formaldehyde resin
NH2
N N
25. + HCHO – Melamine-
H2N N NH2
Malamine formaldehyde resin
PRACICAL ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

(A) FUNCTIONAL GROUP ANALYSIS
1. Unsaturation : Alkenes & alkynes :

(a) Bayers test : Cold dil alk. KMnO4 decolourisation test
Purple colour Colourless + MnO2 (Brown ppt)
(b) Br2 water decolourisation test
Violet colourless of Br2  Colourless
2. Terminal alkynes :
Confirmed by ppt of Acetylide ion with NaNH2 or AgNO2 or Cu2Cl2NH4OH
3. Alkyl halides :
(a) If they are capable of carbocation formation then they will give ppt with AgNO3.
(b) Beilstein’s test : A green colour is imported to the flame if small amount of organic compound
is taken on copper wire.
4. Alcohol :
(a) Cerric ammonium nitrate  Give red colour
(b) Boil with acetic acid & conc. H2 SO4  fruity smell

(c) 2-alkanol & ethanol also give Iodoform test  Yellow ppt. of CH3I on reaction with I2 + O H
5. Aldehyde & ketones :

2,4-Dinitrophenyl hydrazize (or) Braddy’s reagent give yellow, orange or red colour with ald. & Ketones
(2, 4-DNP)
6. Aldehydes :
(a) Tollen’s test  Silver mirror
(b) Fehling’s test {except benzaldehyde}  Red colour
(c) Benedicts test  Red colour
(d) Schiff’s dye colour regeneration test  Pink colour
(e) Gly ppt. with HgCl2.
7. Ketones :
(a) methyl ketones give haloform test
(b) -hydroxy Ketones give Tollen’s & Fehling test’s too.
8. Carboxylic acids :
(a) Brisk effervescence with aq. NaHCO3 solution.
(b) HCOOH alone gives silver mirror test with Tollen’s reagent.
(c) Blue litmus  red
(d) give fruity smell of reaction with alcohols.
9. Phenols :
(a) Violet colouration with neural Fecl3
(b) Liebermann test
(c) White ppt. with Br2 water
(d) Brisk effervescence with aq. NaHCO3 is observed in case of Nitrophenols.
10. Primary amines :

(a) Carbylamine reaction  Isonitriles have very distinctive foul odors
(b) Hoffmann mustard oil reaction  Oily liquid with mustard like smell.
11. Aromatic 1º amine  diazo test
12. Amide boil with NaOH  NH3
13. Nitrobenzene  Mullikqn Baker test  Treat it with ZnNH4Cl then boil with Tollen’s reagent  Silver
mirror will appear
14. Proteins :
(a) Biuret test : Also used for urea  Alkaline solution of protein treated with a drop of aq CuSO4
when bluish violet colour is obtained
(b) Ninhydrin test: Protein treated with a puridine solution of ninhydrin give colour ranging from deep blue
to violet pink.
DIFFERENTATION TEST
D1. 1º, 2º & 3º alcohols :

(a) Luca’s test : Lucas reagent is conc. HCl + ZnCl2
(b) Victor Meyer’s test (RBC test)
(i) 1º Alcohol  Blood red colour
(ii) 2º Alcohol  Blue
(iii) 3º Alcohol  Colourless
D2. 1º, 2º & 3º amines :

(a) Hinsberg’s reagent
(i) 1º Amine yield a clear solution from which upon acidification an insoluble material separated.
(ii) 2º Amine yield an insoluble compound which is unaffected by acid
(iii) 3º Amine yield insoluble compound
(b) Reaction with HNO2.
(A) ELEMENTAL ANALYSIS
Lassaigne Method (Detection of Elements)
Element Sodium Extract (S.E.) Confirmed Test Reactions
S.E. + FeSO4 + NaOH, FeSO4 + 2NaOH Fe(OH)2 + Na2SO4

Nitrogen Na + C + N NaCN(S.E.) boil and cool, Fe(OH)2 + 6NaOH Na4[Fe(CN)6]+ 2NaOH
+ FeCl3 + conc. HCl Na4[Fe(CN)6] + FeCl3 Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3 + 3NaCl
BIOMOLECULES,POLYMER & POC
Blue or green colour Prussian blue

(i) S.E. + sodium nitro
prusside (A) (i) Na2S + Na2[Fe(CN)5NO] Na4[Fe(CN)5NOS]
A deep violet colour (A) deep violet
Sulphur 2Na + S Na2S(S.E.) (ii) S.E. + CH3COOH (ii) Na2S +(CH3COO)2Pb PbS  2CH3COONa
+ (CH3COO)2 Pb black ppt.

A black ppt.
S.E. + HNO3 + AgNO3
(i) White ppt. soluble
in aq. NH3 confirms Cl NaX + AgNO3 AgX 
(ii) Yellow ppt. ppt.
Halogen Na + Cl NaCl(S.E.) partially soluble in
aq. NH3 confirm Br
(iii) Yellow ppt. AgCl + 2NH3(aq) [Ag(NH3)2]Cl
in soluble in aq. NH3 white ppt. soluble
confirms I
As in test for nitrogen;

instead of green or blue
Nitrogen colour, blood red NaCNS + FeCl3 [Fe(CNS)]Cl2 +NaCl
and Sulphur Na+C+N+S NaCNS(S.E.) colouration confirms blood red colour
together presence of N and S
both
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2. Classification and structure of Carbohydrates:

3. General Characteristic of Monosaccharides:

(open chain) may be assigned to glucose: (* indicates assymetric carbon atom).

4. Presence of an aldehydic groups:

STRUCTURE FORMULAS FOR MONOSACCHARIDES:

BENEDICT’S OR TOLLENS’ REAGENTS: REDUCING SUGARS

BROMINE WATER : THE SYNTHESIS OF ALDONIC ACID

NITRIC ACID OXIDATION: ALDARIC ACID

PERIODATE OXIDATIOSN: OXIDATIVE CLEAVAGE OF POLYHYDROXY COMPOUNDS

REDUCTION OF MONOSACCHARIDES: ALDITOLS

Reduction of D-glucose, for example, yields D-glucitol.

REACTIONS OF MONOSACCHARDIES WITH PHENYLHYDRAZINE: OSAZONES

C O in giving a nitrogen version of an enol.

A Mechanism for the Reaction

Formed from the aldose

CHO CH NHHC6H5 CHO

CH2 OH CH2 OH CH2 OH

THE RUFF DEGRADATION

Cyclic structure of Fructose:

C12H 22O 11 + H2O H C6H12O 6 + C6H12O 6

[]D = (+53°) – (–92°) = 39°

Glucose – Glucose – Glucose

Glucose – Glucose – Glucose

Glucose – Glucose – Glucose

OH Aspartic Acid Asp

HO OH Glutamic Acid Glu

AMINO ACID AS DIPOLAR IONS:

conjugate base (A–),

POLYMERS AND POLYMERIZATION:

SOLVED SUBJECTIVE PROBLEMS

Problem 1: Write the hemiacetal formation for glucose.

At isoelectric point, for a neutral amino acid,

The dissociation of cationic form of valine can be represented as

When the pH of the solution is two, the structure of valine is

When the pH of the solution is 12, the structure of valine is

Problem 3: Sucrose on hydrolysis yields a mixture which is

Problem 5: The force of attraction between the neighbouring peptide chains is

Problem 6: Peptides on hydrolysis give

Problem 7: An example of a condensation polymer is

Problem 11: Convert

It used for making tyre cords, fabrics and ropes.

Problem 15: Supply structures for H through K. Given :

Problem 19: Starch is polymer of

Problem 20: The commonest disaccharide has the molecular formula

Problem 23: Cane sugar on hydrolysis yields

Homopolymers and Copolymers

(3) Block Copolymer

(4) Graft Copolymer

(Segment of a graft copolymer)

(I) CLASSIFICATION BASED UPON SOURCE

(2) Semisynthetic polymers

(3) Synthetic polymers

(II) CLASSIFICATION BASED UPON SHAPE

(2) Branched chain polymers

(3) Cross-linked or Three Dimensional network polymers

CLASSIFICATION BASED UPON SYNTHESIS

(3) Addition polymerisation

polymer is always branched chain polymer.

Types of Addition Polymerization