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Assessment of Domestic Water Usage and Wastage in Urban Bangladesh: A

Study of Rajshahi City Corporation

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DOI: 10.46456/jisdep.v4i2.462

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 p. 109—121
THE JOURNAL OF INDONESIA SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT PLANNING
VOL. 4 NO. 2 - AUGUST 2023
E-ISSN: 2722-0842 | P-ISSN: 2721-8309

Available online at
journal.pusbindiklatren.bappenas.go.id

Research Paper

Assessment of Domestic Water

Usage and Wastage in Urban
Bangladesh: A Study of Rajshahi
City Corporation
Imran Hossain1, A.K.M. Mahmudul Haque2, and S.M. Akram Ullah3
Department of Political Science, University of Rajshahi, Rajshahi-6205, Bangladesh1,2,3

*) Corresponding author: imranbd.ru@gmail.com

Abstract

This study investigates domestic water consumption and waste patterns in Rajshahi City Corporation
(RCC), Bangladesh, with an emphasis on identifying factors influencing water waste. Employing a mixed-
methods approach involving surveys, monitoring, and interviews, the research evaluates both
quantitative and qualitative data. The findings indicate significant positive correlations between water
consumption, education level, water safety awareness, availability, and source proximity. Notably, a
negative relationship between consumption and water source closeness is observed. Variations in
consumption across residential zones, including households exceeding recommended water
consumption, are highlighted. Water waste practices, such as taps left running and excessive usage, are
identified. Additionally, inadequate access to clean drinking water is also revealed. The study offers
insights into research-based strategies to conserve water, enhance sustainable management, and ensure
efficient urban water resource utilization in Bangladesh.

Keywords: domestic water use; safety of water; urban water consumption; water wastage pattern; water
supply

ARTICLE INFO THE JOURNAL OF INDONESIA SUSTAINABLE Address: Jalan Proklamasi 70,
Received: April 02, 2023 DEVELOPMENT PLANNING Central Jakarta, Indonesia 10320
Received in revised form: Published by Centre for Planners’ Phone: +62 21 31928280/31928285
June 06, 2023 Development, Education, and Training Fax: +62 21 31928281
Accepted: August 24, 2023 (Pusbindiklatren), Ministry of National E-mail:
Development Planning/National journal.pusbindiklatren@bappenas.go.id
doi: 10.46456/jisdep.v4i2.462 Development Planning Agency (Bappenas),
Republic of Indonesia Supported by Indonesian Development Planners
Association (PPPI)
Please cite this article in APA Style as:
Hossain, I., Haque, A.K.M.M., & Ullah, S.M.A. (2023). Assessment of Domestic Water
This is an open access article under Usage and Wastage in Urban Bangladesh: A Study of Rajshahi City Corporation. The
the CC BY-SA license Journal of Indonesia Sustainable Development Planning, 4(2), (109—121).
© Hossain et al (2023 https://doi.org/10.46456/jisdep.v4i2.462

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The Journal of Indonesia Sustainable Development Planning (p. 109—121) Vol. 4 No. 2 - August 2023

1. Introduction

Access to clean and sufficient water is crucial for human health, well-being, and economic
development (Ahmed, 2023). Water quality is one of the most critical factors in human physiology. Thus,
Water is one of the 30 substances necessary for maintaining life, health, and ecosystems (Etim et al.,
2013). About 1.1 billion people cannot access improved water supplies (Ochilova et al., 2021). Due to
population growth, land use, excessive groundwater use, and economic growth over the past century,
water demand and water quality have been declining. Moreover, due to unexpected urbanization,
Bangladesh has experienced extreme poverty and disparities in access to water services (Kashem et al.,
2023). Domestic water consumption and waste patterns play a vital role in this context, as they directly
impact the availability and sustainability of water supplies. As a result, water quality is at an all-time low,
and health risks related to poor water quality are of significant concern in Rajshahi City Corporation (RCC).
RCC's supply water quality still needs to be improved. It has an excessive amount of iron and odor issues.
Extreme levels of turbidity and hardness are also present (Ferdous et al., 2018). High concentrations of
iron and manganese, coliform bacteria contamination, arsenic contamination, and total hardness are the
main factors limiting the availability of drinking water in the RCC (Rasul & Jahan, 2010). These conditions
make the water unsafe for drinking and have been linked to high levels of morbidity in the RCC. The RCC's
supply water quality has remained relatively high. Despite its poor quality, people still use this unsafe
water daily. People in the RCC use water for various purposes. In this context, domestic water
consumption varies depending on consumers' living conditions in urban and rural areas (Abubakar, 2019).
The researchers mainly focus on the residents' urban domestic water consumption and waste behavior.
Household water consumption may include drinking, cooking, washing clothes and utensils, cleaning,
bathing, etc. A study by Bari et al. (2015) found that people use the most water when they shower (125
LPCD), go to the bathroom (63 LPCD), wash their hands and brush their teeth (32 LPCD), and prepare the
dishes (30 LPCD). Their research revealed that Greater Kuala Lumpur residents consumed an average of
288 liters of water daily.
Despite the significant variations in water consumption, it is clear that showering makes up the most
significant portion of domestic water use. It is important to remember that even though showering
accounts for most household water use, other activities like using the toilet, washing hands, and doing
the dishes also contribute significantly. Daily water consumption may be correlated with some other
variables. The amount of water used was significantly associated with several socioeconomic factors, the
size of the household, and the type of water sources used by the individual (Abubakar, 2019; Koop et al.,
2019). Moreover, a household's distance from the water source can be another critical factor in water
consumption (Behailu et al., 2016). Specifically, households with a lower economic status located further
from the water source tended to use less water than those with a higher financial status or who were
closer to a water source. The size of the household, the availability of the water supply, and the education
and age of the household's head are important factors that influence how much water is used (Koop et
al., 2019). The findings of these studies demonstrate that the amount of water consumed by households
is heavily influenced by various socioeconomic factors. Furthermore, water availability and the cultural
practices or habits of water consumers typically determine the variability of water consumption.
Moreover, water consumption patterns also depend on a household's age, sex, and region of residence
(Rosinger & Young, 2020). Thus, it is clear that the amount of water a household uses is affected by a wide
range of factors, from availability to socioeconomic and demographic factors. This information is
important as it provides a better understanding of how water consumption patterns can vary from region
to region and how these factors influence the amount of water consumed.
While numerous studies on domestic water use and waste patterns have been carried out in various
nations worldwide, Rajshahi City Corporation in urban Bangladesh has yet to be the subject of one. There
is a need for more in-depth studies that concentrate on behavior change, even though existing research
has identified common waste practices and factors influencing water waste. By examining household
waste and water usage patterns in Rajshahi City Corporation, Bangladesh's fourth-largest city, this study
seeks to overcome that gap. This study evaluates domestic water use and waste patterns in urban
Bangladesh, focusing on Rajshahi City Corporation. This study attempts to provide significant insight into
the current water management practices in the city and propose recommendations for enhancing water
conservation efforts by examining the factors that affect water consumption and identifying typical waste
practices. The results of this study will advance our understanding of water use and waste in the cities of

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Bangladesh. This will be an invaluable tool for formulating evidence-based strategies for sustainable water
management for policymakers, urban planners, and water management authorities. The significance of
this study lies in its potential to address the critical water issues that Rajshahi City Corporation and
comparable urban areas of Bangladesh are currently facing, resulting in improved water conservation and
improved quality of life for the urban residents. Moreover, access to clean and safe water is a fundamental
human right and critical to sustainable development. The United Nations' Sustainable Development Goal
6 (SDG 6) emphasizes the global commitment to ensure the availability and sustainable management of
water for all. As part of this broader agendum, the research investigates the intricate dynamics of
domestic water consumption and waste patterns within the urban context of Rajshahi City Corporation
in Bangladesh. This study contributes to realizing SDG 6's aspirations for equitable and efficient water
resource management by examining the interplay between water usage behaviors, socio-economic
factors, and availability. In a world suffering from increased water stress and scarcity, understanding the
complexities of water consumption patterns becomes crucial in formulating effective strategies that
balance human needs, environmental conservation, and achieving sustainable development goals.

2. Methods

2.1 Study Area

The study area of this research is Rajshahi City Corporation (RCC) in Bangladesh (Figure 1). One of
Bangladesh's first municipalities, Rajshahi, was founded in 1876 and upgraded to a city corporation in
1987. It has a surface area of 96.72 square kilometers, is located between 24° 21' and 24° 25' N and 88°
32' and 88° 40' E, and has a population of about 0.85 million. According to 2011 census report, RCC had a
population of 449,757, up from the beginning of 1991, when it had a population of 284,056. Currently,
there are about 0.85 million people living in the RCC, with a population density of 4,318 people per square
kilometer. RWASA (Rajshahi Water Supply and Sewerage Authority) supplies water to Rajshahi City
through a distribution network in the RCC region to meet the water demand. The increased population in
RCC has caused an increased demand for water services, which has put pressure on the existing water
resources. Water scarcity and a lack of other essential services have caused great suffering in the RCC.
Most people in the RCC regions rely on submersible pumps and tube wells for water. Many people mainly
depend on submersible pumps for managing drinking water. They also rely on government-provided
water for bathing, cooking, and other activities (the government provides water through a pipe network).
The study examines the relationship between various factors influencing residents' water consumption in
the RCC. The factors under exploration encompass age, gender, income, and education level. Additionally,
an assessment has been conducted on the distance of the RCC from the nearest water source and the
water quality provided by the government. By examining these factors, a comprehensive understanding
of RCC residents' varying water consumption patterns is anticipated, facilitating insights into equitable
access to safe drinking water strategies.

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Figure 1. Location of the study area (a) in Bangladesh (b) in Rajshahi district (c) RCC (Dey et al., 2021)

2.2 Materials and Method

This study employs a mixed-methods research design to assess domestic water usage and waste in
the Rajshahi City Corporation (RCC). It combines qualitative and quantitative approaches, where data
have been collected from primary and secondary sources. Primary sources included household surveys,
in-depth interviews, and focus group discussions. On the other hand, various research reports and articles,
official statistics, relevant books, daily newspapers, etc., have been used as secondary data sources.
Simple random sampling techniques have been employed for selecting household members or
participants. The structured questionnaire used in the household surveys has gathered information on
water consumption patterns, sources of water, respondents’ behaviors, and conservation practices. Using
the questionnaire, data have been collected from 384 stakeholders in the RCC. In-depth interviews have
been conducted with key stakeholders, including officials from the RCC, the water supply authority, and
relevant non-government organizations. Focus group discussions have been organized with community
members to explore their perceptions, behaviors, and attitudes toward water usage and waste.
The data have been analyzed using simple and suitable mathematical and statistical tools like
frequency, percentage, arithmetic mean, and standard deviation using the SPSS program. Using the SPSS
program, Pearson correlation and various tests like the chi-square and One Sample T-test have been used
to examine the relationship between the dependent and independent variables. Results have been
presented through graphs, tables, narrative texts, simple computations, and logical reasoning. Data
integration has been employed to combine quantitative and qualitative findings, providing a
comprehensive understanding of water usage and waste patterns.

3. Results and Discussions

3.1 Water Consumption Related to Other Variables

Urban household water consumption is subject to a wide range of influencing factors, with each
factor significantly contributing to the overall water usage within a household. A correlation matrix is
constructed to comprehensively understand the relationship between water consumption and these
influencing elements. This matrix encompasses 11 variables meticulously designed to illustrate the
intricate relationship between urban household water consumption and the diverse array of factors that
impact this consumption pattern (Table 1). The correlation matrix allows researchers to identify factors

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that have a stronger or weaker influence on water consumption. By analyzing the matrix, policymakers
and urban planners can prioritize interventions and develop strategies to promote more sustainable
water usage in urban areas. The correlation matrix shows that there is a significant relationship between
water consumption and factors like age, profession, educational level, monthly income, source of water,
safety of water, remoteness of the source of water, and availability of water. The most significant factor
influencing water use is the safety of water, which is significantly positively correlated with water use (r =
0.523, p<0.05). Thus, the correlation matrix indicates that water safety is a major factor in determining
water consumption in urban households. Moreover, people are more likely to drink safe water than
unsafe water. Therefore, it is evident that improving water safety and increasing awareness of the health
risks associated with unsafe water can help reduce overall water consumption in urban households. The
availability of water supplies is another factor that displayed a statistically significant correlation with
domestic water consumption. According to Table 1, there is a significant correlation between the amount
of domestic water consumption and the availability of water (r = 0.449, p<0.05). It implies that people
living in areas with a high availability of water tend to consume more water than those living in areas with
limited access to a reliable water supply. This is an important finding, as it indicates that water availability
can influence the amount of water used for domestic purposes. As the availability of water supplies
increased, it appears that domestic water consumption also increased.
There is also a significant correlation between the amount of domestic water consumption and the
distance to the water source (r = 0.232, p<0.05). This indicates that people living closer to water sources
may be more likely to use more domestic water. Access to the water source is complicated in the selected
study area. As a result, households located in remote areas are often limited in terms of water
consumption due to the difficulty of accessing their source. Consequently, access to a water source is an
important factor in determining water consumption behavior. In developing countries, inadequate
infrastructure and the lack of safe, reliable water sources are major issues that prevent many households
from accessing sufficient amounts of water. The household's level of education also demonstrated a
statistically significant correlation with domestic water use. Domestic water consumption and household
education level have a positive and significant relationship (r =.311, p<0.05). As the educational level of
the household increases, their water consumption also increases. Households with higher educational
levels also have greater access to financial resources, making it easier to invest in water. Additionally,
higher education levels are associated with larger households or more luxurious lifestyles, both of which
can contribute to increased water usage. Thus, this suggests that the educational level of the household
can play a significant role in determining the amount of water they consume. Therefore, there is a
statistically significant negative correlation between the source of the water and the amount of domestic
water used (r = -0.537, p<0.05). In this regard, the source of water can have a significant impact on water
consumption behavior. People living in urban slums often lack access to enough water, which can lead to
decreased water consumption behavior. This can be especially detrimental to those in lower socio-
economic classes, who cannot purchase more water from other sources. Furthermore, the household's
monthly income can have a minor but positive impact on water consumption (r = 0.107). Low-income
households often cannot afford the extra water needed for their daily needs, leading to decreased water
consumption. In addition to this, there is a significant negative relationship between the age of the
household and the amount of domestic water consumption (r = -0.156). The age of people was
significantly correlated with water use, such that younger people consumed more water than older
people. Older people may have different attitudes toward environmental issues, as a result of which they
are less knowledgeable about and less concerned with water conservation. Table 1 also reveals that there
is a statistically insignificant and negative correlation between household profession and water use (r = -
0.109).

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Table 1. Relationship between water consumption and other variables

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Water Consumption 1

Gender -.071 1

Age -.156** -.139** 1

Profession -.109* .011 -.239** 1

Education
.311** -.213** -.268** .007 1
Qualification
Monthly Income .107* -.377** .341** -.338** .312** 1

Source of Water -.537** .040 .259** .004 -.187** .068 1

Safety of Water .523** -.042 -.240** -.029 .239** -.022 -.742** 1

Remoteness of the
.232** -.062 .023 -.010 .092 .062 -.176** .192** 1
Water Source
Availability of Water .449** -.012 -.295** -.038 .229** -.010 -.785** .773** .072 1

** Correlation is significant at 0.01 level.

* Correlation is significant at 0.05 level.

3.2 Daily Water Consumption Scenery

The amount of water consumed daily by people and its application area are shown in Table 2. On
average, per household, people drink 19 liters of water every day. This is an average and won't accurately
reflect the usage of many individuals. Most water consumption is used for cleaning, washing, and bathing.
Each household uses 30 liters of water daily for cooking, 125 liters for bathing, and 119 liters for cleaning.
People use more water for bathing purposes. Cleaning also plays an important role in using much more
water. The people of RCC use 294 liters of water per household for drinking, bathing, cooking, and other
purposes.

Table 2. Per Capita Water Consumption

Maximum L
Source of Water Safety of Water Duration of Water Supply
(Mean L)
Supply = 128 (33.3)
Very Safe = 30 (7.8)
Tube well = 30 (10.0) Always = 175 (45.6)
Drinking
60 (19.87) Safe = 209 (54.4)
Submersible = 226 Most of the time = 67 (17.4)
(58.9) Neither Safe nor
Sometimes = 92 (24.0)
Cooking 100 (30.51) Supply = 220 (57.3) Unsafe = 22 (5.7)
Rarely = 50 (13.0)
Bathing 500 (125.12) Tube well = 14 (3.6) Unsafe = 118 (30.9)

Submersible = 150 Very Unsafe = 5 (1.3)

Cleaning 350 (119.32)
(39.1)

Note. Parenthesis in the Table indicates %

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3.3 Sources of Water

Water comes from a variety of sources in the RCC. Submersible pumps are primarily used by the
residents of RCC to collect their drinking water. For managing drinking water, they also rely on tube wells
and other private sources. Table 2 shows that 58.9% (N = 226) of the inhabitants primarily depend on
submersible pumps to collect drinking water. Additionally, tube wells are used by 10% of all respondents.
Table 2 also makes clear that 33% (N =128) of urban residents drink water that is provided by the
government. Most people have separate sources for drinking and cooking water. In this regard, a large
population depends on the water the government provides for bathing, cooking, cleaning, and other uses.
Table 2 shows that 57% (N = 220) of the respondents depend on public water supplies to meet their needs
for drinking, cooking, and other uses. The water is provided by the government. This supply system also
uses water pumped up from the ground via a network of pipes that span the city. The government's water
supply is unsatisfactory, so most people collect their drinking water using submersible pumps. The
supplied water has issues with odor, iron, and a dark color, respectively. Government water is frequently
contaminated with trash, filth, and an offensive odor (Ferdous et al., 2018). The source of the water can
have a significant impact on how much water people use. Table 1 also demonstrated that the water source
has a significant negative correlation with water consumption. Some people draw water from a residential
pump or a long-distance tube well. They attempt to drink less water. Some people also use their own
submersible pumps to collect their own drinking water. They try to consume more water in this regard
(Barakoti et al., 2019). Moreover, water consumption depends on the type of water source system. In this
regard, those who obtain their drinking water from a submersible pump, however, might not be aware of
the significance of protecting this invaluable resource. It is important to educate individuals who rely on
submersible pumps for their drinking water about the importance of preserving this precious resource.
By understanding the significance of water conservation, residents can consciously reduce waste and
ensure its long-term availability for themselves and future generations.

3.4 Safety of Water

Bangladesh's water is arsenic-contaminated (Nasher, 2022). This has caused major health issues for
the local people and has become an immense challenge for the country. Contaminated water leads to
many illnesses, such as diarrhea, skin diseases, and other major health complications (Hasan et al., 2019).
Moreover, groundwater contains bacteria and other harmful elements. Surface water is not regarded as
a direct source of drinkable water because it is already polluted. One of the main causes of groundwater
contamination is arsenic pollution, which affects over 70 million people globally. Even though 97% of the
population has access to water, the purity of the water is never guaranteed. Iron, arsenic, and many other
harmful elements have been found in the water that is supplied by the RCC. The safety of water is an
important factor that affects the consumption of water. From Table 2, It is understood that only 54.4% (N
= 209) of respondents believe that their water usage is safe. A large number of people (30.9%, N = 118)
think that using water is not safe for them. These results suggest that, although the vast majority of
respondents have access to treated and safe water, their knowledge about it is not sufficient to consume
this water with confidence.
There are a lot of reasons for drinking unsafe water. Among them, distance is an important reason
for drinking unsafe water. Distance is a critical factor in improving water quality (Nygren et al., 2016).
Besides that, distance plays an important role in preserving water quality and ensuring available water to
the residents. It also plays an important role in water consumption (Ibrahim et al., 2021). A Chi-square
test was performed to understand the effect of distance on the safety of water. The chi-square test results
are presented in Figure 2. A chi-square test for independence with α = 0.05 has been used to assess
whether the distance was related to the safety of the water. The chi-square test was statistically
significant, ꭓ2 (4, N= 384) = 22.951, P<0.05 (P= 0.000), with Phi and Cramer’s V (φ) coefficient of 0.244,
indicating a medium relationship between distance and safety of water. As seen in Figure 2, many people
are drinking unsafe water because of its remoteness.

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Very Remote Close

80,0 72,9

Safety of water
60,0 51,8

40,0 34,5

20,0 14,6
6,8 4,2 6,0 4,2 4,2 ,9
0,0
Distance of water source

Figure 2. Effect of Distance in Ensuring Clean Water

The quality, accessibility, and reliability of the water source can have a significant impact on the
amount of water that is consumed by a population. In areas where water sources are unreliable or
inaccessible, people may be unable to access enough water for their basic needs. Additionally, the safety
of the water source is also a key factor in determining how much water a resident can consume. If the
quality of the water is uncertain, people may choose to use other sources of water, such as bottled water
or others. This can lead to decreased consumption of water and potential health risks if the alternative
water sources are not safe. For example, if the water source is contaminated, people may avoid drinking
it, leading to lower water consumption. On the other hand, if the water source is easily accessible and
reliable, people may consume more water.

3.5 Availability of Water

The residents of the RCC do not have access to available water. The supply length within cities
frequently varies, as it does across seasons. During the dry season, the RCC suffers severe water shortages.
Table 2 indicates that water doesn’t remain all the time. Every day, people receive water for a specific
amount of time. It isn't accessible 24 hours a day. The duration of the water supply has an impact on the
consumption habits of the RCC citizens. While a significant portion of respondents, comprising 46% (N =
175), reported an absence of water scarcity issues, the remaining 54% highlighted concerns regarding
water supply challenges. Notably, a substantial 13% characterized their water supply situation as 'terrible.'
This distribution underscores a noteworthy divide in water availability perceptions among the surveyed
population. This issue has significant implications for citizens living in the RCC areas, as the duration of
the water supply affects their water consumption habits. For example, when the supply of water is limited,
households may try to limit their use of it to conserve it. As such, this could lead to some households
neglecting basic needs such as laundry, washing dishes, and even bathing or resorting to buying water
from private sources to fulfill their daily needs. Moreover, Wardak and Abed (2019) highlighted that water
availability is critical in promoting water consumption. Therefore, it is clear that the duration of the water
supply and its implications on water consumption habits have serious implications for people living in the
RCC areas. To conclude, the duration of the water supply is a crucial factor for household water
consumption in the RCC areas.

3.6 Patterns of Water Wastage

The issue of providing everyone in the community with access to clean water and sanitary facilities
is water waste. On the other hand, many individuals do not have access to the daily amounts of water
they require (Stavenhagen et al., 2018). In urban Bangladesh, the issue of water wastage is particularly
concerning, with an alarming average wastage of up to 113 liters of water per person each day. This
significant water loss translates into substantial financial losses daily (Shuaib & Rana, 2020), raising

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profound concerns, especially in a world where many people still lack access to clean water facilities.
Water can be wasted in a variety of ways. Some people take a long time in the shower when they take a
bath. A lot of individuals constantly waste water for cleaning and other uses. The per capita water
consumption pattern varies greatly among different countries and regions around the world. Some
countries have abundant water resources and high per capita water consumption, while others have
limited water resources and low per capita water consumption. In general, developed countries tend to
have higher per capita water consumption due to factors such as high standards of living, widespread use
of water-intensive technologies and industries, and a greater reliance on water-intensive agriculture. On
the other hand, many developing countries face water scarcity due to factors such as limited access to
clean water, inadequate water infrastructure, and over-extraction of groundwater. In these countries, per
capita, water consumption is often much lower. The residents of the RCC, consume 294 liters of water
per person per day. Additionally, Libya uses 354 liters of water per person each day, ranking first in the
world for water consumption. Greater Kuala Lumpur needs 268 liters of water per capita. Additionally,
Melbourne, USA, and the India each use 240, 262, and 117 liters of water (Table 3).

Table 3. Comparison of per capita water consumption with other countries (LPCD)

Grater
This Sierra
Activities Kuala Libya Melbourne U.K. USA China India
Study Leone
Lumpur

Bathing 125 125 160 - - 212 - - -

Cleaning 119 81 132 - - 96 - - -

Cooking 30 39 15 - - - - -

Drinking &
19 23 47 - - 64 - - -
Others

Total 294 268 354 240 146 262 70 112 117

Source: Grater Kuala Lumpur (Bari et al., 2015), Libya (Alharsha et al., 2019), Melbourne (Rhodes et al., 2012), UK (Vieux et al.,
2020), USA (Inskeep & Attari, 2014), China (Fan et al., 2017), Sierra Leone (Ibrahim et al., 2021), India (Singh & Turkiya, 2013)

These findings suggest that there is a significant disparity in water consumption between developed
and developing countries. The comparison of daily water usage across different regions yields concerning
findings into water consumption patterns and highlights the contextual influences on this vital resource.
In this study, the daily water usage of 294 liters per household demonstrates a significant volume,
potentially indicating diverse water-related behaviors and needs within the studied population. This
figure, higher than that of some developed countries like Korea, the UK, and the USA, underscores the
significance of understanding the factors contributing to such consumption rates. The data reveals
variations that could be attributed to a blend of cultural, economic, and infrastructural disparities among
these regions. These differences underscore the role of cultural norms, technological advancements,
climate conditions, and government policies in shaping water consumption behaviors.
Above the analysis, we observe that people in the RCC are wasting water. The average amount of
water used by residents of the RCC in Bangladesh is shown in Table 4. In moderate temperatures around
the world, a 1-tail T-test revealed an average water use of 250 liters per day (Haque & Islam, 2021). The
study sample utilizes, on average, 294.8177 liters of water, as shown in Table 4. This exceeds the test
value by 44.81771 liters. This indicates that Bangladesh's urban population uses more water than the
world as a whole (44 liters extra). The result is statistically significant because the level of significance is
000 (< 0.05). From one sample T-test (Table 4), we understand that people usually waste about 44 liters
of water per day on average.

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Table 4. Per Capita Water Usage One-Sample T-Test with the Test Value of 250

N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean

Computed Daily Water Usage 384 294.8177 169.84784 8.66751

95% Confidence Interval of the

Sig. Mean
T df Difference
(2-tailed) Difference
Lower Upper
Computed Daily Water 5.17
383 .000** 44.81771 27.7758 61.8596
Usage 1

Note. ** indicates P<.05

Additionally, wastefulness rates were higher for graduate and postgraduate students. Table 5 reveals
that postgraduates need 370 liters of water each day. On the other hand, illiterate people need 319 liters
of water each day. So, water use is higher among educated people than uneducated people (Table
5). According to this study, higher education often leads to higher incomes, allowing these households to
afford larger homes with more bathrooms and amenities that require more water. Educated people often
have higher socio-economic status, leading to larger households, more water-intensive appliances, and a
propensity for water-intensive activities such as gardening or swimming pools. Moreover, education can
introduce a range of water-demanding activities and behaviors, such as advanced hygiene practices,
hobbies, or business operations, that collectively contribute to higher water usage. This study also reveals
that educated people allocate more time at home, increasing water usage.

Table 5. Daily water usage scenery based on Educational Qualification

Educational Qualification Mean Minimum Maximum Percentage

Illiterate 319.00 93.00 517.00 3.4%

Primary 304.89 97.00 670.00 9.6%

Secondary 208.83 36.00 495.00 14.1%

Higher Secondary 187.60 35.00 578.00 22.9%

Graduate 356.94 52.00 632.00 21.6%

Post Graduate 370.37 65.00 695.00 28.4%

There are a number of steps that can be taken to reduce water waste and improve clean water
access for people living in the RCC. These steps include educating citizens on water and sanitation
management, implementing efficient water and wastewater management systems, ensuring access to
appropriate water resources and technologies, monitoring water quality and safety levels, creating
incentives for the conservation of water resources, and establishing proper systems. Moreover, Water
waste can be reduced by utilizing mobile technology. Water waste management can be controlled using
mobile-enabled smart water level control systems (Shankar & Dakshayini, 2018). By monitoring and
controlling water levels, as well as providing alerts when necessary, this technology can help reduce the
amount of water wasted. Additionally, educational programs that encourage water conservation and
Public awareness campaigns about the importance of conserving water can be implemented. Water waste
can be decreased by raising awareness and feelings about waste water.

118 Hossain et al
The Journal of Indonesia Sustainable Development Planning (p. 109—121) Vol. 4 No. 2 - August 2023

Conclusion

Water is essential for life, so it is not surprising that people consume it for various purposes. The
main aim of this study was to look at how people in urban Bangladesh use water and whether they waste
it. People use water for things like drinking, cooking, cleaning, and bathing. It is found that factors like
age, job, education, and income can affect how much water someone uses. If people think the water is
safe, they tend to use more of it. Also, how far they are from a water source can influence water use. In
Rajshahi City Corporation, many people don't have enough water, and they often use different sources
for different tasks. On average, each household uses 294 liters of water and wastes about 44 liters every
day. Surprisingly, educated people tend to waste more water. In this present situation, people in the RCC
regions should be much more careful regarding water wastage.
To combat water wastage, governments, and NGOs should strive to spread awareness of the
importance of conserving this limited resource. By educating people and providing them with necessary
resources, they should focus on setting up programs that help to conserve water as well as discourage
wasteful practices. Furthermore, water waste management can be controlled using mobile-enabled
smart water level control systems (Shankar & Dakshayini, 2018). By monitoring and controlling water
levels, as well as providing alerts when necessary, this technology can help reduce the amount of water
wasted. Additionally, educational programs that encourage water conservation and public awareness
campaigns about the importance of conserving water can be implemented. Water waste can be
decreased by raising awareness and feelings about waste water (de Miranda Coelho et al., 2016).
The government should take the necessary steps to utilize surface water, such as river water and
rain water. The government should implement projects related to surface water and groundwater
purification plants. The government and NGOs should also encourage using water-saving techniques such
as rainwater harvesting, wastewater reuse, and efficient irrigation systems. By investing in developing
infrastructure related to water resources, the government can ensure that the environment is preserved
and that water is used sustainably.

Acknowledgments

The research was funded by the Faculty of Social Science, University of Rajshahi, Bangladesh. The
grant number is A-266/5/52/RU/Soc-5/2021-2022, dated: February 02, 2022. The authors would like to
give special thanks to the funding authority for supporting research grants. They are also thankful to the
study participants, the research assistants, and the staff of the Rajshahi City Corporation (study area).

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