GEOGRAPHY 2

Demographic Transition in Pakistan

The demographic transition model (DTM) explains the transformation of a country’s population
structure through changes in birth and death rates, ultimately leading to population stabilization.
Pakistan is currently in Stage 2/early Stage 3 of the DTM, characterized by:

Stage 1: Pre-Industrial Stage (Historical Context)

● High birth rates and high death rates kept the population relatively stable.
● Traditional agricultural economy, limited healthcare, and poor sanitation.

Stage 2: Early Industrialization (1950s-1980s)

● Death rates began to decline due to improved healthcare, vaccination programs, and better
sanitation (epidemiological transition).
● Birth rates remained high due to cultural norms, lack of education, and minimal family
planning.
● Rapid population growth (population explosion).

Stage 3: Early Transition (1990s-Present)

● Birth rates have begun to decline but remain high compared to developed nations.
● Fertility rates are decreasing due to urbanization, improved education for women, and access
to family planning.
● The population is still growing but at a slower rate, with a Total Fertility Rate (TFR) of
approximately 3.6 as of 2023.
● Young population structure with a demographic bulge (high percentage of the population
under 25).

Challenges in Pakistan’s Transition

1. High Fertility Rates: Cultural and religious factors discourage contraceptive use and family
planning.
2. Youth Dependency Ratio: High proportion of dependent youth limits economic resources.
3. Urban Overcrowding: Rapid urbanization without adequate infrastructure.
4. Gender Inequality: Women’s limited access to education and economic opportunities.

How Can Pakistan Achieve a Successful Demographic Transition?

1. Promoting Family Planning Programs

○ Increase access to contraceptives and awareness campaigns, particularly in rural
areas.
○ Collaborate with religious leaders to align family planning efforts with cultural
values.
2. Investing in Female Education
 ○ Enhance literacy and school enrollment rates among women to delay marriage and
childbirth.
○ Provide vocational training for economic independence.
3. Strengthening Healthcare Infrastructure
○ Expand maternal and child healthcare facilities.
○ Reduce infant mortality to shift the need for higher fertility as a safety net.
4. Creating Economic Opportunities
○ Leverage the youth bulge by investing in skills development and job creation through
industrial and service sectors.
○ Encourage entrepreneurship and small enterprises.
5. Urban Planning and Sustainable Development
○ Develop secondary cities to ease population pressure on major urban centers like
Karachi and Lahore.
○ Invest in affordable housing and public transportation to accommodate growing urban
populations.
6. Government Policy and Political Commitment
○ Establish clear population policies and ensure consistent implementation.
○ Collaborate with international agencies for funding and technical assistance.

Socio-Economic Impacts of CPEC (China-Pakistan Economic Corridor)

The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) is a flagship project of the Belt and Road Initiative
(BRI), with an investment of over $62 billion. It aims to enhance connectivity between China and
Pakistan through infrastructure, energy, and industrial development. CPEC has far-reaching
socio-economic implications for Pakistan:
Positive Socio-Economic Impacts

1. Infrastructure Development

● Transportation: Upgraded roads, highways (e.g., Karakoram Highway), and railways

improve connectivity across Pakistan, boosting regional trade.
● Port Development: Gwadar Port is becoming a global trade hub, enhancing Pakistan’s
geostrategic importance.
● Urbanization: Infrastructure improvements lead to new economic zones, creating
opportunities for urbanization.

2. Energy Sector Development

● Addressing Pakistan’s energy deficit through coal, solar, wind, and hydropower projects.
● Reduces load-shedding, fosters industrialization, and enhances productivity.
● Examples: Sahiwal Coal Power Plant, Karot Hydropower Project.

3. Employment Generation

● Creation of thousands of direct and indirect jobs in construction, energy, and technology
sectors.
● Boosts local industries such as steel, cement, and logistics.

4. Regional Connectivity and Trade

● Links Pakistan with Central Asia, the Middle East, and China, facilitating regional
integration.
● Promotes exports by reducing transportation costs and improving market access.

5. Socio-Cultural Exchange

● Greater interaction between Chinese and Pakistani professionals fosters knowledge transfer
and skill development.
● Enhances Pakistan’s global image as a strategic partner.

6. Industrial Development

● Establishment of Special Economic Zones (SEZs) attracts foreign investment.

● Promotes the manufacturing sector and supports export-oriented industries.

Challenges and Negative Socio-Economic Impacts

1. Debt Sustainability

● Rising external debt due to concessional and commercial loans from China.
● Risk of a "debt trap" if economic returns do not offset liabilities.

2. Environmental Degradation
 ● Infrastructure and energy projects, particularly coal-based plants, contribute to deforestation
and carbon emissions.
● Marine pollution concerns at Gwadar Port.

3. Local Displacement

● Land acquisition for infrastructure projects often displaces local communities, causing social
unrest.
● Example: Concerns of Balochistan’s residents over Gwadar Port’s development.

4. Uneven Regional Development

● Focus on certain regions, like Punjab and Balochistan, creates perceptions of inequity among
other provinces.
● Risk of exacerbating existing provincial grievances.

5. Cultural and Social Tensions

● Potential resistance from local populations towards Chinese workforce and culture.
● Socio-political concerns about loss of autonomy in decision-making.

6. Security Issues

● Terrorist threats and insurgencies pose risks to CPEC projects, leading to increased security
expenditures.
● Example: Attacks on Chinese workers and infrastructure.

Recommendations for Maximizing Benefits

1. Transparent Governance
○ Establish oversight mechanisms to ensure equitable distribution of benefits.
○ Minimize corruption in project execution.
2. Debt Management
○ Diversify funding sources to reduce reliance on Chinese loans.
○ Use Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) for long-term sustainability.
3. Environmental Safeguards
○ Adopt eco-friendly technologies in energy and infrastructure projects.
○ Implement reforestation programs to counteract deforestation.
4. Inclusion of Local Communities
○ Engage local populations in planning and decision-making.
○ Provide training programs to enhance local workforce participation.
5. Provincial Integration
○ Ensure equitable allocation of resources across provinces to mitigate grievances.
6. Security Enhancements
○ Strengthen coordination between federal and provincial governments for securing
CPEC routes.
 Climate of South Asia/SAARC Countries

The climate of South Asia, encompassing the SAARC countries (Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan,
India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka), is shaped by its tropical location, diverse
topography, and the influence of the Indian Ocean and Himalayas. The region experiences a wide
variety of climatic conditions, primarily governed by the monsoon system.

1. Climatic Zones in South Asia

1. Tropical Wet Climate (Rainforests):

○ Found in coastal areas and parts of Sri Lanka, Maldives, and southwestern India.
○ Characteristics:
■ High temperatures (25–30°C) year-round.
■ Heavy rainfall (2,000–4,000 mm annually), especially during the monsoon
season.
2. Tropical Dry Climate:
○ Found in parts of India (Deccan Plateau) and Pakistan.
○ Characteristics:
■ Hot summers and mild winters.
■ Rainfall primarily occurs during the monsoon, with long dry periods.
3. Desert Climate:
○ Predominantly in southern Afghanistan and western Pakistan (e.g., Thar Desert).
○ Characteristics:
■ Extreme heat during summers and very low rainfall (<250 mm annually).
■ Sparse vegetation.
4. Temperate Climate:
○ Found in the Himalayan regions of Nepal, Bhutan, northern India, and Pakistan.
○ Characteristics:
■ Mild summers and cold winters.
■ Precipitation varies with altitude, including snowfall in higher altitudes.
5. Subarctic/Alpine Climate:
○ Occurs in high-altitude Himalayan regions.
○ Characteristics:
■ Cold temperatures year-round, with heavy snowfall in winter.
■ Minimal vegetation due to extreme conditions.
6. Tropical Monsoon Climate:
○ Found in large parts of India, Bangladesh, and Myanmar.
○ Characteristics:
■ Distinct wet and dry seasons.
■ Heavy summer rainfall (June–September) driven by monsoon winds.
7. Humid Subtropical Climate:
○ Found in the Gangetic plains and parts of Bhutan and Nepal.
○ Characteristics:
■ Hot, humid summers and cool winters.
■ Moderate to heavy rainfall during monsoons.

2. Factors Influencing South Asia’s Climate

 1. Monsoon System:
○ Southwest Monsoon (Summer): Brings heavy rainfall from the Indian Ocean,
crucial for agriculture.
○ Northeast Monsoon (Winter): Dry winds blow from land to sea, bringing minimal
rainfall except to Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka.
2. Topography:
○ The Himalayas act as a barrier, preventing cold Central Asian winds from entering
the subcontinent, resulting in milder winters.
○ The Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats influence rainfall distribution along India's
coasts.
3. Proximity to Water Bodies:
○ Countries like the Maldives and Sri Lanka have moderated climates due to their
island geography.
4. Cyclones:
○ Bangladesh and eastern India frequently face tropical cyclones during pre- and
post-monsoon periods.

3. Seasonal Patterns

1. Winter (December–February):
○ Cool and dry, with temperatures dropping significantly in northern areas (e.g.,
Himalayan regions).
○ Western disturbances bring light rain and snow to northern Pakistan, India, and Nepal.
2. Summer (March–May):
○ Hot and dry, with temperatures often exceeding 40°C in plains and desert areas.
○ Heatwaves are common in India and Pakistan.
3. Monsoon (June–September):
○ Dominated by the Southwest Monsoon, bringing torrential rains to the region.
○ Vital for agriculture but often results in floods (e.g., in Bangladesh and India).
4. Post-Monsoon (October–November):
○ Transition period with receding monsoons, characterized by cyclones in the Bay of
Bengal.

4. Climate Impacts on SAARC Countries

1. Agriculture:
○ Monsoon rains are essential for rice, wheat, and sugarcane cultivation.
○ Erratic rainfall leads to droughts or floods, affecting food security.
2. Water Resources:
○ Dependence on glacier-fed rivers like the Ganges, Indus, and Brahmaputra.
○ Climate change impacts glaciers, threatening water availability.
3. Disasters:
○ Flooding (Bangladesh, India, Pakistan), droughts, and cyclones (Bangladesh, Sri
Lanka).
○ Coastal regions of Maldives and Bangladesh are vulnerable to sea-level rise.
4. Biodiversity:
○ Tropical forests in India and Sri Lanka host rich biodiversity but face threats from
deforestation and climate change.
5. Addressing Climate Challenges

● Regional Cooperation: Strengthen SAARC initiatives for climate adaptation and disaster
management.
● Sustainable Practices: Encourage afforestation, renewable energy, and water conservation.
● Climate Resilience: Invest in flood defenses, early warning systems, and glacier monitoring.

The diverse climate of South Asia is both a boon and a challenge, demanding sustainable and
collaborative efforts to mitigate its vulnerabilities.

Agricultural Activities in the SAARC Region

The SAARC region (South Asia) is characterized by diverse climatic conditions, topographies, and
socio-economic factors, resulting in a wide variety of agricultural activities. Agriculture is a
significant economic activity in the region, employing a substantial portion of the population and
contributing heavily to GDP in most member countries.

1. Types of Agriculture in the SAARC Region

1.1. Subsistence Farming

● Definition: Small-scale farming where crops are grown mainly for family consumption.
● Countries: Common in Nepal, Bhutan, Afghanistan, and parts of India and Pakistan.
● Examples:
○ Rice and wheat in Nepal’s Terai region.
○ Maize and millet in Bhutan’s mountainous areas.
● Reason: Limited landholding sizes and lack of modern technology in rural areas.

1.2. Commercial Farming

● Definition: Large-scale farming for profit, often involving cash crops.

● Countries: Found in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka.
● Examples:
○ Cotton in Punjab, Pakistan.
○ Tea in Assam, India, and Sri Lanka.
○ Jute in Bangladesh.
● Reason: Better irrigation facilities, market access, and government support for
export-oriented crops.

1.3. Plantation Agriculture

● Definition: Large-scale farming of specific crops for export.

● Countries: Sri Lanka, India, and parts of Bangladesh.
● Examples:
○ Tea and rubber in Sri Lanka.
○ Coffee in the Western Ghats of India.
○ Coconut in the Maldives.
 ● Reason: Tropical climate, fertile soils, and colonial legacy of plantations.

1.4. Horticulture

● Definition: Cultivation of fruits, vegetables, and flowers.

● Countries: India, Pakistan, Bhutan, and Nepal.
● Examples:
○ Apples and apricots in Kashmir (India) and northern Pakistan.
○ Oranges in Bhutan and Nagpur, India.
● Reason: Favorable climatic conditions in hilly and plateau regions.

1.5. Livestock Farming

● Definition: Rearing animals for milk, meat, and other products.

● Countries: Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, and Nepal.
● Examples:
○ Yak farming in Bhutan and Nepal.
○ Cattle farming in India and Pakistan.
● Reason: Availability of grazing land and cultural significance of livestock.

1.6. Mixed Farming

● Definition: Integration of crop cultivation with livestock farming.

● Countries: India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.
● Examples: Wheat and cattle farming in Punjab, India and Pakistan.
● Reason: Efficient use of land and resources, ensuring food and income security.

1.7. Shifting Cultivation (Slash-and-Burn)

● Definition: Rotational farming method where land is cleared, cultivated, and then left fallow.
● Countries: Northeastern India, Bhutan, and parts of Bangladesh.
● Examples: Locally known as "Jhum" in India’s northeast.
● Reason: Traditional practice in tribal areas with forested landscapes.

2. Major Crops and Associated Regions

2.1. Food Crops

● Rice:
○ Regions: Bangladesh, eastern India, Sri Lanka, and Pakistan’s Sindh region.
○ Reason: Requires high rainfall and fertile alluvial soil.
● Wheat:
○ Regions: Punjab (India and Pakistan), Haryana, and parts of Afghanistan.
○ Reason: Grows well in cooler climates and irrigated plains.

2.2. Cash Crops

● Tea:
○ Regions: Assam, Darjeeling (India), and central Sri Lanka.
○ Reason: Requires high altitudes, moderate rainfall, and cool temperatures.
 ● Jute:
○ Regions: Bangladesh and West Bengal (India).
○ Reason: Thrives in the humid climate and fertile deltaic soils of the Ganges and
Brahmaputra rivers.

2.3. Fruits and Vegetables

● Apples:
○ Regions: Kashmir (India), Himachal Pradesh, and northern Pakistan.
○ Reason: Requires a cold climate and well-drained soil.
● Mangoes:
○ Regions: Uttar Pradesh and Sindh.
○ Reason: Tropical climate with dry periods is ideal for flowering and fruiting.

2.4. Spices

● Cardamom and Pepper:

○ Regions: Kerala (India) and Sri Lanka.
○ Reason: Grows in warm, humid climates with shaded areas.

3. Factors Influencing Agriculture in SAARC Countries

3.1. Climatic Conditions

● Monsoon rains are critical for rice and wheat cultivation.

● Temperate regions support horticulture (e.g., apples, oranges).

3.2. Soil Fertility

● Alluvial soils in river plains (e.g., Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra) support high crop yields.
● Mountain soils support terraced farming for maize and rice.

3.3. Water Resources

● Dependence on glacier-fed rivers like the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra for irrigation.

3.4. Traditional Practices

● Shifting cultivation in forested areas sustains indigenous livelihoods.

● Mixed farming integrates local food security needs.

3.5. Technology and Infrastructure

● Countries like India and Pakistan use mechanized farming in irrigated plains.
● Bhutan and Nepal rely on traditional farming due to limited mechanization.

4. Challenges in Agriculture

● Climate Change: Alters rainfall patterns, leading to droughts or floods.

 ● Land Fragmentation: Reduces the profitability of farming in densely populated areas like
Bangladesh.
● Soil Degradation: Over-farming and deforestation reduce fertility.
● Water Scarcity: Pakistan and Afghanistan face irrigation challenges due to dwindling water
resources.

5. Solutions and Recommendations

● Modernization: Introduce advanced irrigation and farming techniques.

● Diversification: Encourage cultivation of high-value crops like fruits and spices.
● Climate Adaptation: Promote drought-resistant crops and agroforestry.
● Regional Cooperation: Strengthen SAARC initiatives to share technology and manage water
resources.

Agriculture in the SAARC region is vital for food security and economic stability. Its success depends
on balancing traditional practices with modernization and addressing climate and resource challenges.

Population Density Patterns in the SAARC Region

The SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation) region comprises Afghanistan,
Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. It is one of the most densely
populated regions globally, with significant variations in population density across countries and
regions within the countries.

1. Population Density Overview

● High Density: Countries like Bangladesh, India, and Maldives have very high population
densities.
● Moderate Density: Sri Lanka and Nepal fall into the moderate range.
● Low Density: Bhutan, Afghanistan, and parts of Pakistan have relatively low population
densitiesModerate Density: Sri Lanka and Nepal fall into the moderate range.
● Low Density: Bhutan, Afghanistan, and parts of Pakistan have relatively low population
densities.
● .

Country Population Density (persons/km²)

Bangladesh ~1,287

India ~464
 Maldives ~1,719

Sri Lanka ~340

Nepal ~204

Pakistan ~287

Bhutan ~20

Afghanistan ~60

2. Patterns of Population Density in SAARC Countries

2.1. High-Density Areas

● Bangladesh:
○ Exceptionally high density, especially in Dhaka and surrounding regions.
○ Reasons:
■ Fertile alluvial plains of the Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta.
■ Monsoon climate supports intensive agriculture.
■ Historical migration patterns.
■ Rapid urbanization and industrialization.
● India:
○ High-density states include West Bengal, Bihar, and Uttar Pradesh.
○ Reasons:
■ Fertile Indo-Gangetic Plain with abundant water resources.
■ Rich agricultural productivity supports large populations.
■ Urban centers like Delhi, Mumbai, and Kolkata attract migrants.
● Maldives:
○ Though small in land area, densely populated islands like Malé drive up population
density.
○ Reasons:
■ Limited habitable land due to the archipelagic nature of the country.
■ Concentration of administrative and economic activities in Malé.

2.2. Moderate-Density Areas

 ● Sri Lanka:
○ Higher density along the western coast and around Colombo.
○ Reasons:
■ Fertile agricultural lands in the southwest.
■ Better infrastructure and economic opportunities.
● Nepal:
○ Higher density in the Terai region (southern plains).
○ Reasons:
■ Fertile land and favorable climate for agriculture.
■ Accessibility compared to the rugged Himalayan terrain.

2.3. Low-Density Areas

● Afghanistan:
○ Sparse population in mountainous and desert regions; higher density in river valleys.
○ Reasons:
■ Arid climate and rugged topography limit habitable areas.
■ Political instability and lack of infrastructure.
● Bhutan:
○ Lowest density in the region; concentrated around urban centers like Thimphu and
Paro.
○ Reasons:
■ Mountainous terrain and forest cover limit settlement.
■ Government policies promoting environmental conservation.
● Pakistan:
○ Low density in Balochistan and high density in Punjab and Sindh.
○ Reasons:
■ Arid and semi-arid conditions in western regions.
■ Fertile land and better irrigation in the Indus River Basin.

3. Factors Influencing Population Density Patterns

3.1. Physical Factors

● Topography:
○ Plains (e.g., Indo-Gangetic Plain) support high population density due to ease of
settlement and agriculture.
○ Mountainous regions (e.g., Bhutan, Nepal, and northern Pakistan) have sparse
populations.
● Climate:
○ Favorable climates (e.g., monsoon regions of Bangladesh and India) attract denser
populations.
○ Extreme climates (e.g., Afghanistan’s deserts) discourage settlement.

3.2. Economic Factors

● Agriculture:
○ Fertile river plains support intensive farming, leading to high densities (e.g.,
Bangladesh, Punjab).
 ● Industrialization:
○ Urban areas like Mumbai, Delhi, and Karachi are densely populated due to economic
opportunities.

3.3. Social and Historical Factors

● Historical Settlements:
○ River valleys and coastal areas have historically attracted settlements.
● Cultural Ties:
○ Some regions have retained large populations due to cultural or religious significance
(e.g., Varanasi in India).

3.4. Political Factors

● Urban Development:
○ Government policies promoting urbanization increase density in cities (e.g., Colombo
in Sri Lanka).
● Conservation Policies:
○ Bhutan restricts urban sprawl to protect forests, resulting in lower population density.

4. Implications of Population Density Patterns

4.1. High-Density Areas

● Advantages:
○ Economic growth through industrialization and market accessibility.
● Challenges:
○ Overcrowding, strain on resources, and environmental degradation.

4.2. Low-Density Areas

● Advantages:
○ Less strain on resources, preservation of natural habitats.
● Challenges:
○ Underutilization of resources and lack of infrastructure.

5. Conclusion

The population density pattern in the SAARC region is shaped by a combination of physical,
economic, and social factors. Addressing challenges like overcrowding in high-density areas and
underdevelopment in low-density regions requires a balanced approach involving sustainable urban
planning, infrastructure development, and resource management.

MOUNTAINS OF SAARC

1. Himalayas

Location: India, Nepal, Bhutan, Pakistan, Afghanistan

 ● Description:
The Himalayas are the tallest mountain range in the world, home to Mount Everest (8,849
meters), the highest peak on Earth. This range spans five SAARC countries and is known for
its dramatic peaks, deep valleys, and glaciers.
● Geological Significance:
Formed by the collision of the Indian and Eurasian tectonic plates, the Himalayas are
geologically young and seismically active.
● Climate Impact:
○ Acts as a climatic barrier, influencing the monsoon patterns.
○ Prevents cold Siberian winds from penetrating South Asia.
● Economic Importance:
○ Source of major rivers (Ganges, Indus, Brahmaputra).
○ Supports agriculture, hydroelectric power, and tourism.
● Cultural Role:
Sacred to Hindus, Buddhists, and other religions.

2. Karakoram Range

Location: Pakistan, India, Afghanistan

● Description:
Known for K2 (8,611 meters), the second-highest peak in the world, the Karakoram range is
home to some of the largest glaciers outside the polar regions.
● Climate and Geography:
○ Harsh, cold desert climate.
○ Home to the Siachen Glacier.
● Significance:
○ Important for mountaineering and adventure tourism.
○ Vital water source for arid regions of Pakistan.

3. Hindu Kush

Location: Afghanistan, Pakistan

● Description:
A rugged mountain range extending westward from the Pamirs, the Hindu Kush serves as a
geographical and cultural link between Central and South Asia.
● Height: Peaks exceed 7,000 meters.
● Strategic Importance:
○ Historical trade routes and invasions passed through the Khyber Pass.
○ Contains rich deposits of minerals.
● Cultural and Historical Role:
Integral to ancient Silk Road civilizations.

4. Western Ghats

Location: India
 ● Description:
Running parallel to India’s western coast, the Western Ghats are a UNESCO World Heritage
site known for biodiversity.
● Height: Peaks range between 1,000–2,000 meters.
● Significance:
○ High rainfall supports dense forests and tea/coffee plantations.
○ Key to regulating the monsoon in peninsular India.
● Ecological Importance:
Hosts endemic species of flora and fauna.

5. Eastern Ghats

Location: India

● Description:
A discontinuous range running along India’s eastern coast, the Eastern Ghats are lower in
elevation than the Western Ghats.
● Height: Average elevation of 600–900 meters.
● Significance:
○ Less rainfall but critical for agriculture.
○ Supports crops like rice and pulses.

6. Aravalli Range

Location: India

● Description:
Among the oldest mountain ranges in the world, the Aravallis extend through Rajasthan and
Gujarat.
● Height: Peaks are relatively low, with Guru Shikhar (1,722 meters) being the highest.
● Economic Role:
○ Rich in minerals like marble and granite.
○ Supports semi-arid agriculture.
● Environmental Role:
Acts as a green barrier against desertification from the Thar Desert.

7. Vindhya and Satpura Ranges

Location: India

● Description:
These ranges run across central India, marking the traditional boundary between northern and
southern India.
● Significance:
○ Watershed for major rivers like Narmada and Tapti.
○ Supports forest ecosystems.

8. Sulaiman and Kirthar Ranges

Location: Pakistan

● Description:
Located in the west, these ranges are semi-arid and sparsely populated.
● Height: Peaks reach 3,487 meters (Takht-i-Sulaiman).
● Significance:
○ Important for pastoralism and grazing.
○ Rich in fossil fuel deposits.

9. Chittagong Hill Tracts

Location: Bangladesh

● Description:
A low range of hills in southeastern Bangladesh, home to diverse tribal communities.
● Economic Role:
○ Important for agriculture (jhum or shifting cultivation).
○ Rich in bamboo forests.
● Cultural Role:
Unique tribal customs and traditions.

10. Central Highlands

Location: Sri Lanka

● Description:
Mountainous region in the heart of Sri Lanka, with peaks such as Pidurutalagala (2,524
meters).
● Significance:
○ Tea cultivation hub.
○ Biodiversity hotspot.

Conclusion

The mountain ranges of the SAARC region are critical for climate regulation, agriculture,
biodiversity, and cultural heritage. Their preservation and sustainable management are vital for the
region’s socioeconomic and environmental health.

Continent-Wise Distribution of Population: Features and Factors

Correlation between arable land and population as historically people settled where they
could grow food.

In 1960s Paul Elrich published “The Population Bomb” warning about impacts of over
population. Like wise Thoma Malthus gave his theory about growing disaster of population.
1. Asia

● Features:
○ Largest population (approximately 4.8 billion, ~60% of the world’s total).
○ Uneven distribution: densely populated in South, East, and Southeast Asia;
sparsely populated in deserts (Gobi) and mountains (Himalayas).
○ Countries like China and India dominate with over 1 billion people each.
○ By 20230 1 out 6 people will live India according to the demographers
● Factors:
○ Fertile Plains: Indo-Gangetic and Yellow River Plains support intensive
agriculture. Most of the population settled around rivers.
○ Rivers: Major rivers like Ganges, Yangtze, and Mekong sustain large
populations.
○ Urbanization: Economic hubs like Tokyo, Shanghai, and Mumbai attract
people.
○ Climate: Monsoonal and temperate climates favor human settlement.

2. Africa

● Features:
○ Population: ~1.4 billion (~17% of the world’s total).
○ High population density in regions like the Nile River Valley, West Africa
(Nigeria), and East Africa (Great Lakes).
○ Sparse populations in the Sahara Desert, Kalahari Desert, and dense tropical
rainforests of the Congo Basin.
● Factors:
○ Natural Resources: Fertile lands in the Nile Delta and savannahs.
○ Climate: Favorable conditions in Sub-Saharan Africa contrast with harsh
deserts.
○ Economic Development: Urban centers like Lagos and Cairo are population
magnets.
○ Health Challenges: Diseases and limited healthcare reduce density in some
areas.

3. Europe

● Features:
○ Population: ~750 million (~9% of the world’s total).
○ High densities in Western Europe (Germany, UK, France) and along rivers like
the Rhine and Danube.
○ Moderate densities in Eastern Europe and lower densities in Northern Europe
(Scandinavia).
○ An axis of dense population from Ireland to Russia
 ○ Europe’s population reflects the orientation of coal fields as most population
centered around coal fields.
● Factors:
○ Industrialization: Dense urbanization in historically industrial regions.
○ Temperate Climate: Supports agriculture and human settlement.
○ Infrastructure: Advanced transport and healthcare systems encourage
population stability.
○ Aging Population: Declining growth rates due to low birth rates.

4. North America

● Features:
○ Population: ~600 million (~8% of the world’s total).
○ High densities along the eastern seaboard of the U.S. and Canada, the Great
Lakes, and the West Coast (California). Also called Megalopolis by
demographers.
○ Sparse populations in Alaska, northern Canada, and arid areas (Nevada,
Arizona).
● Factors:
○ Urbanization: Cities like New York, Los Angeles, and Toronto are population
hubs.
○ Natural Resources: Fertile plains and access to water support agriculture.
○ Economic Opportunities: Migration for jobs drives population growth.
○ Climate: Harsh winters in the north limit settlement.

5. South America

● Features:
○ Population: ~430 million (~5.5% of the world’s total).
○ Dense populations in coastal areas, particularly around Brazil, Argentina, and
Venezuela.
○ Sparse populations in the Amazon Basin and Andes Mountains.
● Factors:
○ Climate: Tropical climates and fertile soils in coastal regions.
○ Urbanization: Cities like São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and Buenos Aires attract
people.
○ Geography: Dense forests and mountains deter settlement in interior regions.
○ Migration: Influx to urban areas for better opportunities.

6. Oceania

● Features:
○ Population: ~43 million (~0.6% of the world’s total).
 ○ Concentrated in Australia’s eastern and southeastern coasts, New Zealand’s
North Island, and Papua New Guinea.
○ Sparse populations in Australia’s Outback and smaller Pacific islands.
● Factors:
○ Climate: Favorable conditions in coastal areas; arid interior limits growth.
○ Economic Activities: Urban centers like Sydney and Auckland are magnets.
○ Isolation: Geographical remoteness limits large-scale settlement.
○ Resources: Mining and agriculture sustain populations in specific areas.

7. Antarctica

● Features:
○ No permanent population (~1,000–5,000 seasonal researchers).
○ Harshest climate on Earth with no arable land.
● Factors:
○ Climate: Extreme cold and lack of resources make settlement impossible.
○ Research Stations: Temporary populations tied to scientific studies.

Global Distribution of Agriculture: A Continent-Wise Overview

‘Agriculture is the deliberate tending og crops and livestock to produce food, feed, fiber and fuel”--
Deblij. Agriculture is influenced by climatic conditions, soil types, water availability, and
socio-economic factors. Below is a detailed explanation of agricultural distribution across continents:

1. Asia

● Dominant Crops and Activities:

○ Rice Cultivation: Asia is the largest producer of rice, especially in the monsoon-fed
regions of South, Southeast, and East Asia (India, China, Vietnam, Indonesia).
○ Wheat Cultivation: Northern China, India, and Pakistan.
○ Tea, Coffee, and Spices: India (Darjeeling tea), Sri Lanka (Ceylon tea), and Vietnam
(coffee).
○ Oilseeds and Pulses: India and Southeast Asia.
○ Fruits and Vegetables: China is a global leader.
○ The indus valley civilization and Crescent valley known as hearths of agriculture as
according to Carl Saur agriculture started here as these were lands of plenty
● Factors:
○ Climate: Monsoonal climate in South and Southeast Asia supports paddy cultivation;
temperate zones in Central Asia favor wheat and barley.
○ Irrigation: Advanced irrigation systems in India and China sustain agriculture in
water-scarce regions.
○ Labour-Intensive Farming: High population density ensures availability of
agricultural labor.
2. Africa

● Dominant Crops and Activities:

○ Subsistence Farming: Maize, millet, and sorghum dominate in Sub-Saharan Africa.
○ Cash Crops: Cocoa (Ivory Coast, Ghana), coffee (Ethiopia, Uganda), and tea
(Kenya).
○ Livestock: Pastoralism in Sahel and East Africa (cattle, sheep, goats).
○ Tropical Crops: Bananas, yams, and cassava in West and Central Africa.
○ Horticulture: Flowers in Kenya and Ethiopia for export.
● Factors:
○ Climate: Tropical climates favor perennial crops; arid regions depend on
drought-resistant crops.
○ Soil Quality: Fertile volcanic soils in East Africa support coffee and tea.
○ Economic Constraints: Limited access to modern agricultural technologies.

3. Europe

● Dominant Crops and Activities:

○ Cereals: Wheat (France, Ukraine), barley, and oats in temperate zones.
○ Dairy Farming: Netherlands, Denmark, and Switzerland.
○ Vineyards and Horticulture: Grapes for wine in Italy, France, and Spain.
○ Oilseeds: Sunflowers in Ukraine; olives in the Mediterranean region.
○ Forestry and Timber: Scandinavia and Eastern Europe.
● Factors:
○ Climate: Temperate climate supports cereals; Mediterranean climate favors grapes
and olives.
○ Mechanization: Highly mechanized farming practices in Western Europe.
○ EU Subsidies: Agricultural subsidies under the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP)
enhance production.

4. North America

● Dominant Crops and Activities:

○ Grain Farming: Wheat and corn in the Great Plains.
○ Soybeans: Midwest U.S. (Illinois, Iowa).
○ Livestock: Cattle ranching in Texas and Alberta, Canada.
○ Fruits and Vegetables: California (oranges, avocados), Florida (citrus fruits), and
Mexico (tropical fruits).
○ Forestry: Canada’s boreal forests.
● Factors:
○ Climate: Temperate zones support cereals; warm subtropical climates support fruits.
○ Mechanization: Highly industrialized farming techniques.
○ Infrastructure: Advanced transport networks for agricultural export.

5. South America

● Dominant Crops and Activities:

○ Soybeans and Maize: Brazil and Argentina.
 ○ Coffee and Sugarcane: Brazil is the world’s largest producer.
○ Livestock: Cattle ranching in Argentina (Pampas).
○ Tropical Fruits: Bananas in Ecuador and Colombia.
○ Aquaculture: Coastal fisheries in Chile and Peru.
● Factors:
○ Climate: Tropical and subtropical climates in the Amazon and Andes foothills.
○ Soil Fertility: Rich volcanic and alluvial soils in river basins.
○ Global Trade: Focus on export-oriented cash crops.

6. Oceania

● Dominant Crops and Activities:

○ Wheat: Australia (Western and Southern regions).
○ Livestock: Sheep farming (New Zealand), cattle ranching (Queensland, Australia).
○ Sugarcane: Coastal Queensland.
○ Viticulture: Wine production in Australia and New Zealand.
○ Horticulture: Tropical fruits like bananas in northern Australia.
● Factors:
○ Climate: Arid interior supports livestock; coastal regions favor crops.
○ Export-Oriented: Focus on agricultural exports to Asia and Europe.
○ Technological Advancements: Modern irrigation and farming techniques.

7. Antarctica

● Dominant Activities:
○ No agriculture due to extreme cold and lack of arable land.

What is Agribusiness: It is an all encompassing term meaning the activities which support agriculture.
On one hand it connects the local farmers to spatially extensive web of production and on the other
hand it fosters the concentration od spatial production networks