Unit -8

Physical Education
Biomechanics and Sports
Topics
1. Newton’s Law of Motion & its application in sports.
2. Types of Levers and their application in Sports.
3. Equilibrium – Dynamic & Static and Centre of Gravity and its application in sports.
4. Friction & Sports.
5. Projectile in Sports.

Meaning of Biomechanics :-
Bio + Mechanics
Bio = Living organism
Mechanics = Branch of Physical science which deals with force acting on a body in static condition or in moving
condition.
Biomechanics is the study of forces & their effects on human being is moving or in static condition. Biomechanics
is the study of forces and their effects on living systems. Biomechanics is the science of movement of a living body,
including how muscles, bones, tendons, and ligaments work together to produce movement. The biomechanical
principle of motion relates to linear motion, velocity, speed, acceleration, and momentum.

1. Newton’s Laws of motion and their application in sports :-

Sir Isaac Newton's three laws of motion describe the motion of massive bodies and how they interact. Newton
published his laws in 1687, in his seminal work "Principia Mathematica”.
1st Law of Motion (Law of Inertia)
According to the first law, (a body will remain at rest or continue to move at a constant velocity unless acted upon
by an external (resultant) force). When an object is pushed on the floor, It rolls for a certain distance , then slows
down till it stops by the effect of frictional forces between the object and the floor that resist rolling ( Friction is an
external force that acts to change the object state ) . If these forces do not exist , the object would keep moving at
a uniform velocity and would not stop . In sports, this law is applied in various ways, such as in kicking a ball. Once
the ball is kicked, it will continue to move in a straight line with the same velocity until an external force, such as
friction or air resistance, acts on it.
2nd law of motion (Law of Acceleration) :-
A change in acceleration is directly proportional to force production and inversely proportional to its mass. The
second law shows that if you exert the same force on two objects of different mass, you will get different
accelerations (changes in motion). The effect (acceleration) on the smaller mass will be greater (more noticeable).
This law is applied in various sports, such as in weightlifting. The more force a weightlifter can apply to the barbell,
the greater the acceleration and the greater the chance of lifting the weight.
3rd law of motion (Law of action and Reaction) :-
There is an equal and opposite reaction for every action, and this reaction acts with the same Momentum and the
opposite velocity for every action. In Simple word- Every action has an equal and opposite reaction.
Application of this law-
Shooting- The pistol is fired, the bullet moves forward (action), pistol jerks backwards (reaction).
Swimming- The swimmer pushes the water backward (action), and the water pushes the swimmer forward
(reaction).Similarly- rowing boat,Dribbling in Basket ball,High Jump, Walking, etc.

2. Types of Levers and their application in Sports :-

The lever is a type of machine. It is the human body’s mechanism for movement, and although it may be viewed
as a part of the skeletal system, the role of the muscles in supplying the necessary force for lever action should be
kept in mind. The bony levers will be less stationary until they are moved by the muscles, which are motionless
until the nervous system stimulates them.
All lever systems are made up of four components :-
a. the load c. the effort
b. the fulcrum d. the lever.
The load is the object requiring moving, the effort is the muscular force we use to move the object, the fulcrum is
the joint around which the movement occurs, and the bones of the skeleton are the levers. If asked to sketch a
diagram of a lever system, you would need to include all four parts.

Definition of a Lever :- A lever is “a rigid bar used to overcome resistance when a force is applied.
The Fulcrum :- It is the point at which the lever rotates or turns and identifies the lever class by its position in
relation to the other two parts. In human movement, the fulcrum is the joint that dictates the kind of action.
The Force/Effort Arm :- It is the point at which the force is applied.
The Load/Resistance Arm :- It is the point where the load or resistance is located.

TYPES OF LEVERS :-
There are three types/classes of levers:
a. First-Class Lever c. Third Class Lever
b. Second Class Lever

First-Class lever :- has the fulcrum between the force and the resistance. This class fulcrum may be moved about
along the lever, thereby changing the relative lengths of the force arm and the resistance arm.
Examples of 1st class lever :-
When throwing a ball: Effort = Triceps
Fulcrum = Elbow Load = Arm/ball
When doing V-sit-up :-
Fulcrum = Hip joint Load = Leg/Lower body
Effort = Abdomen

Second Class Lever :- A second class lever has the load resistance between the fulcrum and the force. In this class
of levers, movement of the fulcrum will increase or decrease both the force arm and the resistance arm.
Examples of 2nd class lever :-
When throwing a ball:
Fulcrum = Ankle joint Load = Ankle joint
Effort = Gastrocnemius
When doing V-sit-up :
Fulcrum = Ball of the foot Load = Body weight
Effort = Arm Muscle contraction.
Third Class Lever :- A third-class lever has the force between the fulcrum and the resistance. In this class of lever,
the force arm is always shorter than the resistance arm, and so a large amount of force must be applied, but the
resistance is moved through a much longer range of motion than the force application.
Examples of 3rd class lever :-
When throwing a ball:
Fulcrum = Elbow joint Load = Arm/Weight
Effort = Biceps
When doing Sit-ups :
Fulcrum = Hip joint Load = Upper body
Effort = Abdomen

APPLICATION IN SPORTS :-
1. Cricket bat (2nd class) - The fulcrum is the top of the handle, the load is the bat’s body, and the force is closer to
the neck of the handle.
2. Kicking - Lower limb (3rd class) – The fulcrum at the knee joint, force at tibial tuberosity, (attachment of the
quadriceps) load is the foot.
3. Jumping - Plantar flexion of the foot (2nd class) – The load is at the toes, the fulcrum is at the heel, and force is
your weight which is anterior to your heel.
4. Looking up/down or side-to-side (1st class) - Your head is balanced on your atlantooccipital joint, which pivots,
similarly to a see-saw.

3. Equilibrium – Dynamic & Static and Centre of Gravity and its application in sports.
Equilibrium :- It is defined as a state of balance or a stable situation, where opposite forces cancel each other out
and where no changes are occurring. In physics, equilibrium can be classified into two types: static and dynamic.
Types of Equilibrium
1. Dynamic Equilibrium : It is the balance of the body during movement. Static equilibrium is when an object is at
rest and has no movement. It occurs when the sum of all the forces acting on an object is zero, and the object
remains stationary. For example, a book placed on a table is in static equilibrium as the forces acting on it, such as
gravity and the normal force of the table, are balanced.
Examples :- Stance maintained by the batsmen in cricket, on the starting block by the sprinter, wide stance
maintained by the wrestler, A ball that moves at an unknown speed. Cartwheel in gymnasticsetc.
2. Static Equilibrium : It is a balance of the body during its rest or stable position. Dynamic equilibrium is when an
object is in motion but has a constant velocity. It occurs when the sum of all the forces acting on an object is zero
and the object continues to move at a constant speed in a straight line. For example, a car travelling on a straight,
level road at a constant speed is in dynamic equilibrium as the forces acting on it, such as the engine and air
resistance, are balanced.
Example :- Body position maintained by a sprinter while running on the track, Cyclist while cycling, dribbling of
the football by a soccer player etc.

FACTORS INCREASING EQUILIBRIUM

1.The centre of gravity falls within the base of support.
2.Decrease instability when the centre of gravity becomes near the edge of the base .
3.Larger base.
4.Greater weight .
5.Lower centre of gravity When anticipating an oncoming force.
6.Place centre of gravity near the side of the base of support expected to receive force.
7Extending the base of support in direction of expected force.
8.Greater friction between body and surfaces it contacts.
9.Rotation about an axis.
10.Moving cycle is easier to balance than a stationary cycle.
11.Kin-aesthetic physiological functions.
12.Vestibular system, vision, touch, and kin-aesthetic awareness.

CENTRE OF GRAVITY :-
Centre of gravity is that point in a body or system around which its mass or weight is evenly distributed or
balanced and through which the force of gravity acts. The center of gravity is fixed, provided the size and shape of
the body do not change. The ability to balance, whether stationary or moving, is key to success in most sports and
physical activities. The stability of an athlete depends on her/his COG. It is exactly in the middle of the body
around which it can rotate freely in any direction and where the weight of the body is centred.
Examples :-
(a) For wrestlers in snatch and jerk, the widening of legs and lowering of body to maintain the stability, makes
COG come down.
(b) During running, the runner’s centre of gravity is in the lower region of the pelvis and in front of his body,
because his upper body is leaning forwards. Having the centre of gravity lower and in front of his lower body is
advantageous for acceleration.
(c) In the game of basketball and volleyball, high defence players spread their legs to lower the centre of gravity
towards the base to occupy a better position against the offensive player.
(d) Starting in short sprints in track events is another example of the use the of centre of gravity. As we need to
take an instant start in sprints, we take our body weight on our hands in the “Set” position. So, that we can
start immediately while balancing our weight. (Initially, the centre of gravity of the body falls on the edge of
the baseline of hands. If the centre of gravity falls behind the line, then there will be delay in starting because
it will require a greater force to go ahead).
(e) In combative sports like wrestling, a wrestler falls on the mat with arms, knees, and legs spread on the mat to
get a proper balanced position, (This position, makes it difficult for the opposite player to move him.
Importance and Application of centre of gravity in Sports
(a) Helps the athlete to move.
(b) Stops the moving object.
(c) Helps the athlete to accelerate.
(d) Helps the athlete in throwing objects.
(e) Helps the athlete to lift the object.
(f) Helps the athlete to pull the object.
4. Friction & Sports.
Friction is the force that opposes the motion of a solid object over another. Friction is a force that opposes the
motion between two surfaces that are in touch. Friction always works in the direction opposite from the direction
the object is moving or trying to move. Friction also produces heat.
TYPES OF FRICTION :-
1- Static friction:- Static friction is defined as the frictional force that acts between the surfaces when they are at
rest with respect to each other. if you try to push a heavy object with less force than the force of static friction
between the object and the floor, the object will not move. To make the object move, you need to exert more
force than the force of static friction. Once the object is moving, there is no longer any static friction.
Static Friction Examples :-
1. Skiing against the snow. 2. Table lamp resting on the table.

2- Dynamic friction:-
includes:-
(a) Sliding friction. (c) Fluid friction.
(b) Rolling friction.
Sliding Friction :
(a) Sliding friction is defined as the resistance that is created between any two objects when they are sliding
against each other.
Examples Of Sliding Friction :
1. Sliding of the block across the floor. 2. Two cards sliding against each other in a deck
3. skating on ice
4. planting a pole in the pole vault event and skiing or sliding weight.
(b) Rolling friction :- Rolling friction is defined as the force which resists the motion of a ball or wheel and is
the weakest types of friction. when a hockey or cricket ball is hit it begins to move ahead and roll on the ground.
After sometimes it stops rolling due to the friction force, this type of friction is often seen in sports. eg., Roller
skates and skateboards, Rolling of the log on the ground , Wheels of the moving vehicles.
(c) Fluid friction :- Fluid friction is defined as the friction that exists between the layers of the fluid when they are
moving relative to each other. It opposes the motion of objects traveling through the fluid (gas, air, and water).
Examples Of Fluid Friction :
1. The flow of ink in pens. 4. Cyclist often wears streamlined helmets and
2. Swimming. specially designed clothing to reduce fluid friction.
3. When you ride a bike, fluid friction occurs between 5. Paragliding vs hang gliding when an athlete glides
you and the air. on air.
METHODS OF REDUCING FRICTION
1. Polishing: If we polish and rub the surface to reduce its unevenness and make it smooth, the force of friction
can be reduced. eg., shining a cricket ball increase the swing of the ball.
2. Lubricating: A common way to reduce the force of friction is by applying a lubricate such as Motor oil, grease,
wax etc. eg., the most widely used lubricants in practical mechanical systems like bearings or gears.
3. Wheels and Ball bearing use: It is easier to roll an object than to slide it by using wheels and ball bearings as we
convert sliding friction into rolling friction. This reduces friction between the two contact surfaces and helps us to
save energy and time. eg., in roller skates, both wheels and balls contribute to reducing friction.
4. Streamlining: Friction due to air is reduced by streamlining the shape of the body. eg., the Javelin, boats, ships,
and vehicles, are made with a sharp point to reduce friction.
Advantages Friction :-
1. Athletics: In Athletics, the shoes (spikes) are designed to increase friction so that better speed can be generated.
The shoes used for short-distance running events have spikes in the front potion only. Whereas the longdistance
runner uses completely different shoes.
2. Badminton: The grip in badminton plays a major role in performing a shot perfectly during a match. That is why
a good grip in rackets, will increase the friction with the hand, helping the shot to count and preventing the racket
from slipping.
3. Basketball: Friction between the shoes and the court helps players to maintain control of movement. They wipe
their shoes often to get more friction for better movement control.
4. Cricket: The cricket players, essentially the fielders wear shoes that have spikes. The helps them increase the
friction with the ground and hence, helps the cricketer during the run-up for balling, running between the wickets,
and preventing from slipping.
5. Cycling: The friction between the tires and the surface prevents cyclists from slipping and skidding. The friction
between the brakes and the wheel help cyclists slow down their bikes.
6. Football: In Football, a footballer kicks and catches the ball. Friction helps him/her to run, change and maintain
his/her position on the ground. Better friction helps him/her to tackle the opponent correctly.
7. Gymnastics: It is due to friction that a gymnast is able to perform actions on the Horizontal bar. In fact, he uses
lime powder on his hands to increase the friction between his palm and the bar.
8. Running: Friction between the shoes and the track enables an athlete to run fast, deaccelerate, stop and change
direction. If friction is low, the athlete would slip and even fall.
9. Soccer: In soccer also number and size of spikes between a striker to a defensive player are different, this
technical difference is based on the type of friction required by the players.
10. Weightlifting: In weightlifting, the weightlifters needs more friction between their feet and the floor to
prevent slipping while lifting heavy weights, for which they use specially designed shoes.
Disadvantages Friction :-
1. Bicycling: During cycle racing the tires get heated up due to friction. Due to more heat, tires may burst and it
may lead to serious accidents.
2. Weightlifting and Gymnastics: In weightlifting and gymnastics, the skin in the palm gets damaged due to friction
and the athlete even may slip while performing the lift. Hence, gymnasts and weight lifters are advised to use
powder on their palms and wear special shoes to maintain appropriate friction.
3. Pole-Vault: During Pole-Vault, a vaulter may lose grip on the pole if less friction is there between palms and
pole. Hence, pole vaunters are advised to use adhesive on the palm to increase friction and perform correctly.
4. Friction makes movements difficult: Any time you want to move an object, friction can make the job more
difficult, as movement is directly affected by mass and force applied and also on the surface condition.
5. Excess friction means extra energy: in other words, more friction means more force to overcome it and more
force means more energy. Thus, energy is wasted due to friction.
6. Friction can cause injuries: if a player slides/falls across the ground. In fact, friction can lead to critical injuries.
7. Wear and tear: sporting equipment occurs with time because of friction. If, there were no friction, they would
last forever.
5. Projectile in Sports.
A projectile is any object thrown into space upon which the only acting force is gravity. The primary force acting
on a projectile is gravity. This doesn’t necessarily mean that other forces do not act on it, just that their effect is
minimal compared to gravity. The path followed by a projectile is known as a trajectory. A baseball batted or
thrown is an example of the projectile. A projectile is an object upon which the only force acting is gravity.
Projectiles travel with a parabolic trajectory due to the influence of gravity…..
An object thrown either horizontally or at an acute angle under the influence of gravity is called a projectile. The
path followed by a projectile is called a trajectory or parabola. There are two forces that act on a projectile
gravitational force and air resistance…..
An object dropped from rest is a projectile.
An object that is thrown vertically upward is also a projectile.
And an object which is thrown upward at an angle to the horizontal is also a projectile.
A projectile is any object that once projected or dropped continues in motion by its own inertia and is influenced
only by the downward force of gravity.
(In simple words, an object in flight after being thrown a project is called projectile motion.)
Understanding the principles of projectile motion can help athletes improve their skills and performance. For example,
a pitcher in baseball can adjust the angle and force of their throw to control the trajectory of the ball and make it
harder for the batter to hit. Similarly, a golfer can adjust their swing to control the trajectory of the ball and make it
land closer to the target.
Examples from sports involve projectile motion :-
1. Objects acting as projectiles: basketball, football, shot-put, hammer, discus, javelin, golf ball, volleyball, tennis
ball, etc
2. The body acts as a projectile in high jump, long jump, gymnastics, diving, figure skating, ski jumping etc.
FACTORS AFFECTING PROJECTILE TRAJECTORY/ FLIGHT PATH :-
a. Gravity
b. Air resistance
c. Speed of release
d. Angle of release
e. Height of release
f. Spin
1. Angle of Projection: Any object released at different angles covers different distances. When the object is
released at 45°, it covers the maximum distance. When it is projected at an angle of 30°, it covers less distance and
when released at 60° it covers slightly more distance but less than a 45° projectile path. The angle of 45° is the
best angle for achieving maximum distance.
2. Projection Height Relevant to the Landing Surface: If the height of the projection and landing surface is equal
then release the object at an angle of 45°. If the height of the projection is less than the landing surface, increase
the projection's angle, it should be more than 45°. If the height of the projection is more than the landing surface
then decrease the angle, it should be less than 45°.
3. Initial Velocity: If the initial velocity is more, the object covers a maximum distance.
4. Gravity: The greater the weight of the object, the greater the influence of gravity upon it. Gravity decreases the
height of the projectile that it can obtain. It limits the vertical components of the projectile.
5. Air Resistance: When the object moves through the air, it is slowed down by air resistance. It decreases the
horizontal component of a projectile.
6. Speed of release: This refers to how fast the object is released (thrown or hit). The muscle force largely
determines a projectile speed of release. Generally, the greater the release rate, the greater the distance gained.
Example: Speed of release in throwing events like javelin, discus, etc.
7. Angle of release/ projection angle: This refers to the pitch at which the object is thrown or hit into the air. In
sporting situations, the angle of release varies according to the activity. A basketball angle above 45 degrees is
required in activities such as shooting. In activities such as tennis, a lower, around 3-to-15-degree grade is
required.
8. Spin: Spin happens as a ball moving through the air will move in the direction of at least air pressure. This helps
the projectile maintain its course and can cause it to change height or direction. When applying force to a
projectile below, above, or the side of the centre of gravity, you will impart spin to the projectile. Example:
principle of spin in basketball shooting.
APPLICATION OF PROJECTILE IN SPORTS :-
Projectile motion is very common in sports since most sports involve the motion of a projectile (usually a ball). By
using physics, we are able to determine the optimal angle of a ball’s flight in order to maximize speed or distance.
There are many instances where projectile motion is applicable, whether it is in daily life, sports, or technological
advancements.
Baseball
Pitching analysis :- Projectile motion is applicable in both throwing and hitting. A thrown ball undergoes
projectile motion when it is mid-air since the only force that affects the ball is the acceleration due to gravity. A
variety of factors will go into the trajectory of a pitch, including a pitcher’s height, arm angle, and the spin being
applied to the ball.
Hitting analysis :- In terms of hitting, advanced analytics like to use “launch angle” as a good indicator of the
optimal angle that a ball should be hit. Launch angle is the angle at which a ball exits the bat as soon as they
connect with each other. The best launch angles, which allow for line drives and home runs, are calculated to be
around 10–30 degrees North of East, relative to the bat. This allows for the most optimal ball flight, usually
necessary to hit the ball over 325 to 400 feet over the fence.
Basketball :- Another example of projectile motion in sports is basketball. For a basketball shot to enter the hoop,
the basketball must be shot at a certain angle with a certain amount of force. The optimal angle of a shot will vary
depending on the height from which the ball is shot and the player’s distance from the hoop. According to
Professor John Fontanella, the ideal angles from the free-throw line will vary from 48.7 degrees to 52.2 degrees,
with shorter players.