Balanced diet depends on age ,sex, activities & lifestyles

 Feeding habit of people depends on where they live, their social issues, age, sex, personal
activity & physiological conditions.
 E.g. pregnant woman should eat more food for devt. & growth of her baby.
 She should get more minerals like Ca for devt. of bone & teeth of her baby.
 Children have greater energy requirement than adults b/c they still in process of growth.
 Young children also need more protein than adult does b/c they are constantly developing &
making new cells.
 Elderly people generally have lower energy & protein needs.
 However, they need to eat a balanced diet in order to stay healthy.
 Naturally, female have a relatively higher fat content in their bodies than male.
 Fat in female body is stored in fat tissue, such as under skin(s adipose tissue).
 These fat tissue have lower metabolic rate than muscular tissue, so women generally have a
lower energy requirement than men.
 Therefore, men should eat relatively more energy food than women should.
 Some jobs that involves physical activity require more energy than less active jobs.
 People who are usually work physical exercise such as athletes also require high energy &
protein diets.
 The extra protein is required for muscle development.
Table5.2: Energy requirement by the body depends on age, sex, activities and lifestyles.
 D/t groups of human Energy used in a day/kilocalories
Male Female
 8-year-old child 2031 2031
 Teenager, aged 14 2987 2318
 Adult office worker 2629 2342
 Adult manual worker 3585 2987
 Pregnant woman - 2390
 Breast-feeding mother - 2748

5.5. Deficiency diseases

 Human body requires a balanced diet for normal functioning of body.
 If food intake in human body is inadequate in carbohydrate, proteins, minerals or vitamins, it
causes deficiency diseases.
 A deficiency disease occurs when a person does not have enough amount of one particular
nutrient & suffers health problems as a result.
 E.g. of deficiency diseases are Kwashiorkor, Marasmus, Anemia, Rickets & Scurvy etc.
1. Marasmus
 Marasmus is a deficiency disease caused by inadequate carbohydrate content in human body.
 Like kwashiorkor, incidence of marasmus increases in children.
 The symptoms of marasmus are thin arm & leg, little muscle, old-looking face.
-Peoples with this disease are extremely thin with reduced fat & muscle tissue their skin is thin & hangs
in folds; treatment involves delivery of an energy rich, balanced diet.
2. Kwashiorkor
 Kwashiorkor is deficiency disease caused by inadequate protein content in human body
especially in children.
 Some symptoms of kwashiorkor are dry/flaky skin, swelling of leg & abdomen, & changes of
hair color, weakness & irritability.
 Protein deficiency can often be cured or prevented by an intake of protein.
3. Rickets
 Deficiency disease caused by shortage of vitamin D is called Rickets.
 It results in deformed bones in the legs of children. Vitamin D is only vitamin that human body
can make upon exposure of skin to morning & evening sunlight.
 In addition, oily fish, butter, milk, cheese & egg-yolk are some foods that provide vitamin D.
 Vitamin D help in absorption of Ca & P through
gut wall, w/c is important to build bone & teeth.
4. Scurvy
 Scurvy is a deficiency disease caused by a lack of vitamin C(ascorbic acid).
 This deficiency disease occurs when fibres in the connective tissue of skin & blood vessels do
not form properly.
 This disease causes bleeding under skin, particularly at joints, bleeding gums & poor healing of
wounds.
 Vitamin C can’t be stored in body therefore, it is important to take it daily.
 The good sources of vitamin C are oranges, lemons, grapefruit, tomatoes, fresh green
vegetables.

5.6 Malnutrition:-
 Malnutrition is defined as insufficient, excessive or imbalanced consumption of nutrients, w/c
leads to health problems.
 The causes of malnutrition can be poverty, famine due to drought/flood, soil erosion, wars, too
little land for too many people, ignorance of proper
nutritional requirements.
 The dual burden of malnutrition consists of both under nutrition & overweight & obesity, as well
as diet-related non communicable diseases.
 Malnutrition causes tissue damage, growth retardation, disorderly differentiation, reduce
developing of children’s brain including negative behavioural issues /c can cause poor
intellectual
capacity, class repetition, reduce productivity.
  Under nutrition most common form of malnutrition is caused by under nutrition of protein &
dietary energy (Carbohydrate, lipids).
 If total intake of food is not sufficient to meet body’s need for energy, it leads to loss of weight,
muscle wastage, weakness and ultimately starvation.
 Extreme reduction of diets, such as carbohydrate
foods can result in d. disease like marasmus.
 The victims of malnutrition due to food deficiencies have reduced resistance to d/t types of
diseases.
 Nutrition addresses the ff 4 broad groups of conditions:
1. Wasting:-is defined as low weight-for-height.
 It often indicates recent & severe weight loss, it can also persist for a long time.
 It usually occurs when a person has not had food of adequate quality & quantity /they have had
frequent/prolonged illnesses.
 Wasting in children is associated with a higher risk of death if not treated properly.
2. Stunting(low height-for-age):- is defined as low height for age.
 It is the result of chronic/recurrent under nutrition, usually associated with poverty, poor
maternal health and nutrition, frequent illness/
inappropriate feeding & care in early life.
 Stunting prevents children from reaching their physical & cognitive potential.
3. Underweight(low weight-for-age) is defined as low weight-for-age.
 Micronutrient deficiencies are a lack of vitamins & minerals that are essential for body functions
such as producing enzymes, hormones & other sbs needed for growth and devnt.
 In contrast, when diet contains too much fat it causes diseases like coronary heart disease.
 If fatty sb builds up in arteries, it reduces diameter of these blood vessels w/c results in blood
clots & leads to heart attack.
4. Obesity: If you eat more food than you want, your body stores extra food as fat.
 Then stored fat results in obesity (overweight).
 People with overweight may use diet contains fattening foods, such as high fat foods & foods
with a lot of sugar.
In order to prevent malnutrition, it is better to
• Consume diverse & nutrient dense food,
• avoid junk foods & sugary foods,
• do regular physical exercise, etc.
 Obesity is caused b/c of an imbalance b/n energy store in human body & energy released.
 An increase in consumption of high-energy foods, without an equal increase in physical activity
leads to an unhealthy increase in weight.
 In other way, decreased levels of physical activity can also result in an energy imbalance & lead
to weight gain.
 People who are overweight & obese are at high risk to have health problems such as, heart
disease, HBP, diabetes & arthritis or (worn joints).
Obesity can be controlled by:-
• Eating less high energy foods (lower energy intake)
• Taking more exercise (increase energy output).
• Eating balanced diet with a lower intake of energy.
5.7. Substance abuse
Drugs:-
 A drug is any sb taken into body that change & affects chemical rxns in body.
  It can be taken legally to reduce a symptom such as a headache or to treat d/t types of infection,
this is called medicinal drugs.
 There are also other drugs w/c could also be one taken illegally in order to provide stimulation
/induce sleep or create hallucinations (recreational drugs).
 Drugs are present in many food products such as: tea, coffee, energy drinks & alcoholic drinks.
 Though they have many useful medicinal properties their stimulant properties can produce
caffeinism, a nasty condition that can readily addict.
Substance abuse:- called drug abuse
 is using legal/illegal drugs in wrong way or in excess amount.
 Some of drugs are medical drugs taken legally to reduce a symptom & pain of diseases.
 These drugs designed to suppress pain, treat & cure diseases.
 In addition to medical sbs, other legal sbs are present in many products such as:
• tea, coffee & ‘energy drinks’ (caffeine)
• tobacco (nicotine)
• alcoholic drinks (alcohol) Although these sbs are legal, they can cause serious effects when taken
excessively or over long periods of time.
 Peoples are using drugs illegally to provide stimulation, induce sleep/create hallucinations
(recreational drugs).
E.g. of such drugs are: alcohol, cocaine, tobacco, Khat, heroin etc.
 Peoples are also using alcohol, nicotine & caffeine for their pleasurable effects, to help them
relax or concentrate.
 Some of commonly practiced drugs in our country include:
1. Cigarettes smoking
-Cigarette is made up of a plant called tobacco (Nicotiana tobacum) w/c originally cultivated & used in
Central America.
-People use cigarette in order to stimulate their body/b/c they are addicted to it.
-Chemical composition of cigarette leads to addiction & problem in human health.
-The main components of cigarette or tobacco are tar, CO & Nicotine.
i. Tar:- is black sticky found in cigarette that collects in lungs when smoke cools.
 The health effect of tar can be chronic bronchitis, lung cancer etc.
Chronic bronchitis
 When people smoke cigarette, the chemical sb called tar accumulates in bronchioles.
 Tar irritates lining of bronchioles & stimulates production of excess mucus.
 The function of cilia in our lung is to remove dust, dirty & excess mucus from lining of lungs.
 However, when cilia damaged by smoking, it will be difficult for cilia to remove excess mucus &
dirt.
 This leads to the collection of dirt, bacteria & viruses that block the bronchioles.
 This stimulates smoker’s to cough w/c is an effort to move mucus, the bronchioles & bronchi
becomes thicker.
 This thickening of bronchioles causes them to narrow & makes it difficult to breathe, this leads
to infections such as pneumonia.
This damage & obstruction of airways is chronic bronchitis.
 In addition, there are d/t chemical cmpds in tar such as carcinogen (produce cancer) cmpds.
 Cancer starts b/c of changes in epithelial cells of lungs that lead to development of a mass of
cells, known as a tumor.
 It is this tumor w/c results in cancer.
Emphysema
 Smokers usually have weakened alveoli wall b/c of above action of tar that result in coughing.
  During coughing, some of weakened alveoli burst.
 Then amount of alveoli decrease as well as absorbing surface of lungs is greatly reduced.
 Then smoker cannot oxygenate his/her blood properly & least exertion makes person
breathless & exhausted.
 Bronchioles collapse during expiration, trapping air in alveoli, w/c often burst. This condition is
called emphysema.
ii. Carbon monoxide
 CO is a poisonous gas found in cigarette.
 During cigarette smoking, CO enters to lung.
 This CO diffuses across walls of alveoli & diffuses into RBC where it combines with hemoglobin
to form CMPD carboxy-hemoglobin.
 The CO combines permanently with hemoglobin. Then no more O2 is carried by hemoglobin that
results in reduction of volume of O2 in blood.
 Therefore, less O2 is supplied to heart.
In this case, heart beat increases to get more O2.
 CO may also damage lining of blood vessels.
 In this case, smokers put health of their cardiovascular system at risk.
 The damaging of walls of arteries may lead to build-up of fatty tissue & reduction of blood flow.
 This may result coronary heart disease (CHD) & stroke.
 These diseases are a major cause of death & disability in the world.
iii. Nicotine
 Nicotine is a cmpd found in cigarette.
 It is a stimulating & relaxing cmpd w/c has a molecular structure that allows it to interact with
our NS.
 In addition to its stimulating effect, nicotine is a cmpd w/c produces addiction.
 When people smoke cigarettes, nicotine from cigarette is absorbed through alveoli to enter the
blood stream.
 Then it is able to go to the brain through blood circulation.
iv. Carcinogenic sb. Is cancer causing sb in cigarette smoke.
 In brain, nicotine activates release of dopamine, natural neurotransmitter sbs associated with
our experience of pleasure.
 Long-term exposure to nicotine eventually comes to have reverse effect, actually depressing the
ability to experience pleasure.
 So more nicotine is needed to ‘satisfy’& cigarettes become addictive.
 Smokers find it increasingly hard to quit the habit.
 Nicotine also increases theart rate & blood pressure.
 It narrows arterioles, w/c increases blood pressure.
 It decreases blood flow, particularly in hands & feet.
 It makes blood clotting more likely.
 It also increases stickiness of blood platelets that promote blood clotting.
2. Drinking Alcohol
 Alcohol is a socially acceptable drug in many countries including Ethiopia.
 In Ethiopia, there are d/t types of alcoholic drinks such as Tella, Arekie (Katicala), Beer, Wine.
 When human body consumes alcohol, it is absorbed through wall of stomach & small intestine &
it is absorbed into the blood.
 Alcohol gets distributed through- out body by help of blood circulation.
 It is absorbed by liver cells & broken down by liver enzymes, Therefore its conc. in the blood
decreases gradually.
  Alcohol is a depressant. It affects brain by slowing down the transmission of nerve impulses.
 Consuming larger quantities of alcohol leads to:
i. Loss of coordination
ii. Loss of self-control.
iii. Loss of judgment & control of movements
iv. Slower reaction times (interval b/n receiving a stimulus & making a response) loss of
judgment & slower rxn times.
Alcohol drink & addiction
 Some people become dependent upon alcohol & they are referred to as alcoholics.
 They feel tense & irritable.
 It is hard to cope with everyday problems without drinking they develop a tolerance as more
enzymes that metabolize alcohol are made in the liver.
 They therefore need to take greater quantities of alcohol to get the same effect.
 Alcoholics can cause their families pain & unhappiness.
 They can become aggressive after drinking & spend a lot of money on drink.
 There are also other social problems such as crime, family disputes, marital breakdown, child
neglect & abuse, absenteeism from work, vandalism, assault & violent crime including murder.
Long-term effects of alcohol
 Drinking large quantities of alcohol over a number of years can lead to stomach ulcers, heart
disease & brain dam- age.
 In addition, large amount of alcohol damage liver tissue & replaced by scar tissue known as
cirrhosis of liver. This condition may leads to death unless the person stops drinking.
3. Heroin
 Heroin is a powerful depressant that slows down NS.
 It has a chemical structure that is similar to endorphins, a group of chemicals that are found in
brain.
 Endorphins are made naturally in brain & provide relief when body experiences pain or stress.
 Endorphins work on synapses in brain & preventing neurons from transmitting impulses from
pain receptors, so they producing pain relief.
 When a person takes heroin, heroin molecules bind to endorphin receptor sites, blocking nerve
transmission.
 This mimics function of natural endorphins. Therefore, by using heroin, feeling of pain
disappears & addiction produced.
 People practice to take heroin to reduce the pain.
 This is how body develops a tolerance to drug, & it has to be taken in ever-greater quantities in
order to feel euphoria or just to reduce pain.
4. Cannabis
 Cannabis is most commonly used illegal drug in world.
 It is drug from Cannabis plant.
 Mostly it is flower of cannabis plant, harvested, dried, & used as drug.
 Some people named this drug as weed, some call it pot, & others call it marijuana.
 This cannabis plant has been used as a drug for both recreational & traditional medicines for a
long period.
 This drug contains a stimulant/psychoactive component called Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC).
 Peoples used this cannabis by smoking, vaporizing, together to food & as extract.
 Cannabis causes: enjoyment, d/t states of mind & sense of time, difficulty concentrating,
reduced short-term memory & body action relaxation & it results in an increase in appetite.
 The effect of cannabis in human body last for 2 to 6 hours, based on quantity of drug used.
  When cannabis is taken at high amount, it causes mental effects like: nervousness, panic, false
beliefs, hallucinations, suspicion, & psychosis.
5. Chewing khat
 Khat (Catha edulis) is bushy plant whose leaves are chewed for its stimulant effect.
 This plant is grown in southern Arabia & Eastern Africa including Ethiopia, Somalia & Kenya.
 Khat is usually supplied as a bundle of leaves & fresh shoots wrapped in false banana leaves.
 Khat contains a chemical cmpd known as cathinone, w/c affects CNS.
 This cathinone can be found only in fresh Khat leaves.
 Chewing khat releases Cathinone into saliva that can be absorbed to the body easily.
 Only fresh leaves are chewed, because cathinone soon degrades into old in dry plant material.
 Although khat can be ingested as an infusion or smoked, the most common route of
administration is to chew the fresh plant.
 The juice of masticated material is swallowed, while residues are spat out.
 In some places, teas from dried leaves are also consumed.
 Although khat can be ingested as an infusion or smoked, the most common route of
administration is to chew the fresh plant.
 The juice of masticated material is swallowed, while the residues are spat out.
 In some places, teas from dried leaves are also consumed
 Ethiopia is one of the country where large number of people with the abit of chewing chat.
 In previous years, it was mainly cultivated in eastern part of the country.
 However, currently, it is grown and consumed in all parts of the country.
 This current increment in khat consumption brings socio-economic, psychological & physical
health consequence on the individuals involved.
 Chewing khat induce a state of joy & feelings of increased alertness & stimulation.
 At end its consequence results in a depressed mood, irritability, loss of appetite, gastritis &
peptic ulcer, disease & difficulty sleeping.
 In addition, habit of chewing khat leads to some social problems like family fragment, multiple
sexual practices & spread of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) due to unprotected sex.
 Early initiation of sexual activity was also reported
among Khat chewers.
6. Doping
 The term “doping” refers to use of prohibited medications, drugs/treatments in competitive
sports.
 It is practiced in athletes with intention of improving athletic performance.
 Performance enhancing drugs (PEDs) is another term used to for drugs used by athletes to
improve their athletic performance.
 The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) uses a battery of blood urine tests to determine if
athletes are cheating.
 A key tool is biological passport program, w/c tests all athletes for doping & performance
enhancing drugs.
Why is doping such a big deal?
 The most important reason doping is a big deal is fact that many of these substances can have
harmful and long-lasting side effects.
W/c may include :
 Cardiovascular: irregular heart rhythm, elevated blood pressure, heart attack, sudden death.
 CNS: insomnia, anxiousness, depression, aggressive behavior, suicide, headache, addiction
with withdrawal, psychosis, tremor, dizziness, stroke.
 Respiratory: nose bleeds, sinusitis
  Hormonal: infertility, gynecomastia (enlarged breasts), decreased testicular size, low sex drive,
acromegaly (coarse bones in face, hands & feet), cancer.
 2nd issue is more of a moral dilemma.
 These banned sbs are used to gain an unfair advantage which significantly diminishes the spirit
of competition.
 World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), has a program w/c has a purpose, to protect athletes’
fundamental right to participate in doping-free sport & thus promote health, fairness & equality
for athletes worldwide.
What sbs are banned from use?
 Some drugs are banned both in & out of competition due to their performance enhancing
properties, while others are only banned during competition.
 Another reason for banning a drug is due to their ability to mask the presence of a d/t banned
drug during testing.
 In general, the following classes of drugs are banned: Street drugs, stimulants, anabolic steroids,
peptide hormones (i.e. human growth hormone [hGH]), alcohol and beta blockers (for archery
and rifle shooting only), diuretics, beta-2 agonists, anti-estrogens, blood doping,& gene
manipulation.
 Prohibited list: some drugs are listed on Prohibited list w/c is document identifying sbs &
methods that are prohibited in competition, out of competition, & in particular sports.
 The criteria for adding a sb to prohibited list are:- Must meet any 2 of the ff 3 criteria:
1. It has potential to enhance/enhances sport performance;
2. It represents an actual/potential health risk to athlete;
3. It violates Spirit of Sport.
4. Sbs & methods prohibited at all times: all prohibited substances in this class are non-specified
sbs anabolic agents are prohibited, ptide hormones, growth factors, related sbs, & mimetics,
growth factors & growth factor modulators, beta-2 agonists, hormone & metabolic modulators,
diuretics & gene doping, masking agents, blood doping, Sbs & methods prohibited in
competition:
5. Stimulants, narcotics, cannabinoids, glucocorticoids.
6. Prohibited in particular sports: - Beta-blockers
7. For athletes who need a banned drug for legitimate medical reasons, anti-doping programs offer
a way to request a therapeutic use of exemption (TUE) so athlete can use drug.
8. Athlete must have a physician complete a TUE form that states athlete needs drug to treat their
medical condition & that an alternative non-banned drug is not available or insufficiently treats
their condition.
9. The TUE is reviewed by a medical committee, w/c either allows athlete to take drug/denies
athlete’s request.
Doping Consequences
1. Physical and Mental Health: - Physical health: depending on sbs dosage, & consumption
frequency, doping products may have particularly negative side effects on health.
Some damages to body are irreversible & may lead athlete’s life to be in great danger.
The ff section will outline possible health consequences & sports benefits to using certain groups of
doping sbs.
Steroids: General side effects:
• Increased risk of liver disease
• Increased risk of cardiovascular disease
• High blood pressure
• Acne
• Baldness
In Males:
 Shrinking testicles, sexual side effects (reduced sperm production, impotence, libido disorders)
Breast growth
In Females:
Deepening of voice Excessive hair growth on face & body abnormal menstrual cycles Enlarged clitoris
Erythropoietin (EPO) Increased blood viscosity (thickness/stickiness)
• Pulmonary embolism
• Increased risk of heart attack and stroke
• General weakness
• High blood pressure Human Growth Hormone
• Severe headaches &Loss of vision
• High blood pressure and heart failure
• Diabetes & tumors & Crippling arthritis
• Irreversible acromegaly
• Liver and thyroid damage
• Enlargement of the hands & feet
• Protruding forehead, brow, skull & jaw
• Heart enlargement
• Water retention
2. Psychological health- Some doping sbs may not be detrimental to body but exercise an impact on
mental health.
It has been scientifically evidenced that anxiety, obsessive disorders/psychosis are direct consequences
of doping.
• Psychological dependence
• Increased aggression
• Mood swings
3. Social consequences-
 The existence of athlete who was held guilty of doping may be completely disrupted.
 Indeed, doping may represent a danger to health, but it may also be prejudicial to fame, respect
& creditworthiness.
 Even in the future negative findings are regularly questioned by media & entourage.
 The poor image will remain in collective unconscious & athlete could remain isolated.
4. Financial consequences:-
 As regards high-performance sports, an infringement of anti-doping rules often leads to a loss
of income, the reimbursement of prize money, & of sponsorship money.
 An athlete suspended for several years, or even life-banned, cannot earn his/her living as usual
& can be forced countries loss foreign treasures from athletes even banned countries from any
sport competition in the world.
5. Sporting consequences: -
 A doping violation may mean loss of results, rankings, medals, & qualification places at events.
 It could also have an impact on members of a team causing medals to be lost a day-to-day basis.
6. Legal consequences:-
 Doping may have major legal consequences.
 A doped athlete may be suspended, i.e., he/she may not take part in a sports competition on or
in organized training sessions.
 Problems of using drugs Peoples start using sbs b/c of d/t reasons.
  Some people taking sbs for stimulation, some for recreational value, & others use it b/c of
pressure from other people.
 Whatever reason, effect is almost similar among all the users.
 When sb users 1st start taking a sb, users may think they can control how much they use.
 However, when time passes, they may want more of drug to get same feeling effect.
 Over time some people can reaches beyond abuse to addiction.
 Addiction can produce health, social, economic & cultural problems.
 -Some of the problems that drug users faced are:
 » Eat more or less than normal
 » Change their friends a lot
 » Stop taking care of themselves
 » Sleep at unusual hours
 » Lack concern in things they used to love
 » Have problems at work or with family
 » Spend more time alone than they used to
 » Switch quickly from feeling good to bad
 » Financial problems – stealing, loss of job
 » Strong desire to use the substance
 » difficulty to keep a job,
» family breakdown & homelessness, tendency to avoid friends & families,
» Preferring company of other addicts, & so they become isolated from the society.
How people recover from drug addiction?
Addictions are treatable. With right plan & resources, recovery is possible.
 The ff are important steps in recovering. Anyone who is addicted for any drug should admit to
his friends, & to himself, that he has a problem.
• Find support from others; Rewrite daily routine, Enjoy small successes.
• Recognize & avoid relapse.
• Reach freedom, & stay there
INFECTIOUS AND NONINFECTIOUS DISEASES
 Infectious diseases are diseases that are caused by disease causing organisms.
 These types of diseases can be transmitted from person to person such as HIV-AIDS, TB, malaria
etc.
 Disease causing organisms are organisms, w/c cause diseases.
 E.g. of disease causing organisms are bacteria, virus, protozoa, parasitic worms & fungi.
 There are d/t types of infectious diseases that caused by d/t disease causing organisms.
 Their d/c is based on:
• the type of host that they infect, some infect human, some infect only plant etc.
• their mode of transmission, some are transmit by insects, some by contaminated water/food etc. •
type of disease causing organisms, some are caused by viruses, some by bacteria etc.
• the severity of disease, such as common cold, measles & influenza, only affect us for a short period of
time.
Others, such as TB, human immune deficiency virus (HIV) infection may last a much longer time.
Transmission of infectious diseases
 understanding of biology of pathogen & its mode of transmission is essential to control &
prevent disease.
 D/t infectious diseases have d/t mode of transmission.
• Some infectious diseases are transmitted from one person to another by direct contact with a patient.
• Other infectious diseases are transmit by drinking contaminated H2O/by eating contaminated food,
(food/H2O contains disease-causing organisms like bacteria & virus). This is b/c infectious organisms can
survive in H2O, human food, faeces
• Some infectious diseases are transmitted by insect bite.
 Some infectious diseases are transmitted by sexual inter-course etc.
 Preventing infections & control methods of infectious diseases Control is an attempt to break
transmission cycles by removing conditions that favor spread of disease causing organisms.
1. Vaccination: is a major control measure for many infectious diseases; it works by making body to
defend against disease causing organisms.
2. Personal hygiene; people of all ages should wash their hands after using toilet & before handling or
eating food; this protects entrance of disease causing organisms into our body.
3. Hygienic food preparation: food should be covered to keep flies away, kitchen surfaces should be
cleaned to kill bacteria, & food should be cooked exhaustively to make sure any bacteria are killed.
4. Boiling cooking &/or drinking water to kill pathogens
5. Proper waste disposal: household waste should be put
6. into covered bins and collected at regular intervals.
7. Sewage treatment: toilet waste is a serious health threat if it is not disposed properly.
-H2O pipe should be arranged far from toilet drainage. For example, disease causing organism that
cause giardia & cholera are transmitted through contamination of drinking water by faeces & sewage.
 Water pipe should be arranged far from toilet drainage.
 E.g. disease causing organism that cause giardia & cholera are transmitted through
contamination of drinking H2O by faeces & sewage.
 Human immune deficiency virus infection/ acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV- AIDS)
Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome is caused by HIV
 HIV infection rates are especially high in sub-Saharan Africa including Ethiopia.
 Peoples who have HIV in their body are called HIV-positive or HIV carriers.
 Usually, these HIV positive people do not show any symptom of disease for several years after
infection.
 Infection of HIV starts when virus infects & enters to T-lymphocytes.
 These are cells that defend our body from diseases.
 HIV replicates & survives in human T-lymphocyte cells.
 During its replication HIV, destroys these T-lymphocytes cells.
 As a result number of T-lymphocytes gradually decrease w/c leads to declining of disease
resistant mechanism of the body.
 When body reduced in its disease resistant mechanism, it causes AIDS.
 AIDS is result of opportunistic diseases like Pneumonia, TB, cancers; weight loss, di-
Transmission of HIV- AIDS.
 HIV can be passed from one person to another by direct exchange of body fluids such as:
• Fluid transfer from one person to another during sexual intercourse (semen)
• Blood transfusion from one person to another, during blood donation
• Sharing needles in intravenous drug users
• Mother to fetus across placenta, more often, through mixing of blood during birth.
• Mother to infant in breast milk etc.
Prevention & control of HIV-AIDS
 There are no cure drug for HIV-AIDS & no vaccine for HIV, therefore it is very important to
prevent this disease by the ff methods.
• All blood should be tested before transfusions in activity of blood donation.
• Needles used by intravenous should be sterile and used only once.
• People should avoid multiple sexual activities
• Using condoms, if condom is properly used, it can prevent virus transmission from carrier to healthy
per-son.
• HIV-positive mother should be treated with appropriate retroviral drugs.
 These retro-viral drugs can also significantly increase length of time b/n a person be-coming
infected with HIV & developing symptoms of AIDS and can significantly prolong life.
 Tuberculosis is another e.g. of infectious disease caused by the bacterium called Mycobacterium
TB & rarely by Mycobacterium bovis.
 These bacteria live inside human cells, mainly in lungs.
 TB has many symptoms like cough, chest pain, shortness of breath, fever, sweating, weight loss
etc.
 After infection, some people develop TB quite quickly, while in others the bacteria remain
inactive for many years.
 This d/c is b/c of d/c in disease resistance ability between peoples.
TB transmission
 TB bacteria can enter lungs in airborne droplets.
 It spread when infected people with active form of the illness cough or sneeze.
 The bacteria are carried in air in tiny droplets of liquid.
 Transmission occurs when people who are uninfected inhale (breath in) the droplets.
 These happen rapidly in places where many people are living in crowded conditions such as very
crowded public transportation.
 The other transmission way is by consuming undercooked meat & unpasteurized milk.
 This type of transmission mainly occurs for TB transmits from infected animals.
Prevention & control of TB
 There are drugs & vaccines that are important to treat & prevent this disease Treatment of TB:
 A person, who shows symptoms relating to TB, should his/her sputum sample tested for
presence of TB bacteria.
 If a person is positive for TB, then patients should be isolated while they are in the most
infectious stage (which is at two to four weeks).
 The treatment involves using several drugs to ensure that all bacteria are killed. The treatment
also need about 6-9 months. If the bacteria not killed by treatment, it may be b/c of drug
resistance TB.
Vaccine:
 The only vaccine available for TB is BCG vaccine, w/c is derived from animal TB bacteria &
protects up to 70–80%of people who receive it.
 This vaccine is given during early child/infant stage.
 Effectiveness of vaccine decreases with in old age.
 TB is relating to reduced immunity of body, increasing standards of people who are living with
HIV & treating HIV infected people help to reduce incidence of TB.
Avoid overcrowding:-
 TB is a disease transmitted by inhales bacteria when infected person cough & sneeze therefore,
good ventilation is important to prevent this disease.
 Avoid eating undercooked meat & avoid drinking unpasteurized or not boiled milk.
 This is important to prevent TB transmission from animal to human.
Malaria
 Malaria is caused by protozoa known as plasmodium Protozoa.
 Malaria is found in many parts of world where Anopheles mosquito species that can act as
vectors are found.
  It is very common in tropical & subtropical regions where humidity is high, a comfortable
envn’t for mosquito breeding.
 Female Anopheles mosquitoes feed on human blood to obtain protein they need to develop
their eggs.
 If person they bite is infected with Plasmodium, they will take up some of plasmodium together
blood meal.
 When mosquito feeds again another healthy person, she injects plasmodium with her saliva.
 Then parasites enter RBC, where they multiply.
The life cycle of Plasmodium
 Plasmodium has 2 hosts w/c are human(20 ) & mosquito-10
 The repn of plasmodium taken place in both hosts, sexual repn in mosquito & asexual
reproduction in human Prevention & control of malaria.

 There are 3 main ways to control malaria:

 Reducing the population of mosquitoes.
 This can be done by removing sources of water in w/c they can breed. Sometimes, it is possible
to use Biological controls like fish w/c feeds on larva of mosquito.
 In addition using insecticide to kill mosquito is another way to reduce number of mosquito.
 Avoiding mosquitoes bite: This can be done by sleeping under a mosquito net, or using insect
repellant.
 Using anti-malarial drugs such as quinine & chloroquine to treat infected people.
 However, in many parts of world Plasmodium has evolved resistance to some of these drugs.
 Chloroquine resistance is widespread in parts of S.A. , Africa; newer drugs such as mefloquine
are used in these areas.
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)
  Corona virus large family of viruses belongs to family coronaviridae w/c cause diseases in
mammals & birds. This virus has extracellular covering structure called lipid envelop. The virus
also has club shaped spikes proteins on outer surface of the virus.
 The viral envelope is made up of a lipid bilayer membrane (M), envelope (E) & spike proteins(S).
 The E & M protein are the structural proteins that combined with lipid bilayer to shape the viral
envelope and maintain its size. S proteins are needed for interaction with host cells.
 While SARS had occurred in 2003 in China, MERS occurred in Middle East countries in 2012.
 COVID-19 virus (previously called novel coronavirus) is a new strain of a coronavirus that 1 st
emerged in China in December1, 2019.
 The 1st case of pneumonia outbreak was reported in Wuhan, China.
 On 31 December 2019, the outbreak was traced to a novel strain of coronavirus that was given
name SARS-COV-2 by international committee on Taxonomy of Viruses.
 SARS-CoV-2 may have originated in an animal & changed (mutated) so it could cause illness in
humans.
 In March 2020, WHO declared COVID-19 as a pandemic.
 The disease caused by SARS-COV-2 known as coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19).
 Most people infected with COVID-19 experience mild to moderate respiratory illness & recover
without requiring special treatment.
 Older people & those with underlying medical problems like cardiovascular disease, diabetes,
chronic respiratory disease, & cancer are more likely to develop serious illness.
How does coronavirus spread?
 COVID-19 virus spreads primarily through droplets & virus particles released into air when an
infected person breathes, talks, laughs, sings coughs/sneezes.
 When many people are gathered & if there is poor ventilation, these droplets can be inhaled or
land in mouth, nose/eyes of a person close.
 It can also spread, if a person touches a surface with virus on it & then touches his/her mouth,
nose or eyes.
What are the symptoms of COVID-19?
 COVID-19 symptoms can be very mild to severe.
 Even some people have no symptoms.
 The most common symptoms are fever, cough, & tiredness, shortness of breath, muscle aches,
chills, sore throat, headache, chest pain,& loss of taste or smell. This list is not all inclusive.
 These symptoms may appear two to fourteen days after exposure.
How is COVID-19 diagnosed?
 COVID-19 is diagnosed/tested by taking fluid sample from nose or mouth & testing it through a
laboratory test. Laboratory testing is important b/c some people with coronavirus do not have
symptoms at all
 Prevention & control of COVID-19
Prevention & control of COVID-19
 There are many steps you can take to prevent yourselves from getting COVID-19 virus &
spreading it to others.
 Follow important precautions or instructions.
 keep at least 6 feet (2 meters) of distance b/n yourself & people outside your household.
 avoid crowds & indoor places that have poor ventilation
 wash your hands often with soap & H2O for at least 20 sec, or use an alcohol based hand
sanitizer that contains at least 60% alcohol.
 wear a mask in public places, especially when social distancing is difficult.
 cover your mouth & nose with your elbow or a tissue when you cough or sneeze.
  Throw away used tissue.
 Wash your hands right away.
 avoid touching your eyes, nose & mouth
 clean & disinfect surfaces you often touch on a daily basis.
Vaccine:
 currently there are d/t type’s vaccines produced by different countries. Examples of these
vaccines are AstraZeneca’s AZD1222 BioNTech’s BNT162 etc.
 Currently, large number of people in d/t country including Ethiopia receives these vaccines.
 If you are suspect COVID-19 or if you are ill withCOVID-19 takes the following precautions to
avoid spreading COVID-19 virus:
 stay home from school & public areas, except to get medical care.
 avoid public transportation, taxis & ride-sharing if possible.
 wear a face mask around other people.
 isolate yourself as much as possible from others in your home.
 use a separate bedroom & bathroom if possible.
 avoid sharing dishes, glasses, bedding & other household items.
2 Non-infectious diseases
 These are disease caused by malnutrition, chemical effect, inherited or genetic factor etc. These
diseases are not caused by disease causing organisms.
 Some of non-infectious diseases that you have learnt previously in this chapter are:
 Diseases caused by malnutrition like Kwashiorkor, Scurvy, night blindness marasmus etc.,
 Disease caused by cigarette smoke like lung cancer, Chronic bronchitis etc.
 In addition there are other examples of sickle cell anemia, cancer, allergies, kwashiorkor,
marasmus, diabetes, Podoconiosis, etc.