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INTERNET OF THINGS
ISSN 2191-8015
In this seminar, various aspects of the Internet of Things were investigated. In the technological domain, the underlying
communication technologies and hardware was discussed and an overview of interaction techniques with intelligent
objects was gained. Furthermore, an overview of application domains was given and, based on selected examples,
deeper investigated, such as the Internet of Vehicles. Last but not least, also economical implications and potential
business models were investigated.
Each of the single chapters addresses a specific topic and presents fundamental research trends and developments. This
report is targeted at electrical engineers, computer scientists and anyone interested in technology and realization of
mobile services and corresponding new ways of interaction.
The seminar has been organized by the Institute for Media Technology and the Distributed Multimodal Information
Processing Group at Technische Universität München.
The website with the electronic version of the proceedings and additional material and resources can be found at
https://www.vmi.ei.tum.de/lehrveranstaltungen/hauptseminar-medientechnik.html
We thank all students for the great work and their participation!
Internet of Energy
Raphael Mendes de Andrade
ga46bih@mytum.de
January 15, 2013
Abstract
Over the last centuries we have seen a lot of new developments on the internet technologies transforming the energy
area through the Information and Communication technologies (ICT), especially via the usage of networked embedded
devices. The Internet of Energy can be described on its several kind of uses and impacts, explained here through the
examples on the Smart Grid, Smart houses, Cooperation Objects and others implementations achievable with the
development of new technologies concerning energy use, generation, distribution and transmission optimization.
1
Advances in Media Technology Internet of Energy
• Information Technology
• Electrical vehicles
• Smart meters
Beyond that, the share of decentralized power generation - by industrial or private producers - will increase and have a
dominating effect on existing infrastructure, technologies and business practices as we can se on the Fig.1.
According to official documents for the U.S. Department of Energy, the ultimate success of the Smart Grid depends
on the effectiveness of these devices in attracting and motivating large numbers of consumers. An intelligent or a
smart grid integrates advanced sensing technologies, control methods and integrated communications into the current
electricity grid, allowing the seamless integration of renewable sources like wind and solar, starting a new era of
consumer choice. Explore the use of green building standards to help lighting the load, make large scales energy
storage reality, enable nationwide use of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, use of solar energy 24 hours a day are some
of the others expected goals. 5
1 Electric
Power Research Institutehttp://smartgrid.epri.com/
2 U.S. Department of Energy http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/oeprod/DocumentsandMedia/DOE_SG_Book_
Single_Pages(1).pdf
3 Also called Synchrophasors - are precise grid measurements of electrical waves to determine the health of the electricity distribution system.
http://www.arbiter.com/solutions/phasor-measurement-unit-(pmu)-solutions.php
4 Use of solid state devices to control bulk power flow in transmission systems, improving transmission capability; increasing the flexibility of
2 Applications
2.1 Cooperation Objects
In order to achieve a more integrated grid towards more complete IoE systems, it is necessary a lot of communication
and cooperation among the devices and systems involved. For these goals developments on the so called Cooperating
Objects will increase the interaction with networked embedded systems that will be realizing its sensing and actuation
functionality.
The domain of Cooperating Objects takes action between (networked) embedded systems, ubiquitous computing and
(wireless) sensor networks. According to the European Commission co-funded project CONET (www.cooperating-
objects.eu):"Cooperating Objects consist of embedded computing devices equipped with communication as well as
sensing or actuation capabilities that are able to cooperate and organize themselves autonomously into networks to
achieve a common task". 6
In the context of IoE, many entities can be considered as Cooperating Objects. Typical examples are advanced smart
meters, smart white label appliances, electric cars, various consumption/production devices, etc. Most of them are ca-
pable of providing their functionality (e.g. energy consumption, status, management, etc.) as a service alone or as part
of more complex system. So as in any other electronic devices, some of them are limited by its resources. Sometimes
there are external collaboration, and it uses the logic to understand semantics and build complex functional behaviors.
It is also important avoid the security problems, incomplete information flow, slow responses and others difficulties
that may emerge with the use of numerous protocols and even different technologies at hardware and communication
layer since more gateways and (service) mediators IP-based will be used as Internet standards.
One of the opportunities created through the use of these devices is the price signals for example. If one energy
provider (the monitoring or collaborator) with an on-line service shows that there are good opportunities for energy
use or economization, the whole device can react generating commands and solutions in order to optimize the energy
consumption. In this case both (the consumer and provider) involved have benefits.
Another important characteristic that can be evaluated on devices such as the smart meters are the fine measurements.
For example during the discrete productions steps, during any logistic operations, during transportation etc., new dy-
namic energy-related information can be made available. Using these data we will be able to describe the whole
6 The cooperative Internet of Things enabled Smart Grid, Stamatis Karnouskos SAP Research (www.sap.com) Vincenz-Priessnitz-Strasse 1,D-
76131,Karlsruhe,Germany
lifecycle of a product evidencing its energy consumption. This way the customers will get a fair view of the energy
impact it carries on. With enough information, reliable energy labels could contain precise numbers of the correct func-
tions preventing that any significant deviation from the operational energy consumption may imply a malfunctioning
device.
There are also side-effects of the use of these devices such as the unnecessary network utilization, therefore investments
and researches are being made towards a model, where the necessary entities can subscribe and get only the interesting
events for them exactly when it is needed. Notice that it is also important to guarantee that fine monitoring can be done
and that the quality of monitoring services can be achieved. Once this data is evaluated either locally, on the network
or on business systems, the actions on the enterprise level will be needed in order to close the loop of optimization.
3 Impacts
With some IoE solutions mainly on Smart Grids appliance we expect to solve problems such as poor reliability, inte-
grating large scale generation and distributed generation (mainly renewable resources-based). It would also be easier to
use integrated monitoring solutions and reduce grid losses by optimizing asset usage. Using the smart grid as we mean
it would be accomplished the self-monitoring equipment remotely through Synchronized Measurement Technologies
( for example PMUs) in a wide area using Wide Area Monitoring Protection and Control (WAMPAC 10 ) . We could
also get adaptive protection with Pervasive control system in order to achieve automated restoration, "self-healing".
We also see on the distribution and transmissions systems, main pain points such as:
com/media/7403/ctv046_heating_ventilation_and_air_conditioning.pdf
9 Helps monitoring the energy usage and advise on how to reduce both energy wastage and money on energy bills. http://www.
theecoexperts.co.uk/home-energy-management-systems-a-comprehensive-guide
10 Wide area control addresses automatic healing capabilities to some extent by proposing smart topology changes and control actions. http:
//pscc.ee.ethz.ch/uploads/tx_ethpublications/fp102.pdf
Beyond all of these advantages it is clearly that the smart grid solutions would bring benefits for regulators with
improvement of quality, balanced prices and reduction of CO2 emissions. For the GT&D11 companies there will be
increasing earnings and for the consumers, the lower prices.
11 Generation, Transmission and Distribution
3.1 Security
Smart grids give clear advantages and benefits to the whole society, but their dependency on computer networks and
applications, as well as on the Internet, make it more vulnerable to malicious cyber attacks with potentially devastating
results. There are some critical points that need to be empowered:
• Device hardware should not be upgraded often since it makes it more vulnerable during the changes.
Through Public-Private partnerships, knowledge sharing initiatives research collaboration or creation of standards, all
of the companies and enterprises involved on the implementation of smart grids should work together in order to
achieve a more secure network capable of supporting the goals expected. Today there are some opportunities making
use of vulnerabilities of communication networks for financial or political motivation to shut off power to large areas or
directing cyber-attacks against power generation plants. Beyond these examples, there are a lot of emerging difficulties
creating more potential vulnerabilities and weaknesses that must be further analyzed. Besides, there are also well
understood problems that need complex solutions such as the case of security issues concerning the data protection
of end-consumers information. Hopefully there are some initiatives like Critical Infrastructure Protection (CIP12 )
and Critical Information Infrastructure Protection (CIIP13 ) in Europe that related directives and communications have
already established a general regulatory framework for the protection of the critical infrastructures of the power (smart)
grid.
4 Conclusion
On the Internet of Energy field, the Smart Grid can be defined as an upgraded electricity network to which two-way
digital communication between supplier and consumer, intelligent metering and monitoring systems have been added.
We will see impacts on the efficiency since it is estimated that a lot of money will be saved thanks to demand-response
programs that provide measurable, persistent savings with almost no human intervention. These advantages are clear
since its autonomous working can provide faster solutions than human can respond. The grid itself will be capable
of defining systems overloads and rerouting power to prevent or minimize a potential outage and will cooperatively
work aligning the goals of utilities, consumers and regulators. The sensing and measurements technologies will be
12 Improve physical and cybersecurity for the bulk power system of North America as it relates to reliability. http://www.dhs.gov/topic/
critical-infrastructure-protection
13 Aims to strengthen the security and resilience of vital Information and Communication Technology (ICT) infrastructures http://ec.
europa.eu/information_society/policy/nis/strategy/activities/ciip/index_en.htm
improved to support faster and more accurate response such as remote monitoring, time-of-use pricing and demand-side
management. Also the development of the advanced components, will apply the latest research in superconductivity,
storage, power electronics and diagnostics to get better results. The dramatically reduced need to build more power
plants and transmission lines will also help bringing a more reliable grid that anticipates detects and responds to
critical problems in a fast way, reducing wide-area blackouts and loss of productivity. For everyone the affordability
of the changes is one important point since energy prices will rise; but it should be controlled by the development of
the technologies, tools, and techniques that will also provide customers many opportunities for managing their own
electricity consumption and controlling their own bills. It is evident that the creation of new opportunities and markets
by means of its ability to capitalize on plug-and-play innovation will generate large amounts of money that can be used
in favor of the consumer delivering the power quality necessary-free of sags, spikes, disturbances and interruptions.
Talking about security, the Smart Grid will be planned in order to avoid attacks and natural disasters. It will collaborate
with the environmental trends using clean, renewable sources of energy like solar, wind, and geothermal integrated
into the nation’s grid reducing also the carbon footprint. The biggest challenges of the smart grid implementation
are: A common definition of the smart grid concept; Cost reduction and fraud prevention; Cyber-security of the
grid; Guaranteeing privacy of consumers; Consumer acceptance via awareness rising and education and Smart meter
acceptance. In a few years probably most of this advances will become present on society daily life evidencing what
we call Internet of Energy field.
5 References
Stamatis Karnouskos, The cooperative Internet of Things enabled Smart Grid, SAP Research (www.sap.com)
Vincenz-Priessnitz-Strasse 1,D-76131,Karlsruhe,Germany http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/
articleDetails.jsp?arnumber=6246751
Vinícius de Freitas Gomes Nogueira, Geracão Distribuida usando geradores síncronos trifásicos, Orientador:
Prof. Dr. Ernesto Ruppert Filho
Nicola Bui,Angelo P. Castellani and Paolo Casari,Michele Zorzi, The Internet of Energy: A Web-Enabled
Smart Grid System, University of Padova and Patavina Technologies , University of Padova , University of Padova
and Patavina Technologies
Walmir Freitas, Smart Grids: a concept in Evolution. Seminário de redes inteligentes 26 e 27 de abril. Unioeste Parque
Tecnólogico de Itaipu. Foz do Iguaçu-Paraná
Howard T. Liu Manager, Communication Architecture For SmartGrid, SmartGrid Communications Southern
California Edison Feb. 2012
Larry Butts, Modeling the Smart Grid Communications Network DistribuTECH 2012 January 24, 2012, South-
ern Company Vaibhav Parmar, Accenture
Charles Newton, Global Outlook for Smart Grid and Supporting Communications Infrastructure: Trends and
investments 2011-2015 , Newton-Evans Research Company
Asare, P.; Diez, T.; Galli, A.; O’Neill-Carillo, E.; Robertson, J.; and Zhao, R., "An Overview of Flexible AC Trans-
mission Systems" (1994). ECE Technical Reports. Paper 205. http://docs.lib.purdue.edu/ecetr/205
Carbon Trust, Heating ventilating and air conditioning, UK: October 2011. CTV046 http://www.
carbontrust.com/media/7403/ctv046_heating_ventilation_and_air_conditioning.pdf
Rene Avila-Rosales, Jay Giri, Wide-Area Monitoring and Control for Power System Grid Secutrity, AREVA
T&D Inc. Bellevue, WA, USA. Session 9, Paper 3, Page 1 http://pscc.ee.ethz.ch/uploads/tx_
ethpublications/fp102.pdf
European Network and Information Security Agency (ENISA) Smart Grid Security, also Anex I,
II, III, IV and V http://www.enisa.europa.eu/activities/Resilience-and-CIIP/
critical-infrastructure-and-services/smart-grids-and-smart-metering/
smart-grid-security-related-initiatives/view
The Smart Grid: An introduction prepared for the U.S. Department of Energy by Litos Strategic Communica-
tion under contract No. DE-AC26-04NT41817, Subtask 560.01.04 http://energy.gov/oe/downloads/
smart-grid-introduction-0
The European Strategic Energy technology plan SET-Plan towards a low-carbon future by European Comission
http://ec.europa.eu/energy/technology/set_plan/set_plan_en.htm.
Abstract
Internet of Things (IoT) developed very rapidly in recent years. Object identification techniques is an important part
to build IoT systems. This paper provides a overview of some typical object identification methods and compares
these object identification techniques. To highlight the radio frequency identification (RFID) technique, the principle
of RFID is explained; the application of RFID in building a IoT system is briefly introduced; in consideration of a
problem with multiple objects identification with RFID tags, the anti-collision methods for RFID IoT system is simply
discussed.
1 Introduction
The Internet of Things has become a hot topic in recent years. It is based on the Internet, using a lot of advanced tech-
niques such as object identification techniques, wireless data communication techniques, following a certain protocol,
to let different items connect with the Internet, in order to "talk" to each other and to exchange information. Through
the Internet of things, we can realize an intelligent network of identification, locating, tracking, monitoring and man-
agement, and enable a more fine and dynamic way of living and production management. Through the implementation
of the interaction between the physical world and the virtual world, new applications and services will be enabled.
From the application aspects, the construction of the IoT can be divided into three layers: First, the data acquisition
at the front end; second, the data transmission within the network; third, data processing at the back end. With
identification techniques and sensor technology, the front end can perceive and capture information data, which can
describe and representative objects, at any time and anywhere. For instance, a visual sensor (e.g. camera) can capture
images of objects, and with vision-based object recognition technique (such as local invariant feature-based methods,
which are introduced in [1] in detail), the objects can be identified. The transmission part realizes the connection among
objects, using different kinds of communication networks. The back end processing part could be a concentrated large
data service, but also distributed cloud computing. There is a big mass of data and information to analyze and process,
which have a high requirement to hardware and software. The most important task at the front end of the IoT system
is the data acquisition which is realized by sensors and identification techniques.
There are many basic methods for object identification. In this paper there will be a few object identification meth-
ods briefly introduced in the second section, which contains different basic principles and technologies of identification.
It includes the bar code technique, vision-based techniques and RFID. Then a comparison of these techniques will be
presented. After that follows the detailed technique analysis of RFID, since it has been the most popular method for
application in IoT. In consideration of a problem with multiple objects identification with RFID tags, there will be the
section of anti-collision methods by RFID IoT systems.
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Advances in Media Technology Object Identification Techniques and the Application in IoT
10 Chunlai Wang
Object Identification Techniques and the Application in IoT Advances in Media Technology
In general, one distinguishes between two different strategies, namely local and global approaches. Local ap-
proaches search for salient regions characterized by e.g. corners, edges, or entropy. In a deeper degree, these regions
are characterized by a proper descriptor. For object recognition purposes, the through this strategy obtained local rep-
resentations of test images will be compared to the representations of previously learned training images, namely the
matching process. In contrast to that, global approaches model the information of a whole image. The reference [1]
details the many widely used feature detectors and descriptors. Among them, Lowe presented scale-invariant feature
transform (SIFT) for extracting distinctive invariant features from images that can be invariant to image scale and ro-
tation. [4] Then it was widely used in recognition. Bay and Tuytelaars (2006) speeded up robust features and used
integral images for image convolutions and fast-hessian detector. [5] Their experiments turned out that the speeded up
robust feature (SURF) was faster and it works well.
There are also many other feature detection methods, e.g. the edge detection, corner detection and etc. Different
method has its own advantages and disadvantages. Juan, L. and Gwun, O. implement several experiments, which focus
on three robust feature detection methods: the SIFT, the SURF, and the Principal Component Analysis (PCA) SIFT.
[6] They apply the three methods in recognition and compare the recognition results. It indicates that the SIFT presents
its stability in most situations although it is slow. SURF is the fastest one with good performance as the same as SIFT.
PCA-SIFT is not so fast but shows its advantages in rotation and illumination changes. As a conclusion, they argue
that choose a suitable algorithm and giving improvement according to the application is very important by using the
vision-based recognition to identify object.
1. Reader
With three important components, the reader is the most complicated but also most significant part. On the one
side, it can connect to the server computer with a normal WLAN interface, or with a RS232 serial port and USB
interface. On the other side, it can communicate with the tags through the antenna. [9]
2. Antenna The antenna is linked together with the reader, and used to transfer radio frequency signal between
reader and tag. Reader can be connected to one or more of the antenna, but normally only one antenna will be
activated every time. The working frequency of RFID system is very wide, from low frequency to microwave,
which makes matching between the antenna and the chips of tags very complicated. [10]
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Advances in Media Technology Object Identification Techniques and the Application in IoT
Figure 2: The system structure. The reader, the antennas and tags are the main components of every RFID system.
Source: http://rfid-handbook.de/about-rfid.html
3. Tag
The tag consists of a coupling element, a chip and a mini antenna. Each tag stores a unique electrical code,
which attached to object and used to identify the object. When the tag is within the scanning field, it receives
the RF signal from the reader. After that, a passive tag could send out the electrical code in the chip, since it has
obtained energy thanks to the induction current. In contrast, an active tag will send the electrical code actively.
[11]
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Object Identification Techniques and the Application in IoT Advances in Media Technology
Figure 3: Different coupling methods. Left: inductance coupling; right: backscatter coupling. Source: http://
www.cisco.com/en/US/docs/solutions/Enterprise/Mobility/wifich6.html
Chunlai Wang 13
Advances in Media Technology Object Identification Techniques and the Application in IoT
events must be personalized. Nevertheless, they state that the RFID-based personal objects tracking are feasible and
have given us a good practice model of building IoT with RFID.
3.5 Anti-collision
The main application of passive RFID systems so far is the identification of objects where items are presented to the
antenna one at a time, or where the identification of a single tag (out of many tags attached to the same object) is
sufficient to identify an item. A different problem is the identification of multiple tags where each tag determines the
identity of one object. In this case, it is not sufficient to identify a small subset of tags, but all tags should be identified
robustly. As examples, consider a warehouse or a supermarket checkout. Hence, we need to research the applicability
of passive RFID systems to the simultaneous identification of multiple objects. Advanced RFID systems support this
capability by providing anti-collision techniques that address the problem of tag messages cancelling each other out.
[14]
The existing anti-collision schemes can be classified into two big categories: Tree-based schemes and Aloha-based
schemes. Typical Tree-based schemes include memory-less algorithms, such as Query-Tree scheme [15] and also
algorithms with memory. Typical Aloha-based schemes include Bit Slot scheme [16], Grouping scheme, and ID Slot
scheme. In this paper, we focus on the anti-collision issue which is specified for passive RFID system. In this case, we
only take "Slotted Aloha" schemes as an example to discuss.
In a slotted aloha algorithm, time is divided into equal size of slots. Each slot is equal to the transmission time of
every data packet in tags. When the reader broadcasts a request, each tag in the field receives the request and choose a
random slot beginning to send its data packet. Once a tag has successfully sent its message, it will not resend it, and the
other tags are woken up one after another. If two or more different tags choose the same slot for sending their answer,
a collision occurs and all data is lost. See Fig. 5, nodes 1, 2 and 3 are three tags on different objects, which collide
in the first slot. Node 2 finally succeeds in the fourth slot, node 1 in the eighth slot, and node 3 in the ninth slot. The
notation C, E and S represent "collision slot", "empty slot" and "successful slot", respectively.
Framed slotted aloha is a modified method of slotted aloha. It suppose to divide the time into several frames, each
with a same quantity of slots. Whenever a collision has occurred, another frame of slots is provided, and hopefully the
tags will choose different slots this time, such that no collision occurs.
Since each tag choose slot randomly and independently, collision happens inevitablely. However, we can minimize
collision rate and improve the identification efficiency. It is proved that if the frame size is equal to the number of
tags in the read area, the system efficiency will reach the maximum value [17]. So the problem of anti-collision is
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Object Identification Techniques and the Application in IoT Advances in Media Technology
transformed into the problem of estimating the number of tags in the electromagnetic area. Nowadays, most anti-
collision algorithms are designed to resolve this problem, so that the RFID technique can keeps in development.
4 Summary
The whole paper begins with a brief introduction of IoT, leads to the key technology in the realization of IoT - ob-
ject identification. It gives a overview of different object identification techniques, such as bar code, visual code,
vision-based recognition and RFID technique. After the comparison of both advantages and disadvantages of different
techniques, the paper focuses on the RFID and gives a detailed discuss of this technique, include the analysis of the
communication principle between tags and antennas, the anti-collision algorithm. For instance, an example of building
IoT with passive RFID has been introduced.
Since the it own the advantages of long transmission distance, low error rate, quick and convenient and so on, the
RFID has a very application in many situation especially for object identification in IoT. Meanwhile, it put forward a
challenge because of the problem of privacy and system security when employing the RFID for IoT.
References
[1] Tuytelaars, T., Mikolajczyk, K.: Local invariant feature detectors: a survey. Foundations and Trends R in
Computer Graphics and Vision 3(3) (2008) 177–280 1, 2.2
[2] Medioni, G., Kang, S.: Emerging topics in computer vision. Prentice Hall PTR (2004) 2.2
[3] Rubin, C.: Artificial intelligence and human nature. The New Atlantis 1 (2003) 88–100 2.2
[4] Lowe, D.: Object recognition from local scale-invariant features. In: Computer Vision, 1999. The Proceedings
of the Seventh IEEE International Conference on. Volume 2., Ieee (1999) 1150–1157 2.2
[5] Bay, H., Tuytelaars, T., Van Gool, L.: Surf: Speeded up robust features. Computer Vision–ECCV 2006 (2006)
404–417 2.2
[6] Juan, L., Gwun, O.: A comparison of sift, pca-sift and surf. International Journal of Image Processing (IJIP) 3(4)
(2009) 143–152 2.2
[7] Möller, A., Diewald, S., Roalter, L., Kranz, M.: MobiMed: Comparing Object Identification Techniques on
Smartphones. In: Proceedings of the 7th Nordic Conference on Human-Computer Interaction (NordiCHI 2012),
Copenhagen, Denmark, ACM (October 2012) 31–40 2.3
[8] Want, R., Fishkin, K., Gujar, A., Harrison, B.: Bridging physical and virtual worlds with electronic tags. In:
Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems: Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on Human factors
in computing systems: the CHI is the limit. Volume 15. (1999) 370–377 2.3
[9] Ahson, S., Ilyas, M.: RFID handbook: applications, technology, security, and privacy. CRC (2008) 1
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[10] Ranasinghe, D., Cole, P.: Far-field tag antenna design methodology. Technology, Security, and Privacy/Syed
Ahson and Mohammad Ilyas (eds.) (2008) 65–92 2
[11] Dontharaju, S., Tung, S., Hoare, R., Cain, J., Mickle, M., Jones, A.: Design automation for rfid tags and systems.
RFID Handbook: Applications, Technology, Security, and Privacy, ed. S. Ahson and M. Ilyas (2008) 35–64 3
[12] Van Kranenburg, R., Anzelmo, E., Bassi, A., Caprio, D., Dodson, S., Ratto, M.: The internet of things. A critique
of ambient technology and the all-seeing network of RFID, Network Notebooks 2 (2008) 3.4
[13] Welbourne, E., Battle, L., Cole, G., Gould, K., Rector, K., Raymer, S., Balazinska, M., Borriello, G.: Building
the internet of things using rfid: the rfid ecosystem experience. Internet Computing, IEEE 13(3) (2009) 48–55
3.4
[14] Vogt, H.: Efficient object identification with passive rfid tags. Pervasive Computing (2002) 98–113 3.5
[15] Law, C., Lee, K., Siu, K.: Efficient memoryless protocol for tag identification. In: Proceedings of the 4th
international workshop on Discrete algorithms and methods for mobile computing and communications, ACM
(2000) 75–84 3.5
[16] Kim, C., Park, K., Kim, H., Kim, S.: An efficient stochastic anti-collision algorithm using bit-slot mechanism.
In: Proc. of Int. Conf. on Parallel and Distributed Processing Techniques and Applications. (2004) 3.5
[17] Quan, C., Hong, W., Kim, H.: Performance analysis of tag anti-collision algorithms for rfid systems. Emerging
directions in embedded and ubiquitous computing (2006) 382–391 3.5
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Advances in Media Technology
Abstract
The Internet of Things (IoT) is a new paradigm or vision projected taking as base the existing technologies and the
extreme speed with which these technologies are incresing their functionality and reducing their size. IoT as we know
it today is closely related to RFID (Radio Frequency Identification), WSN (Wireless Sensor Network), UBICOMP
(Ubiquitous Computing) and M2M (Machine to Machine Communications). IoT may have several applications in
transportation, logistics, healthcare, smart environments, personal living and social domain. This article describes the
new tendencies towards the Internet of Things, the related technologies, its main characteristics, its evolvement, and
focuses on an analysis of the main models of revenue or business models that could be based on its development.
1 Introduction
On a world that is continuously evolving, technology has played an important role in providing tools to cope with such
constant and rapid progress. This is evident in all aspects of human life, since technology has helped us to adapt to our
environmental context, and also has given us comfort and stability. Communication and Information Technologies are
nowadays a big part of this situation, making the factor of distance close to irrelevant and the processing of data almost
instantaneous. This has opened new possibilities with every discovery and development. The aim of this paper is to
give insight over one of these recent developments, the Internet of Things, also see how it relates to the technological
trends and analyze how it may interact with some economical and business models.
After the emersion of the Internet, a big stream of developments has come attached to it. This can be evidenced
on every aspect of our society, everything from educational schemes to business and corporate processes evolved with
the use of the Internet. Now the vision is to take things one step further, which means that Internet will not only be
a service used by humans on will by operating some network node or device, but artifacts around us will have access
and make use of the Internet to perform the task for which they were designed. This may occur even when humans are
not completely aware of it in the moment and just implicitly enjoy its benefits (Reference 1). This concept is called the
Internet of Things (IoT).
The concept of Internet of Things first appeared in 2001 in an AutoID Center paper by David Brock about the
Electronic Product Code and it is undeniable the special attention and emphasis that it has gotten ever since [1]. There
is a growing number of researchers and professionals sharing and working on the vision of what this new concept could
represent and how it can be achieved, as can be inferred from the large number of books, articles and conferences about
the topic that can be listed just by typing Internet of Things on any scientific search engine. The topic has become to
form a very important part of the vision of The Internet of the Future, as we will see in the following chapters.
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Advances in Media Technology Internet of Things and Related Business Models
The previous definition gives a wide range of possibilities for the benefits that the Future Internet has to offer, but
also allows to infer the prematurity of the current state of the technology and its market [4]. It also states the importance
of the Internet of Things, increasing the role of almost every object around us by giving them an enhanced mission of
assisting directly or indirectly human life by the use of Internet.
In that way, the Internet of Things can be defined inside the context of the Future Internet and the benefits that it
brings to business processes and everyday living:
A world where physical objects are seamlessly integrated into the
information network and where the physical objects can become active
participants in business processes and everyday living. Services are
available to interact with these smart objects over the Internet, query their
state and any information associated with them, taking into account security
and privacy issues [5].
2.1 Evolution
Fig. 1 shows the evolution phases that have led to the concept of the Internet of Things as described in previous
segments. When an organizations private computer network uses Internet Protocol Technology and allows a device in
the network to be aware of the information and states of other devices in the network, follows under the category of
an Intranet of Things. If this same information and states of devices inside an intranet is reachable by a network node
outside the intranet following the determined authentication and security protocols, the concept evolves to Extranet
of Things. Internet of Things takes it some steps further by making this interaction between devices a multiple and
constant real-time activity, and by bringing the serviceability to people under everyday basis.
Figure 1: A Phased Approach from the Intranet of Things to a Future Vision on the Internet of Things [1]
While pervasiveness can increase with every step on this phased evolution through applications and wider adoption,
scalability and infrastructure requirements also increase and have to be met.
Figure 2: Vision of a Web-Based Service Economy and its different components [6]
In Fig. 2 the different components of a Web-Based Service Economy are shown, together with the interrelations
between them. It presents how the final users or participants obtain the desired service through different types of
platforms by the use of diverse technologies and concepts. In other words, government, industry and the people in
general, enabled by an infrastructure and technologies will be allowed a fluent use of the Internet to assist people and
their artifacts in their jobs, recreation and everyday living [6].
3 Current Challenges
3.1 Technical
3.1.1 Reliability
Many research programs established extensive ubiquitous systems pushing technical limitations to new heights. This
is evidenced on current research being done by universities and Research and Development departments around the
world focusing on RFID or NFC (Radio Frequency Identification - Near field Communication). Nevertheless, all these
experiments occur under laboratory conditions. Not only the people using the systems are analyzed and supervised but
the systems themselves. The state of the art systems are not thought of for domestic use as of the current state, but they
are used for research purpose only. Systems often break or deliver inaccurate measurements leading to fatal decisions
of an autonomously working environment [3].
a company scale foster a difficult interoperability. More over, the highly variable subsystems are supposed to connect
with the ubiquitous environment (invisible to user) and partially change locations (human movements). This induces
ad-hoc connections with little to zero human interaction, which is currently hardly achieved as no standards exist.
Furthermore, those connections often cause major problems. Systems connections that should not work together and
users would have to debug everything [2].
Researchers are technology-affine people who like to operate with and be connected to high-tech. Further they have
the knowledge to oversee their technology enhanced environment. Home users on the other hand often lack the ability
to operate the systems. Moreover they do not like to be bothered by such systems and are missing the interest for it.
The technology has to be developed in such a way that the environments are working with the maximum of capabilities
but requiring the least knowledge or preparation for controlling it or regulating it, at least on everyday basis [7].
3.1.4 Ambiguity
Systems consist of subsystems. Subsystems are further established by a broad set of sensors. All the gathered informa-
tion must be interpreted and an adequate action has to be undertaken. The question arises: How does the system react
if contradictory data is gathered? Users still have to understand the pragmatics of sensors, interpretations and actions
to predict the outcome. The more subsystems are in use the higher the degree of automation but the more complex
and harder to understand it gets. Besides the complexity of system parts, the number of users increases the ambiguity
[7]. For example, a home environment that only serves one person can optimize its conditions to this specific user.
Handling many users in an environment demands an optimization of functions underlying many more considerations
and algorithms. Mostly no sufficiently good results have been achieved.
The systems not only have to work but must provide meaning full results. They have to be linked to peoples daily rou-
tines and lives. Enough information has to be gathered to implement the supervision and assistance without neglecting
users privacy. Intensive legal regulations have to be developed to handle the privacy of the now extremely volatile data
[7].
3.3 Economical
3.3.1 Investment
After all this technical drawbacks were exposed, it is clear that there is still the need for a considerable amount of
investment in Research and Development so that the Internet of things is an everyday reality. Also the Political factors
have to be coped with in order to be implemented. So, appealing business models have to be developed in order to
make the idea attractive and generate the motivation of overcoming the current challenges so that the investment in
time and resources is made with the certainty of worthy revenue.
4 Business Models
4.1 Push-Pull Approaches
In logistics and supply chain management, Push Manufacturing is a strategy in which the production quantities follow
internal parameters of a company, it usually means Make to Stock and has no relation with the demand curve of a
specific market. On the other side, Pull Manufacturing is the opposite strategy in which the production quantities
follow strictly the demand curve of the market. It generally means Make to Order and only the items that already have
been sold are manufactured.
Following the same analogy, a Push Approach for business models related to the Internet of Things categorizes all
those economical activities that generate income from making the IoT technology available, but that do not depend on
it. The Pull Strategy, on the other hand, is related to those models that use the IoT Technology to generate an additional
product or perform an additional service. Totally depends on IoT Technology to generate additional value.
In simple words, all those enterprises that invest resources to develop and make possible the IoT technology,
follow a Push Approach. Meanwhile, those enterprises that make use of the existent IoT technology to maximize their
capabilities, make more efficient their processes or offer an additional product or service, follow a Pull Approach. So,
while pull approaches depend on the IoT technology and IoT technology depends on the push approaches, it is safe to
infer that the PUSHERS will probably act as suppliers or service providers for the PULLERS.
• Real World Visibility: by using automated systems for data collection and identification by applying IoT tech-
nologies like RFID, it will be possible to achieve a High-Resolution Management allowing a company to be
aware in real-time what actually is happening in its real world. This means to have immediate feedback on loca-
tion and status of assets and products and also information on how the companys operations are performing [5].
The deeper insight obtained and its correlation with time leads to a better understanding of business processes
allowing its optimization and better control.
• Business Process Decomposition: this concept takes things one step further, by decomposing processes into sub-
processes and having smart items making decisions by applying some business logic. This approach allows the
decomposition and decentralization of existing business processes which increases the performance and opens
possibilities for escalating the business [8]. The main idea is easily understood after analyzing Fig. 3.
4.2.1 Manufacturing
Manufacturing and production processes can highly benefit from IoT technologies [10]. By the use of distributed sen-
sors, smart devices, actuators and machine-to-machine communication production processes can be greatly optimized
[11]. By having real- time/real-world visibility, a deeper insight is obtained on the different aspects of the manufac-
turing processes. It will be possible to have immediate tracking of machinery performance, material management,
improved quality control which would lead to increased productivity [5].
Also new possibilities arise. For example a company could offer a service of custom manufacturing, by which
clients could remotely operate machinery through an Internet based application, and fabricate their own products and
prototypes. This will offer a series of advantages to small companies with not enough capital or volume demands as
for investing in expensive production machinery [12]. These benefits are stated clearly in the following quote:
All the devices would offer their functionality as a web service. Device
integration thus means service integration, focusing on the functionality a
device offers and not on the particular device technology. This not only
creates a new paradigm on the shop floor, but it also would encourage the
development of new devices in the automation industry that offer embedded web
services [5].
• Physical integrity of the product itself. Sensors can be used to ensure that the product was never exposed to
potentially damaging environmental conditions.
• Transportation routes, checking that the product never was in an area where it was not supposed to be. Analysis
of logistics, production processes.
4.2.3 Health
In the health sector, IoT technologies can provide benefits from two main perspectives. The first perspective is aiding
processes and tracking medicines and equipment as in the previous examples. For this RFID tags are an important
technological enabler. This is being done already by some hospitals like the Jena University hospital in Germany,
which to improves logistics processes while provides better care by tracking equipment, patients and medications [5].
The second perspective is by health monitoring and assisted living, which can also be done in places outside hospi-
tals by the use of smart data gathering devices in ubiquitous environments [16]. Constant communication connectivity
enabled by the Internet of Things in Assisted Living Environments allows a real time evaluation of the health parame-
ters of patients, as a sort of quantified-self tracking of vital signs information and determined characteristics given the
conditions and requirements of specific patients. It also offers benefits as it acts as a step towards prevention health
treatment rather than solution health measures [17].
• Building Information Modeling: Building Information Models can greatly benefit from the use of the Internet
of Things. On an industry characterized for being static and not easily embracing changes, Internet of Things
could allow components detailed on a construction model to be analyzed and tracked, allowing machinery and
operators to get information about position, location, orientation linked to a schedule and a budget. Would be a
significant development towards robotics and automation in Construction.
• Prefabrication in construction: by the use of the prefabrication strategy in junction with concepts as standardiza-
tion of constructive elements, a great potential in the increase of productivity and average quality of buildings
can be achieved. The analysis for both manufacturing and supply chain categories also apply in prefabrication
for construction, as it is a step towards industrialization of a traditionally craftwork industry. Internet of Things
and Machine to Machine Communications applied in prefabrication is also a big step towards automation in
construction.
• Smart Home Automation: Ubiquitous Computing is a model that describes a system that is composed by multi-
ple embedded and partially invisible computer systems that perform as subcomponents of the main Ubiquitous
system. These systems are aware of their surroundings and provide interactive or proactive support to the users
of a determined ubiquitous environment. When this awareness is exploited it can assist inhabitants of a house
or building on daily activities by tracking tendencies and anticipating needs. These benefits can be easily ap-
preciated when imagining a lighting system that graduates automatically depending on natural light context or
activities of the inhabitants. Also a good example might be the regulation of artificial temperature in accordance
to external condition and weather forecasts. Highly functional subcomponents already exist but the connection
and integration of these systems is not yet fully exploited. It is still restricted, costly and unstable, as previously
described on the technical limitations to overcome. Compared to the early days of the automobile industry, the
smart home automation is still the car for which there are still no roads, and its usefulness is questioned. Now,
it is evident that people spend most of their life at home, or general buildings for that matter, and a big portion
of the capital is bounded in buildings. This fact, combined to the current trend of spending in convenience and
comfort make visible that a huge opportunity for a rising market exists, and that it just waits to be exploited as
soon as the industry overcomes the existing challenges on the research and development stage.
• Ambient Assisted Daily Living: Elderly members of society struggle finding their place in their community
trying to prove themselves useful in a world that is leaving them behind. Many of the activities that they used
to perform regularly, are now a great challenge due to their diminishing vitality and strength. New concepts
and ideas are continuously emerging from different disciplines to counter attack this problem and to help trans-
forming most elderlys feelings of futility and unreliability into independence, autonomy and vitality. Assisted
Daily Living (ADL) is one of the approaches in which technology, specifically Internet of Things and Ubiquitous
Computing, can play an important role regarding this matter. By the inclusion of smart assisting devices into
their environment, elderly can get to perform tasks that they could not otherwise imagine, given their advanced
age. Additionally, Ambient Assisted Daily Living is closely related to the home health tracking vision discussed
in the health applications of the Internet of Things. When applied on a ubiquitous home environment, it can
greatly assist in the tracking and control of vital signs and other parameters.
References
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Advances in Media Technology
IoT technologies
Mikhail Vilgelm
ga49zav@mytum.de
January 15, 2013
Abstract
This paper gives an overview of the state-of-art technologies used for various deployments of the Internet of Things
concept. It discusses the hardware and middleware platforms for IoT, as well as the communication technologies. The
paper focuses on the IEEE standards for IoT communication and on other important protocol stacks used in IoT, for
instance, ZigBee and 6loWPAN. The common usage cases for different technologies are described and compared.
1 Introduction
Internet of Things (IoT) is an emerging concept of an ubiquitous automation. It gains more and more importance due to
the rapid technology development and the rising interest from the industry. The key idea is to integrate a high amount
of technical objects (e.g. sensors, tags or actuators) for collecting the information and for performing actions into the
casual environment, ensure the communication between these objects and interaction with the user [1].
The general term "Internet of Thing" comprises a huge range of possible applications. On the one hand, there are
different industry applications, such as medical, logistic or healthcare [2]; on the other hand, the concept could be
deployed in the field of home and office automation [3], [4]. The diversity of applications causes the high range of
different technologies involved. Since most of the standards for IoT are still in development, there are a lot of generally
accepted and used protocols and different concept implementations, even in the same application field.
This paper aims to give an overview about the enabling technologies of IoT. We do not want to restrict the topic to
the particular field of application, but, however, it is hardly possible to describe all possible solutions in one document.
Therefore, the primary thread of the paper will cover the featured IoT technologies, that is, the technologies and their
peculiarities, which are distinct from the conventional ones. The paper comprises such topics as communication,
hardware and software platforms, presenting them in the context of resent problems, which they tend to solve.
2.1 TelosB
TelosB is a good example of an open source platform. It was originally developed by the UC Berkeley research
community, and aims to provide a simple and efficient hardware for the modern projects. It based on the MSP430
microcontroller (8 MHz, 10 Kbytes RAM) and is adjusted to the TinyOS operating system family. Also, the included
27
Advances in Media Technology IoT technologies
radio module and support of extension sensor boards, along with the integrated humidity and temperature sensors,
makes the platform very well suited for wireless sensor networks [5].
2.2 Btnode
Btnode is another example of an academic platform. It was developed in Swiss Federal Institute of Technology.
Compared to TelosB, it has some additional features. First, it has two radios: the primary interface is Bluetooth, and
the secondary is low-power radio operating in the 433-915 MHz band. Second, Btnode uses the specially developed
C-based operating system, BTnut, with an plane C programming interface (compared to TinyOS, where the specific
language nesC is used) [6].
The dual-radio modules allow the hardware to be used in a wider range of applications and make it compatible with
other platforms, e.g. Mica2. However, the absence of 802.15.4-supporting radio shortens the use cases for the device,
since it is one of the most important data transmission standard in IoT communication.
2.3 Other
There are some other platforms, used for prototyping and experimenting in the IoT-related projects. Essential to
mention are the open-source platform Arduino, used in a broad spectrum of applications due to its flexibility and
simplicity, and the "miniPC" RaspberryPI, which is also well suited for fast prototyping, for it being inexpensive and
versatile.
The important constituent of the IoT network, along with the special devices like sensors or actuators, are the
devices, which are already present in our everyday life. In this respect, the modern devices like smartphones are
gaining more importance. Normally, they already possess the low-power communication interfaces (e.g. Bluetooth),
and the ability to run arbitrary applications (apps) on top of the operating system (Android, iOS or Windows Phone),
what makes them appropriate for interacting with the local objects, e.g. RFID tags or sensors, whereby providing a
plenty of deployment opportunities [7].
• 802.3 Ethernet, defining the physical and data-link layers of the wired local area network [8].
• 802.15 Wireless Private Area Network, including the Low-Rate (802.15.4), High-Rate (802.15.3) and Bluetooth
(802.15.1) specifications [10].
The standard defines both wired and wireless communication. Although some IoT solutions use wired technologies
as well (e.g. for various IoT Gateways [11]), they will not be covered in this paper. The reason for it is that wired
technology provides less flexibility and contradicts with the main IoT idea of the ubiquitous automation deployment,
and therefore could be considered only as a complementary technology. Wired communication cannot be applied in
some cases, and even if it can, wiring significantly increases the costs, e.g. for some sensors wiring constitutes 80% of
the total installation costs [12].
28 Mikhail Vilgelm
IoT technologies Advances in Media Technology
The wireless networks were developed long time ago, e.g. 802.11 WLAN standard, which had been introduced
back in 1985 [8]. However, the appearance of IoT brought some new challenges to wireless networking hardware
and, thereby the challenges for the standardization authorities, since the hardware characteristics are determined by the
functionality it is deploying. The specific design requirements are:
1. Low power consumption; the IoT nodes are required to have as small power consumption as possible. This
consequently follows from the fact that they are integrated into objects we interact with and, in most of the cases,
don’t have any external power supply.
2. Low costs and complexity; due to the potentially very high number of nodes, the expenses for one node should
remain on a very low level.
Depending on the application, there surely could arise some requirements or restrictions on the range, data transmission
rate and frequency usage. But for the most deployment scenarios, these factors remain in the background, therefore
this fact makes the major difference to the conventional wireless networking, where power consumption and costs are
at least of the same or even of less importance than high throughput and large transmission distance.
The physical layer. The major functions of this layer are the transceiver control, channel selection and energy control.
It supports three operational frequency ranges: 868.0-868.6 MHz (1 channel), 902-928 MHz (10 channels), 2400-
2483.5 MHz (16 channels). The modulation schemes are Offset Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (O-QPSK) for 2,4
GHz operating band and Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) for 868/902 MHz bands.
The media access layer. The MAC layer specification defines two different types of nodes: the Reduced Function
Devices (RFDs) and Full Function Devices (FFDs). The latter ones have full MAC layer capabilities and are designed
for functioning as network coordinators and network end-devices. Network coordinators are capable of sending bea-
cons to other nodes, for providing synchronization. The RFDs, on the contrary, are equipped with a limited number
of MAC-layer functions and are only able to act as end-devices. They can only interact with one FFD, and are pre-
designed for information gathering mostly. Such limitations in RFD’s functionality serve for optimizing the average
power consumption in the network [12].
Due to its current characteristics, the 802.15.4 appears to be the best suited standard for the short-range IoT com-
munication nowadays. The limitations in range and data rate do not contradict to the requirements of the most common
IoT applications, and, on the other hand, the essential specifications, such as low complexity and power consumption,
are met.
Mikhail Vilgelm 29
Advances in Media Technology IoT technologies
• Ad-Hoc networking
• QoS support
• Security
Figure 1: The piconet example. DEV - is a regular 802.15.3 device, and PNC/DEV is a device with network coordina-
tion capabilities.
• 5 data rates: 11, 22, 33, 44, and 55 Mb/s, there the basic unencoded rate is 22 Mb/s, whereas other rates are
trellis coded.
30 Mikhail Vilgelm
IoT technologies Advances in Media Technology
Figure 2: ZigBee (a) and 6loWPAN (b) in the layer model representing the communication instance.
3.2.1 ZigBee
ZigBee is one most promising protocols for IoT wireless communication. It is maintained, supported and promoted
by the group of companies called ZigBee Alliance, including Phillips, Emerson or Texas Instruments. ZigBee stack
defines upper OSI layers build upon the IEEE 802.15.4 standard. In general, it comprises two layers: network layer
(NWK) and application layer (APL) (see Fig. 2a).
The network layer supports multihop routing, route discovery and 16-bit addressing scheme. It provides the fol-
lowing basic functionality:
Network organization. Based on the two types of devices from IEEE 802.15.4, FFD and RFD, ZigBee defines tree
other types: end-device, which corresponds to RFD, router and network coordinator, both corresponding to FFD. With
these three device types, ZigBee network is capable of building such topologies as star, tree and meshed variations (see
Fig. 3).
Figure 3: Example network topologies, supported by ZigBee. a - star topology, b - tree topology, c - meshed topology
Mikhail Vilgelm 31
Advances in Media Technology IoT technologies
Address distribution. Joining a network is realized via network discovery procedure. Since several ZigBee-
networks can overlap in one area, the end-device should be capable to decide which to choose. After choosing a
network to join, the parent node is selected. A router or a network coordinator directly could act as a parent node. The
parent node is responsible for the address assignment: if the newly joined node is an end-device, it obtains its address;
if it is a router, it obtains a set of addresses for future distribution. The size of the set ( A(d) ) is calculated according
to the following formula:
A(d) = 1 + Dm + Rm if d = Lm − 1
where Rm - the maximum number of routers in network, Dm - maximum number of end-devices, d - depth of
the routers’ tree, Lm - maximum depth of the tree.
Routing. The algorithm for determining a route in the network depends on the topology used.
In the tree topology the simplified algorithm is deployed. Since the whole communication is performed along parent-
child links, the routers keep only their addresses, as well as their child’s and parent’s addresses. The procedure to
determine the destination path for a packet is very simple due to the deployed addressing scheme described above.
On the other hand, the meshed topology demands more sophisticated algorithm, because the addressing does not
provide all the necessary information for the path choice. The routers and network coordinator serve for maintaining
routing as well as route discovery tables. ZigBee makes use of the distance vector routing algorithm, based on the Ad
Hoc On Demand Distance Vector (AODV).
Additional functionality is provided by the ZigBee application layer. APL is based on the application objects (APO)
and ZigBee Device Objects (ZDO) model (See Fig. 2a).
APO represents software that is in charge for a particular hardware (e.g. switch or lamp). APOs of the ZigBee
device are numbered uniquely within a device, and this number can be used in addition to the device’s address to
access the required functionality.
ZDO is an object type for providing functionality to the APOs, e.g. communication and network services. The
data transfer for APOs and ZDO is carried out via the Application Sublayer (APS) [12]. All the possible application
objects, as well as the interaction with them, are standardized by the ZigBee alliance. It allows, on the one hand, the
third-party developers to implement a desired functionality, and, on the other hand, to maintain interoperability of the
objects.
3.2.2 6loWPAN
The major motivation for 6loWPAN (IPv6 over Low-Rate WPAN) development was the idea of using an existing
reliable protocol in the new scenario. IPv6, as the most prospective protocol for the Internet communication, was
chosen to be deployed in the IoT networks. Main challenge, arising from such a decision, was to adapt IPv6 in such a
way that it will be interoperable with the existing 802.15.4 specification for data-link and physical layers (see Fig. 2))
[14]. In order to do that, 6loWPAN address the following issues:
Address resolution: IPv6 operates with 128-bit addresses, whereas 802.15.4 uses only 64-bit, or the short 16-bit
addresses, therefore, 6loWPAN utilizes an address resolution scheme, capable of mapping 16-bit short address
to IPv6.
Packet size adaptation: The 6loWPAN, similarly to ZigBee, assumes IEEE 802.15.4 as the default MAC-PHY layers
specification. But, the data payload in 802.15.4 is 127 Bytes large, and the standard IPv6 header is 40 Bytes.
Hence, usage of pure IPv6 over LR-WPAN would lead to an intolerable overhead during the data transmission.
For that reason, the header compression mechanism had been developed (HC1) and deployed in 6loWPAN.
Parameter optimization: The original IPv6 was tailored to attaining a high speed and usage with link layer protocols
like Ethernet. On the contrary, 802.15.4 has other focuses, namely low power consumption along with the low
data rates.
32 Mikhail Vilgelm
IoT technologies Advances in Media Technology
Routing protocol adaptation: 6loWPAN utilizes the same basic routing protocol as ZigBee, namely the Ad Hoc On
Demand Distance Vector (AODV). However, it uses the simplied version of AODV - 6LoWPAN Ad Hoc On-
Demand Distance Vector Routing (LOAD). The main operations of LOAD are route discovery, data structures
management and maintaining the local connections. The features of LOAD, compared to other routing protocols
(e.g. RIP or OSPF), are:
• LOAD operates on the adaptation layer, not on the transport layer. Therefore, it doesn’t make use of IPv6
and is completely transparent for IPv6.
• LOAD relies on the two addressing schemes: either EUI-64 address or the 16 bit shot 6loWPAN address.
• It makes use of two tables: the routing (storing destination, next hop and route status) and the route request
table (for the provisional route information, obtained during the route discovery process) [citing the RFC]
There are several available 6loWPAN stacks nowadays, open or proprietary, e.g. US Berkeley’s b6loWPAN and blip,
or the commercial implementation of Sencinode Ltd. They all are very tailored to a particular operation system, and
dependent on their functionality. [15].
4 Conclusions
In the paper we have described the different hardware and communication solutions, applicable in the typical Internet
of Things scenario. Evidently, different technologies have different niches for their deployment. In this summarizing
section we want to compare the IoT communication technologies with respect to the distinctive IoT requirements.
Standard comparison. Some of the technologies, described in the communication standards section, had been de-
veloped even before the emergence of IoT. Their applications in IoT are, therefore, very limited. The comparison
summary is presented in the tab. 1.
Thus, WLAN 802.11 is mostly applicable for communication between the gateways for special purpose IoT de-
vices (e.g. sensors, actuators, RFID tags) and traditional devices, present in the environment, such as laptops or tablets.
WLAN features a high data rates and the wide range of transmission, but requires an external power supply.
The WPAN standard family, on the contrary, is suited for the small embedded devices with a short radius of action.
The extremely low power consumption makes the usage of the internal battery sufficient for a tolerably long function-
ing time. The standards are appropriate for different applications: HR-WPAN allows the multimedia data transmission,
thereas LR-WPAN is a proper protocol for irregular sensor data transmission.
Bluetooth (802.15.1), as being the part of WPAN standards, could be considered mainly as an protocol for inte-
gration the devices into an existing environment. It features the comparatively low power consumption along with the
high transmission rates, and is already present in the contemporary devices, e.g. smartphones or laptops.
Protocol comparison. The high-layers communication protocols, described in the paper, tried to address the new
requirements of IoT, and maintain as many features of traditional networking as possible. The developers of ZigBee
had taken the more straightforward way, namely the development of the new protocols. It brought the advantages,
as, for instance, the fact that ZigBee is highly tailored to the IoT needs, thus allowing to achieve the best power
consumption and hardware performance. Also, the application layer specifications ensures the interoperability and
common interface of different IoT devices.
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Advances in Media Technology IoT technologies
However, it also has some cons. First, ZigBee is not an open standard, in the full sense, since it is maintained by
the commercial organizations. Second, the gateway is more complicated compared to the 6loWPAN case, since the
addressing and networking in general for ZigBee are not interoperable with other networks.
As compared to ZigBee, the 6loWPAN represent an adjustment layer for the existing IPv6 protocol. It bring such
advantages as the possibility to use existing protocols, e.g. TCP/UDP or higher layers, on top of 6loWPAN, or the
involvement in the global addressing scheme. Each 6loWPAN node has a globally (if needed) available address from
IPv6 space, therefore there is no need for address translation.
Summarizing, we have shown the different IoT technologies with respect to their appropriate usage scenarios.
As it could have been observed, there are two basic threads of IoT technologies development: first, is the integration
of existing ones (e.g. WLAN, Bluetooth or 6loWPAN), and second is the development of the tailored standard and
protocols (LR-WPAN, HR-WPAN and ZigBee). However, the border between these two ways is not strict and depends
on the applications, therefore, there is still a need for technological integration and more strict standardization.
References
[1] Atzori, L., Iera, A., Morabito, G.: The internet of things: A survey. Computer Networks 54(15) (2010) 2787–2805
1
[2] Fleisch, E.: What is the internet of things? When Things Add Value. Auto-ID Labs White Paper WP-BIZAPP-
053, Auto-ID Lab St. Gallen, Switzerland (2010) 1
[3] Kranz, M., Roalter, L., Michahelles, F.: Things That Twitter: Social Networks and the Internet of Things. In:
What can the Internet of Things do for the Citizen (CIoT) Workshop at The Eighth International Conference on
Pervasive Computing (Pervasive 2010). (May 2010) 1
[4] Kranz, M., Schmidt, A., Rusu, R., Maldonado, A., Beetz, M., Hornler, B., Rigoll, G.: Sensing technologies and
the player-middleware for context-awareness in kitchen environments. In: Networked Sensing Systems, 2007.
INSS ’07. Fourth International Conference on. (June 2007) 179–186 1
[5] Polastre, J., Szewczyk, R., Culler, D.: Telos: enabling ultra-low power wireless research. In: Information
Processing in Sensor Networks, 2005. IPSN 2005. Fourth International Symposium on. (april 2005) 364 – 369
2.1
[6] Beute, J.: Fast-prototyping using the btnode platform. In: Design, Automation and Test in Europe, 2006. DATE
’06. Proceedings. Volume 1. (march 2006) 1 –6 2.2
[7] Kranz, M., Schmidt, A., Holleis, P.: Embedded interaction: Interacting with the internet of things. IEEE Internet
Computing 14(2) (March-April 2010) 46 – 53 2.3
[8] IEEE: IEEE Std 802.3 - 2005 Part 3: Carrier sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD) access
method and physical layer specifications - Section Five. Technical report (2005) 3.1
[9] IEEE: IEEE Standard for Information technology–Telecommunications and information exchange between sys-
tems Local and metropolitan area networks–Specific requirements Part 11: Wireless LAN Medium Access Con-
trol (MAC) and Physical Layer (PHY) Specifications. IEEE P802.11-REVmb/D12, November 2011 (Revision
of IEEE Std 802.11-2007, as amended by IEEEs 802.11k-2008, 802.11r-2008, 802.11y-2008, 802.11w-2009,
802.11n-2009, 802.11p-2010, 802.11z-2010, 802.11v-2011, 802.11u-2011, and 802.11s-2011) (29 2012) 1 –
2910 3.1
[10] IEEE: Approved Amendment to Standard for Telecommunications and Information Exchange Between Systems
- Local and Metropolitan Area Networks Specific Requirements - Part 15.3: Wireless Medium Access Control
(MAC) and Physical Layer (PHY) Specifications for High Rate Wireless Personal Area Networks (WPAN):
Amendment to MAC Sublayer (Amendment to IEEE Std 802.15.3-2003) Replaced by IEEE 802.15.3b-2005.
IEEE Std P802.15.3b/D04 (2005) 3.1
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[11] Zhu, Q., Wang, R., Chen, Q., Liu, Y., Qin, W.: Iot gateway: Bridgingwireless sensor networks into internet of
things. In: Embedded and Ubiquitous Computing (EUC), 2010 IEEE/IFIP 8th International Conference on. (dec.
2010) 347 –352 3.1
[12] Paolo Baronti, Prashant Pillai, V.W.C.S.C.A.G.Y.F.H.: Wireless sensor networks: A survey on the state of the art
and the 802.15.4 and zigbee standards. Computer Communications 30 (2007) 1655–1695 3.1, 3.1.2, 3.2.1
[13] IEEE: Approved Draft Amendment to IEEE Standard for Information technology-Telecommunications and in-
formation exchange between systems-PART 15.4:Wireless Medium Access Control (MAC) and Physical Layer
(PHY) Specifications for Low-Rate Wireless Personal Area Networks (LR-WPANs): Amendment to add alternate
PHY (Amendment of IEEE Std 802.15.4). IEEE Approved Std P802.15.4a/D7, Jan 2007 (2007) 3.1.3
[14] Mulligan, G.: The 6lowpan architecture. In: Proceedings of the 4th workshop on Embedded networked sensors.
EmNets ’07, New York, NY, USA, ACM (2007) 78–82 3.2.2
[15] Yibo, C., mean Hou, K., Zhou, H., ling Shi, H., Liu, X., Diao, X., Ding, H., Li, J.J., de Vaulx, C.: 6lowpan stacks:
A survey. In: Wireless Communications, Networking and Mobile Computing (WiCOM), 2011 7th International
Conference on. (sept. 2011) 1 –4 3.2.2
Mikhail Vilgelm 35
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36
Advances in Media Technology
Abstract
This paper addresses the application opportunities regarding the Internet of Things. Given the contribution and col-
laboration of different technologies and innovations, the Internet of Things is quickly becoming an interesting and
possible factor to future developments in countless areas and fields. Throughout this paper, we will analyze more in
depth how the Internet of Things is affecting and revolutionizing the fields of smart environments and in the health
department as example domains.
1 Introduction
The Internet of Things (IoT) term was first used in 1999, but it was until the use of radiofrequency identification (RFID)
became popular that the IoT became a feasible idea and therefore boomed in the research institutes. RFID and other
similar sensors are crucial for the Internet of Things since one of its main goals is to achieve everything in a pervasive
way.
Given the ongoing development that IoT has, it is unquestionable that its impact will reach every aspect of our
daily lives; the more the technology develops, in areas such as communications, sensors and networking, the more the
Internet of Things will be capable of reaching us in every way we can imagine. Given the broad aspects the IoT can
cover, business opportunities will be and are arising just as they did when the Internet became available for the public.
Throughout this paper, the reader can find in Section 2 more information about Internet of Things and its develop-
ment. After this analysis we will focus on the application domains of this developing idea, Section 3 talk about in the
intelligent environment and health field. Section 4, containing the conclusions, will bring a proper closure to the paper.
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Advances in Media Technology The Internet of Things: Application Domains
As Atzori mentions in his article The Internet of Things: A survey "Differences, sometimes substantial, in the IoT
visions raise from the fact that stakeholders, business alliances, research and standardization bodies start approaching
the issue from either an "Internet oriented" or a "Things oriented" perspective, depending on their specific interests,
finalities and backgrounds." [4]
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The Internet of Things: Application Domains Advances in Media Technology
next best thing" providing us a way to communicate between us instantly; thus bringing the possibility and idea of
establishing communication between things, taking us to a smarter (technology related) environment.
3 Application Domains
3.1 Industry, Environment and Society Domains
Before entering into specific Application Domains, we need to briefly analize the three mayor domains in which the
Internet of Things can be applied. First we have the Industry, in which activities involving financial or commercial
transactions between entities are involved. For this domain applications involving manufacturing, logistics, banking,
etc. can be developed. For the protection, monitoring and development of natural resources we have the Environment
Domain. Some examples are: agriculture and breeding, recycling, energy management, etc. Finally the Society
domain, in which activities regarding the development and inclusion of societies, cities and people is considered. A
great field of opportunity in this domain is the governmental services towards citizens and other society structures. [6]
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Eventhough Smart Environments implementations represent several obstacles or challenges specially in indoor
communication, still some prototypes and ideas for different implementations have arised. For the development of
Smart or Intelligent environments the use of sensors for temperature, humidity, lighting, human activity, etc. are
utilized and communicate wirelessly forming an ubiquitous sensor network.
Möller et al. [8] propose an augmented reality or virtual reality visualization for the user through its smartphone in
order for him to interact with its environment. The augmented reality option shows guidance as it overlays on real-time
video, while the virtual reality uses a pre-recorded panorama view.
The user interface proposed consists of a perspectively displayed navigation arrow which is included in a preren-
dered panorama of the environment (virtual reality) or imposed over the live video (augmented reality). Additional
information, such as the remaining time, distance, etc. can be displayed
Monitoring the environment in an industrial plant, automation can be improved. By adding RFID tags to parts in the
production line, events can be generated to inform about the presence of it to start the production and it can store
usefull information like serial number or any other necessary data during the process. At the same time, you have
some sensors monitoring the correct function of the machines in the factory; if a malfunction presents istself then the
production process immediatly stops ensuring the quality control of the product. [4]
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The Internet of Things: Application Domains Advances in Media Technology
The PEIS-Home was developed using the PEIS-Ecology Concept, which consists of intelligent environments built
around the notion of PEIS (Physically Embedded Intelligent Systems).[9] In this approach, the environment and the
computerized system are seen as part of the same system and work in a symbiotic relationship.
Developed by the Orebro University Mobile Robotics Lab in Sweden, the PEIS Home, consists of a kitchen, living
room and bedroom, in which sensors and actuators are integrated. Since the concept is not based on sophisticated
robots performing the tasks, a simple cooperative way of achieving the goal is implemented.
The example provided is that of wanting a glass of water when the user is on the couch. The use of the moving
table (See Figure 5) goes to the fridge, where a robotic arm pours the glass of water and puts it on the moving table,
which returns to the user that’s sitting on the couch.
Alendal describes a social network for our devices, in which you can be connected to more or about 50 billion devices
that can and will interact among themselves. "This will introduce a stage of ’networkedness’ rather than single con-
nections on a one-to-one basis. Such networkedness unleashes the true power of a web with 50B connected devices.
The devices become social, just as we are. You have a social network, and your devices will have a social network: the
social web of things." [10]
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3.3.3 Pharmaceutical
For pharmaceutical products, security and safety is of utmost importance to prevent compromising the health of pa-
tients. [6] If RFID or similar technology is attached as a smart label to the drugs, quality controlling can be done during
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The Internet of Things: Application Domains Advances in Media Technology
the supply chain process, making sure the right temperature is maintained. In the same way, the technology can be
used to pevent counterfeiting.
As for the use of it, after the sale of the medicine has been done, the user can be informed of the dosage, expiration
date, available quantity and even remind him to take it on time.
GymSkill is a personal trainer developed at the Technical University of Munich, in which a smartphone-based personal
trainer is used for monitoring the excercise done by the user. "The system utilizes the embedded sensing capabilities
of a phone placed on the balance board (accelerometer and gyroscope) to record the exercises. The quality of recorded
data is automatically analyzed, i.e., the skill of the trainee is assessed. The system provides basic situated (auditive and
visual) feedback during exercising and, moreover, performs retrospective automatic assessments of the quality of the
performed exercises. It provides a global quantitative judgment of physical exercises in the form of an aggregated skill
metric, which is the basis for competitive evaluations of physical exercises. It is, thus, ideal for tracking individual
progress over the course of a long-term training program." [12]
Although physical mobile interactions can be applied in may fields, in this case Möller et al present an application for
the Health Environment. MobiMed can identify drug packages using different interaction methods.
"We conceived MobiMed, a medication package identifier implementing four interaction paradigms: pointing,
scanning, touching and text search." [13]
By identifying the medicine, the user could get additional information about it, check side effects, and even consult
his physician if that medicine is appropriate for him.
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4 Conclusions
"And men got dreaming. Shouldn’t there be a network that made all my devices collaborate at all times, converse
spontaneously among themselves and with the rest of the world, and all together make up a kind of single virtual
computer - the sum of their respective intelligence, knowledge and know how?" Rafi Haladjian
We have shown in this paper, that the Applications Domains regarding the Internet of Things, is constantly growing
and improving, thus presenting everyday a new opportunity of implementation. As technology grows, it becomes pos-
sible to achieve interactions we could not before, specially when this breakthroughs are in the area of communication,
networking and sensors. The two-multi way communication is what is going to make the Internet of Things grow
hopefully exponentially, as those the technology.
In this paper, we only cover two major Domains, the Smart or Intelligent Environments and the Health Environment,
and as we could see, these two link together and even some examples can be considered part of either one of the
categories, or just change its focus. Imagine using the technology of MobiMed to identify movie posters and be able
to read the reviews or see the trailer; we could also have the LISA technology implemented at a Gym and not only for
an elderly person. Or even combine the LISA project with the PEIS Home and create an intelligent apartment.
This just comes to show how the technology can be applied differently and cover different needs according to the
parameters we set as important; and as technology continues to improve, we would be able to do anything we once
dream of.
References
[1] Santucci, G.: The internet of things: Between the revolution of the internet and the metamorphosis of objects.
23 2.1
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[3] Haller, S., Karnouskos, S., Schroth, C.: The internet of things in an enterprise context. Future Internet–FIS 2008
(2009) 14–28 2.1
[4] Atzori, L., Iera, A., Morabito, G.: The internet of things: A survey. Computer Networks 54(15) (2010) 2787–2805
2.1, 3.2.2
[9] Cirillo, M.: Proactive assistance in ecologies of physically embedded intelligent systems: A constraint-based
approach. (2011) 534–538 3.2.3, 5
[10] Alendal, M.: The social web of things - a social network for your devices 3.2.4
[11] Bock, T.: Lisa smart walls 3.3.1, 7
[12] Möller, A., Scherr, J., Roalter, L., Diewald, S., Hammerla, N., Plötz, T., Olivier, P., Kranz, M.: Gymskill: Mobile
exercise skill assessment to support personal health and fitness. In: Ninth International Conference on Pervasive
Computing (Pervasive 2011), Video Proceedings, San Francisco, CA, USA (June 2011) 3.3.4, 8
[13] Möller, A., Diewald, S., Roalter, L., Kranz, M.: Mobimed: comparing object identification techniques on smart-
phones. In: Proceedings of the 7th Nordic Conference on Human-Computer Interaction: Making Sense Through
Design. NordiCHI ’12, New York, NY, USA, ACM (2012) 31–40 3.3.5, 9
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46
Advances in Media Technology
Internet of Vehicles
Wei Sun
wei.sun@mytum.de
January 15, 2013
Abstract
Internet of vehicles will be discussed in this paper. It could be some cars talk to each other or the driver obtains
information from a road-side infrastructure. It can increase the safety level, improve the drive efficiency, save fuel, cut
down carbon dioxide emission, pay bill electronically1 etc. The architecture of a Vehicle to X communication system
will be explained and the IEEE 802.11p protocol is especially given to car wireless communication protocol to suit
the complex car to car communication.
2 Overview
Dimitrakopoulos [1] believes, that Information and Communication Technology should be used to increase the traffic
efficiency and avoid most of traffic accidents, once the cars talk to each other and the infrastructure.
Arief et al. [2] focus on how an intelligent smartdust can cooperate with other transport sensors under different
conditions on the road. At which range, accuracy, direction and speed could these smartdusts communicate with each
other.
Car communication is exposed in public [3, 4], some security and privacy things from the individual car should be
protected. So some trust management methods and secure interaction will be set up.
Reduction of fuel consumption is an important advantage of the Car-to-X communication [5]. As people can
smooth drive through the intersection without any red light, that is not only a comfortable feel but also save the fuel
and protect the environment.
1 Audi Travolution Project: http://www.audiusanews.com
2 Audi Travolution Project: http://www.audiusanews.com
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Natural user interfaces are recommended [6, 7] for great UI experience in Vehicles. From technology aspects to
user experience it is worth for automobile manufacture to think about it.
The American intelligent transport deployment [8] wants to figure out how to deploy their intelligent infrastructure
on the road and if there are any barriers on the technological side and how does their market react. In this background
they can develop several applications, which can be interesting.
Gerla and Kleinrock [9] explain the Vehicle connected with others comprehensively from a network aspect espe-
cially under P2P technology. The authors think the content in the vehicle net can be shared, so everything can be spread
widely.
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Internet of Vehicles Advances in Media Technology
In the car wireless communication technology, cars not only talks to each other through OBU, but also talk to
road-side unit (RSU). Considering the dynamic characteristic of cars, the two ways of communication both use ad hoc
communication network (Vehicular ad-hoc network). Ad hoc network has no wired infrastructure supported mobile
network, the nodes in the network are composed of mobile units (cars or road-side units). When two mobile units in the
ad hoc domain, they can directly talk. If two units are not in the same ad hoc area, the message should be transferred
from another unit, that stay between the two units. So in the ad hoc network, a unit is also a router, which is responsible
for searching route and transferring messages.
Infrastructure domain includes RSU and WIFI. That means cars can talk to some connected RSU or WIFI, which
can help the units to access Internet. Furthermore the OBU can be intergrated with other communication functions,
such as GSM, GPRS, UMTS, HSDPA, WiMax, 4G [9], which are connected to mobile station.
In the future, people could even observe and control their cars just at home or in faraway as the triangle in Figure 1
showed above.
Another solution is, when a car come into the ad hoc domain, it can obtain the traffic light information. This
solution will not be restricted to the mobile station and it is free for drivers. And this method is faster to capture a
intersection information. But the installation of infrastructure will be spent a lot.
These two methods are the most efficient ways to set up a car to traffic light communication system, which is
more efficient for drivers from one destination to another. Meanwhile it helps drivers to save fuel and reduce the CO2
emission.
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Internet of Vehicles Advances in Media Technology
The car to car communication system plays a great roll in the car safety assistant system, because people can only
see straightly from the car window. If there is any thing blocks our sight view, that could be very dangerous, when we
drive a car at a very high speed. So now the car communication means a lot to driver to know if there are other cars or
Vehicles beside the driver.
It is easy to understand with the following picture. The motor driver cannot see the car behind the van, because the
van blocks his view on the right side. So it is dangerous to drive across the intersection without braking. If the motor
driver knows, that the car on the right comes near, he will slow down the speed and let the car go first.
Other inter-car functions will be developed to meet the human demands, such as sharing music and pavement
situation.
4 Technology Aspect
OBUs between cars is based on the protocol IEEE 802.11p, furthermore OBU can be appended with IEEE802.11a/b/g/n
and even GSM. Here IEEE 802.11 is an IEEE defined wireless network communication4 . The protocols include suffix
in IEEE802.11a/b/g/n have been supplemented on the physics layer against the original version, which increase the data
transfer ability. IEEE 802.11p is especially supported to car wireless communication, which is an expansion of IEEE
802.11, that is suitable to intelligent transportation systems (ITS). So IEEE 802.11p is also called Wireless Access in
the Vehicular Enviroment (Wave) or dedicated short range communications (DSRC)5 .
According to the “open system interconnection reference model, OSI” the OBU communication module should be
divided into five layers: application, car to car transport, car to car network, MAC/LLC layer, physics layer.
Car-to communication is based on 3 wireless technologies: vehicular IEEE 802.11P, traditional IEEE 802.11a/b/g/n
and other mobile wireless technology. IEEE 802.11p has a higher safety level between the vehicular communication
against others. Safety application as a core application uses the IEEE 802.11p protocol. The other application, which
requires a lower safety level, can use the TCP, UDP communication protocol to talk to other cars or road-side infras-
tructure. They can also be transmitted through wireless communication technology IEEE 802.11a/b/g/n.
Car-to-car protocol transport layer help OBU to encrypt, decrypt data, point to point transport and transfer messages
as required [10]. Transport layer can integrate and encapsulate messages and transfer it to the next node. It can order
OBU to act as one of the transfer nodes, to choose the route reasonably according to the destination to transfer the
messages. Transfer layer consists of unicast, broadcast and geocast, three data communication methods.
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However the car cannot always be driven with green traffic light, when there is no optimal speed for the car to close
up to the next intersection. But the display screen will give out the last of second number of the red light to warn the
driver when he can start and the driver can utilize the Start/Stop function to save the gas as he wishes.
According to the Audi Impress, when a car is driven under this network, the driver can save the amount of time
spent on the way and cut fuel consumption by 0.02 liter6 for every traffic light stop and avoid a high frequent and un-
comfortable acceleration phase. Meanwhile through this technology a large amount of CO2 emissions can be reduced,
which meets the demands of environmental conservation.
6 Conclusion
It is always the rule, that the safety of a car is the most important. Then people think about efficiency and entertainment.
So the car-to-x communication system is worth to be mentioned. Under its function the car talk to each other and
they can interact well on the road, because they already know each other well before an accident may occur. With a
traffic light assistant system a car can move avoiding many red lights. Entertainment and commercial opportunities
obviously will not be ignored if the whole system is maturely built up [5].
References
[1] Dimitrakopoulos, G.: Intelligent transportation systems based on internet-connected vehicles: Fundamental
research areas and challenges. In: 11th International Conference on ITS Telecommunications (ITST). (August
2011) 145–151 2
[2] Arief, B., Blythe, P., Fairchild, R., Selvarajah, K., A, T.: Integrating smartdust into intelligent transportation
systems. Report 1062, School of Computing Science, University of Newcastle upon Tyne (dec 2007) 2
[3] Ellison, G., Lacy, J., Maher, D., Nagao, Y., Poonegar, A., Shamoon, T.: The car as an Internet-enabled device, or
how to make trusted networked cars. In: Electric Vehicle Conference (IEVC), 2012 IEEE International. (March
2012) 1–8 2
[4] Diewald, S., Leinmüller, T., Atanassow, B., Breyer, L.P., Kranz, M.: Mobile Device Integration and Interaction
with V2X Communication. In: 19th World Congress on Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS). (October 2012) 2
[5] Tielert, T., Killat, M., Hartenstein, H., Luz, R., Hausberger, S., Benz, T.: The impact of traffic-light-to-vehicle
communication on fuel consumption and emissions. In: Internet of Things (IOT). (December 2010) 1–8 2, 6
[6] Diewald, S., Möller, A., Roalter, L., Kranz, M.: Mobile Device Integration and Interaction in the Automotive
Domain. In: AutoNUI: Automotive Natural User Interfaces Workshop at the 3rd International Conference on
Automotive User Interfaces and Interactive Vehicular Applications (AutomotiveUI 2011). (November–December
2011) 2
[7] Diewald, S., Möller, A., Roalter, L., Kranz, M.: DriveAssist - A V2X-Based Driver Assistance System for
Android. In Reiterer, H., Deussen, O., eds.: Mensch & Computer Workshopband, Oldenbourg Verlag (2012)
373–380 2
[8] Hill, C., Garrett, J.: AASHTO Connected Vehicle Infrastructure Deployment Analysis. Technical report (2011)
2, 3.3
[9] Gerla, M., Kleinrock, L.: Vehicular networks and the future of the mobile internet. Computer Networks 55(2)
(2011) 457–469 2, 3.1
[10] Baldessari, R., Bödekker, B., Deegener, M., Festag, A., Franz, W., Kellum, C., Kosch, T., Kovacs, A., Lenardi,
M., Menig, C., et al.: Car-2-car communication consortium-manifesto. DLR Electronic Library [http://elib. dlr.
de/perl/oai2](Germany) (2007) 3.1, 4, 4
52 Wei Sun