CHAPTER ONE: CELLS AND TISSUES

 A cell is the smallest unit that can carry out all activities necessary for life.
 Most cells are so small that you can see them only through a microscope.
 The cell contains different functional structures which are collectively called organelles, and they
are involved in various cellular functions.
 All cells have a cell membrane enclosing the cytoplasm.
 Most cells have a nucleus.

CELL MEMBRANE

Definition: is a thin semi permeable protein-membrane layer that surrounds an animal cell.
This is a thin layer of cytoplasm round the outside of the cell.

STRUCTURE OF CELL MEMBRANE

- Bi-layer of proteins & lipids.

Function of Cell membrane

 It stops contents from escaping
 It also controls the substances that enter and leave the cell.
 In general, oxygen, food and water are allowed to enter; waste products are allowed to leave and
harmful substances are kept out.
 Separates the cell from outside environment
 Selectively permeable-means allow substance to pass and stop others

Cytoplasm

Definition of Cytoplasm : This is a gel-like material that contains all the cell organelles, particles
floating in a thick liquid and enzymes that speed up biological molecule reactions enclosed within the
cell membrane.
Cytoplasm function
  In the cytoplasm, great many chemical reactions are taking place which keep the cell alive by
providing energy and making substances that the cell needs.

Nucleus (plural = nuclei). Most cells contain one nucleus.

The nucleus: is an administrative center of the cell

Function: Controls the cell activities
The storehouse of the cell’s DNA
Nuclear membrane/ Envelope
• Double membrane layer that surrounds nucleus
Function: Allows material to move into & out of Nucleus (RNA pass through pores)
Nucleolus: Small dense region in nucleus
• Assembly of ribosome takes place here
Chromatin: Granular material within nucleus
Function: Condenses to form chromosome at the time of cell division
Chromosome: Distinct threadlike
Function:
 Contains genetic information • Blueprint - controls cell activity
 Pass on genetic info to next generation
Nucleoplasm: is the content of the cell nucleus
Function: transportation of materials that are vital to cell metabolism and function.
Function of nucleus
The function of the nucleus is to control the types and quantity of enzymes produced by the cytoplasm.

 It determines what the cell will be, e.g. a liver cell, a muscle cell or a nerve cell.
 It also controls cell division. Inside the nucleus are thread-like structures called chromosomes,
which can be seen most easily at the time when the cell is dividing.
Mitochandria
Mitochandria: are tiny organelles present in animal cell and plant structure are spherical, rods
shaped. Double membrane bound organelles. The outer membrane covers the organelle and contains it
like a skin. The inner membrane folds over many times and creates layered structures called cristae.
The fluid contained in the mitochondria is called the matrix.
Mitochondria are special because they have their own ribosomes and DNA floating in the matrix.

Function of mitochondria : Power house of cell – produces energy for growth, development, and
movement.

Endoplasmic Reticulum: Highly folded membrane in cytoplasm

Function Connects membrane and Moves material
1. Rough E.R. (ribosome) : Process protein
2. Smooth E.R. (no ribosomes).
Smooth E.R. – production & storage of carbohydrates & lipid.
Golgi apparatus:Flattened stack of tubular memberane that Found near cell member.

Function : Sorts & packs protein into vesicle & transports them.

Lysos
ome: is a membrane-bound cell organelle that contains digestive enzymes

Functions
 These organelles are responsible for intracellular digestion where the larger macromolecules are
degraded into smaller molecules with the help of enzymes present in them.
 Lysosomes also perform the critical function of the autolysis of unwanted organelles within the
cytoplasm.
 Ch
loroplast: is an organelle that contains the photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll that captures sunlight
and converts it into useful energy, thereby, releasing oxygen from water.
Membrane Envelope: It comprises inner and outer lipid bilayer membranes
Thylakoid System: It is a collection of membranous sacs called thylakoids. Chlorophyll is found in
the thylakoid membranes.
Stroma: fluid present within the inner membrane of the chloroplast present surrounding the grana.
Grana: These are the sites of conversion of light energy into chemical energy.
Function of chloroplast: The most important function of the chloroplast is to synthesize food by the
process of photosynthesis.

VACUOLE
Definition: Vacuoles are membrane-bound structures varying in size in cells of different organisms.
Structure
 The vacuole is surrounded by a membrane called tonoplast, which encloses fluid containing
inorganic materials like water and organic materials like nutrients and even enzymes.

Functions

 Vacuoles act as storage for nutrients as well as waste materials to protect the cell for toxicity.
 Vacuoles contain enzymes that play an important role in different metabolic processes
Plant cell Animal cell

Square or rectangular in shape Irregular or round in shape

Cell wall No cell wall

Chloroplast No chloroplast

No centrioles Centrioles

Large and centeral vacoule Small valoule

Cell wall is outer Cell membrane is outer

Specialization cells

Most cells, when they have finish dividing and growing become specialized. This means that:

i. They do one particular job

ii. They develop a distinct shape

Nerve cells and guard cells are examples of specialized cells.

This specialization under control of genes, and is called differentiation. The specialization of cells to
carry out particular functions in an organism is sometimes referred to as “division labor”

Tissue and organs

The cells of plants and animals cannot survive on their own.

Cells: are grouped together in large numbers and made to work together to form a tissue. Examples of
tissues are bone, nerve, muscle in animals; and phloem, pith and xylem in plants.

There are four primary types of tissues

a) Epithelial Tissues
Locations
 Body coverings
 Body linings
 Glandular tissue
Functions
 Protection
 Absorption
 Filtration
 Secretion
b) Connective Tissue
 Locations
 Found everywhere in the body
 Includes the most abundant and widely distributed tissues
 Functions
 Binds body tissues together
 Supports the body
 Provides protection
c) Muscle Tissue
 Function is to produce movement
 Three types
 Skeletal muscle
 Cardiac muscle
 Smooth muscle
d) Nerve Tissue
Composed of neurons and nerve support cells
Function is to send impulses to other areas of the body
 Irritability
 Conductivity
Organs: consist of several tissues grouped together to make a structure with a special function. E.g.
stomach, heart, lungs, intestines, brain and eyes in animals; roots, stem and leaves in plants.

Organ system: usually refers to a group of organs whose functions are closely related.
E.g. circulatory system, nervous system, digestive system, etc.

An organism is formed by the organs & systems working together to produce an independent plant or
animal.

ENERGY FROM RESPIRATION

Respiration: is the process of releasing enenery from food
There are two types of respiration
1. Aerobic Respiration: respiration use of oxygen to oxidize food.
In aerobic respiration, food molecules are combined with oxygen.
This process is called oxidation and the food is said to be oxidized.
The reaction is summarized in the following equation:
glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy
2. Anaerobic respiration: respiration doesn’t use oxygen to oxide food.
Anaerobic respiration is different from aerobic respiration because it takes place in the absence
of oxygen, but energy is still released from the food by breaking it down chemically.
Human muscle cells form anaerobic respiration during heavy exercise when there is no enough
oxygen.
enzyme
C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + 1180KJ
Glucose alcohol C. dioxide energy
 The table below shows you the main difference between aerobic and anaerobic respiration:

Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration

Oxygen is used Oxygen is not used
Permanent Temporary
Large quantity of energy is produced Less energy is produced
Carbohydrates are completely oxidized Carbohydrates are not completely broken down
The end-products are CO2 and H2O The end products are alcohol and CO2
TRANSPORT OF MATERIALS ACROSS THE MEMBRANE
Materials necessary for life must across the cell membrane and enter the cell. Waste products produced
in the cell must be removed crossing the cell membrane.
Materials pass in and out of the cell by
1. Diffusion
2. Osmosis
3. Active transport
Diffusion is the movement of particles within a gas or liquid from a region of high concentration to a
region of lower concentration until an equilibrium is reached.
The rate of diffusion is affected by different factors including:

i. The size of particles diffusing.

ii. Distance of diffusion
iii. Type of medium in which diffusion takes place
iv. Concentration difference or gradient
v. Temperature

Factors affecting diffusion Faster rate of diffusion Slower rate of diffusion

Size of particles Small Large

Distance b/w areas of diffusion Short Long

Medium of diffusion Gas Solid

Temperature High (hot) Low (cold)

Concentration gradient Higher (more difference) Lower (less difference)

Osmosis is the diffusion of water through a partially permeable membrane. Water will diffuse from the
dilute to the concentrated solution through porous membrane.
Water moves freely pores

Active Transport

Active transport is a method of moving substances from low concentration area to high concentration
area. I.e. against concentration gradient by using energy. E.g. absorption of mineral salts from soil by
root cells.

Bulk transport: is another mechanism by which substances enter the cell or secreted out of cells in a
large amount.

1. Endocytosis: taking in substances

a) Phagocytosis (= cell eating): is the endocytosis of solid. Endocytosis occurs in single-celled
animals such as paramecium and certain white blood cells.
b) Pinocytosis (= cell drinking): is the endocytosis of liquids and suspensions.
2. Exocytosis: expelling substances. Occurs in the cells of glands. E.g. digestive glands that
secrete enzymes.

UNIT TWO: ESSENTIAL PLANT NUTRIENTS

Introduction

Plant nutrition is the study of chemical elements and compounds necessary for plant growth.
Essential plant nutrients require only light, water, and about 20 elements to support their biochemical
needs. These 20 elements are called essential plant nutrients.
For an element to be regarded as essential, three criteria are required.
1. Plant cannot complete its life cycle without element.
2. No other element can perform the function of the element.
3. The element is directly involved in plant nutrition
Essential Plant Nutrients
These are the most important required by plants for growth and development. They are usually
found in the air and soil but may be added to the soil when their supply is low. Essential
elements can be divided into
1. mineral elements and
2. non-mineral elements

1. Mineral Elements
These minerals are available inform of water an air. They are readily available to plants hence
their deficiency is rare. Carbon is available in a form of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
Hydrogen is obtained from water. Oxygen is available from atmosphere and from water the pant
absorbs. These elements are directly involved in synthesis of carbohydrates, proteins, and oils in
plants.
2. Mineral Elements
Mineral elements found in soil and are absorbed directly by plant nutrients in solution form.
Mineral elements can be divided into
1. Macronutrients and
2. Micronutrients
1. Macronutrients
These are essential elements needed in a large amount and extremely the availability or
deficiency affect plant growth and development. Macronutrients are further classified into two
sub-categories:
A. Primary macro nutrients and
B. Secondary macronutrients
A. Primary macronutrients: These include Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium (N.P.K).
B. Secondary macronutrients: These include Calcium, Magnesium and Sulphur.
The following table below summarize the role of macronutrients in plant nutrients and their
deficiency symptoms.
Nutrient Role played in plants Deficiency symptoms
element
1. Nitrogen  Used in formation of protein  Leaves become chlorotic
 Forms part of chlorophyll  Stunted growth
 Encourages quality of leave crops.  Crops ripen prematurely
and fruits fall off.
 Lower leaves dry up
2. Phosphorus  Used in protein and  Leads poor root development.
enzyme formation  Leads Stunted growth
 Promotes root development and  Leads purple coloration of leaves
shoot growth
 Leads poor and fruit formation
 Hastens seed formation and
fruit ripening
3. Potassium  Control the opening and closing of  Margins and tips of old
the stomata leaves turn yellow.
 Helps photosynthesis  Leaves curl and latter fall
 Increase resistance of plants to off prematurely in extreme
diseases deficiency.

4. Calcium  It forms chlorophyll molecule  Leads to stunted growth in

 Strength plant cell walls plants.
 Used in protein synthesis  Plants have weak stems
 Used in cell division  Leads to dying back of plant tips
 Assist in uptake of nitrogen
 Neutralize organic acids in the soil
5. Magnesium  Chlorophyll formation  Old leaves become yellow in
 Required in synthesis of fats and oils between the leaves (interveinal
 Synthesis of amino acids and chlorosis)
cell proteins  Stem become weak and
branches are elongated
 Leaves dry and fall off
in extreme deficiency.

6. Sulphur  Essential constituent in protein  Plants grow small and short

 Chlorophyll formation  Leaves become yellow
 Reduced root formation
resulting to poor growth

2. Micronutrients
These are needed only into very small amounts and their deficiency not extremely affect plants.
These include copper, zinc, chlorine, iron, boron, manganese, nickel, and molybdenum.

The following table below summarize the role of micronutrients in plant nutrients and their
deficiency symptoms of micronutrients.

Nutrient element Role played in plants Deficiency symptoms

1. Chlorine  Essential in chlorophyll molecule  Leaf chlorosis and wilting

2. Boron  Essential in water absorption  Wilting of leaves

and sugar translocation  Death of terminal buds
3. Copper  Important in enzyme systems and  Leaf chlorosis
protein synthesis
4. Iron  Important in enzyme action  Leaf chlorosis
and protein formation
 Essential for nitrogen fixation and
respiration.
5. Zinc  Formation of growth hormone.  Interveinal chlorosis on
 Reproduction process. young leaves.
6. Molybdenum  Is required for proper utilization  Plant becomes stunted
of nitrogen.  Leaves shows
symptoms of nitrogen
deficiency, appearing
pale green or yellowish
green in color between
between the
veins.
Soil Fertility
Soil is the upper thin layer of the earth crust which acts as the medium which plant roots grow
and get essential nutrients. Soil fertility is defined as the capacity of the soil to produce and
maintain high crop yield. Soil fertility is major factor determines soil productivity which soil’s
ability to sustain and produce high yields.
Fertile soil is that which supply crops with all nutrients adequately and in the right proportion.

Characteristics of fertile soil

 Good depth for root growth
 Well drained, aerated and water holding capacity (WHC)
 Have enough plant nutrients
 Have right PH and mostly its neutral of PH 7
 Free from pest and disease-causing agents like bacteria and virus.
How soil can loss it’s fertility?
Soil can loss it’s fertility in many ways and the most common way are the following:
 Soil erosion: fertile soil is rich on the top layer and carried away by rainwater and winds.
 Leaching: dissolved minerals are carried by water deep into the soil beyond reach of
roots.
 Continuous cropping
 Monocropping: this the growing single crop on a plot of land over a long period of time.
 Salt accumulation
 Burning the land: if the land is burnt, the organic matter and useful microbes in the soil
are destroyed.
Maintenance of soil fertility
Soil fertility can be maintained in many ways and the most common practices are:
 Control of soil erosion: soil erosion can be controlled using physical methods like
terraces and stone lines and biological methods like cover crops.
 Crop rotation: this practice land is dived into four parts and each part is grown specific
crop and crops are changed rotationally.
 Control of soil PH and proper drainage
 Weed control
 Use of manures and fertilizers
Soil PH
Soil PH is defined as the acidity or alkalinity of plants. Soil acidity depends on hydrogen ions in
the soil and soil alkalinity depends on hydroxide ions (OH) in the soil. Soil is measured on a
scale called PH scale ranging from 1-14.
 Below 7 is acidic (0-6)
 Above 7 is alkali or base (8-14)
 7 is neutral, neither acid nor base. Most plants grow well on neutral PH of 7.
 CHAPTER THREE: MANURE AND FERTILIZER

Organic Manure, Humus and Fertilizer

Manure is an organic substance obtained from decomposed remains of plants and animals. Fully
developed organic matter is referred to as humus. Fertilizers are inorganic substances
manufactured in factories.

Classification of organic manure

There are three types of organic manure which are:

1. Green manure
2. Farm yard manure
3. Compost manure
1. Green Manure

Made from green plants which are grown for the purpose of incorporating into the soil.

Characteristics of plants used for preparation for green manure:

 Have fast growth rates.

 Have high nitrogen content.
 Capable of rotting quickly.
 Capable of growing in poor conditions.

Preparation of Green Manure

 Plant the green manure crop in the field.

 Allow the crop to grow up to flowering stage.
 Incorporate it into the soil through ploughing.
 Allow the crop to decompose for two weeks.
 Prepare the field for planting the major crop.

2. Farm yard Manure (FYM)

This is animal dung and urine mixed with organic matter and allowed to decay. This manure is
usually rich in nitrogen. It is highly useful and some of its properties are, FYM is rich in
nutrients. When cow dung and urine are mixed, a balanced nutrition is made available to the
plants. Availability of potassium and phosphorus from FYM is like that from inorganic sources.
Application of FYM improves soil fertility.

3. Composite e manure

This is the decayed residue of plants and animals’ material, wood ash, and kitchen refuse made
using any litter or trash found I around. The trash heaped up to encourage decay by bacteria.
Preparation of composite manure

1. A base of about 1.20m by 1.20m is established

2. A foundation of maize stalks or other dry trash is built
3. Grass, trash, or refuse layer of 3cm is added.
4. A layer of decayed manure 5cm deep is added.
5. A layer of wood ash of 7cm is added.
6. A layer of topsoil is than put on. This makes the last layer of the first stage.
7. The above sequences are repeated until the heap is about 1.2 meters high.
8. This heap is finally covered with a layer of dry leaves.
9. Decay and decomposition are encouraged by keeping damp but not wet.
10. After three or four weeks, the heap is turned.
11. After four to six months the compost manure should be ready for use.
Inorganic Manure (Fertilizers)

Fertilizers are same as inorganic manure are those chemical compounds that are artificially
prepared to supply nutrients to plants. They are commercially prepared and contain one or
more elements or plant nutrients.
Classification of inorganic fertilizers

Inorganic fertilizers can be classified into four different ways

A. By nutrient composition
B. Effects of fertilizers on soil PH
C. Time of application in relation to crop growth
D. Form of application.

A. Nutrient composition

In this classification, fertilizer grouped according to the nutrient they supply. These are further
subdivided int two.
1. Straight and
2. Compound fertilizers

1. Straight fertilizers

Supply only one of the three major primary macronutrients nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium.
They are named according to the nutrient they supply
 Nitrogenous fertilizers
 Phosphate fertilizers
 Potassic fertilizers

2. Compound fertilizers

Supply two or three of the major primary macronutrients. They can be divided int two:

I. Complete compound fertilizers

Are those that supply the three major nutrients. These include 20: 20: 10, 17:17:17

II. Incomplete compound fertilizers

Are those that supply two major fertilizers. This include diammonium phosphate (DAP) 20: 20:
0
 B. Effect Of Fertilizers on Soil PH

Fertilizers can be classified as acidic or basic. This method is not commonly used as most
fertilizers are acidic except calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN) which is neutral to slightly basic.

C. Time of Application

Fertilizers can be classified into two:

 Those applied during planting time such as phosphate and compound fertilizers
 Those applied when the crops are actively growing in the field such as nitrogenous
and potassic fertilizers and are called top dressing.

D. Form in Which Fertilizer Are Applied

Most fertilizers are applied in solid from but some are applied in liquid form on the leaves pf
plants. Such fertilizers are referred to as foliar feeds.

Identification of Fertilizers

Fertilizers can be identified by their physical and chemical properties which include color,
solubility, shape of granules and PH.
 Nitrogenous fertilizers are light colored ranging from cream white to white,
highly soluble and have granules.
 Phosphate fertilizers are light grey to dark grey in color, sparingly soluble and
have irregular granules of different size.
 Potassic fertilizers are mainly white in color, soluble and have regular granules.

Methods of Fertilizer Application

There are several ways of applying fertilizers in the farm and are:

1. Band placement
2. Side dressing
3. Ring placement
4. Drip method
5. Foliar spray
1. Band placement

Fertilizers are applied in a strip (band) between rows of the crop. This method is commonly used
on crops with extensive root system such as coffee and tea.

2. Side dressing

Fertilizers are placed beside the crop at the base. Care must be exercised to avoid the fertilizer
coming into direct contact with crops.

3. Ring placement

Fertilizer is applied around the base of plant. Within the root zone but away from the stem.
4. Drip method

Fertilizer is first dissolved in waters and gradually released in solution form in drips.

This method is common crops that are drip irrigation.

5. Foliar spraying

Fertilizers are dissolved in water and then applied in spray form to the crops. The nutrients are
absorbed through the leaves. Micronutrients are applied through this method.
CHAPTER FOUR: ANIMAL AND PLANT NUTRITION

Introduction

Nutrition refers to the process by which living organisms obtain and utilize nutrients. The nutrients
obtained are required for

 Growth and development

 Energy provision
 Repair of worn-out tissues
 Synthesis of macromolecules
 Movement
 Reproduction
MODES OF NUTRITION

There are two main nutrition modes:

1. Auto trophism

Mode of nutrition through which living organisms manufacture their own food from simple inorganic
substances in the environment such as carbon dioxide, water, and mineral ions. Organisms that make their
own food through this mode are autotrophs.

2. Heterotrophism

Mode of nutrition in which living organisms depend on already manufactured food materials from other
living organisms. Heterotrophs are the organisms that feed on already manufactured food materials.

Nutrition in plants

Definition of Photosynthesis

 Photosynthesis is a process by which green plants, having chlorophyll synthesize simple sugars
(glucose) from simple inorganic raw materials: Carbon dioxide and water using energy of the sun.
 The light energy is trapped by special pigment known as chlorophyll found in the chloroplast.
SITE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Although all green parts of the plant are capable of carrying out photosynthesis. photosynthesis takes
place in chloroplast.

Requirements for photosynthesis

1. Chlorophyll:

It’s a green pigment in plants which is found in chloroplasts.

 It traps light energy and converts it into chemical energy.

 Chloroplasts are disk-shaped organelles that contain chlorophyll.
 Chloroplasts contain stroma and grana

23
 The stroma is a fluid medium which contains photosynthetic enzymes.
 The grana contain chlorophyll molecules which trap light energy.

2. Carbon dioxide

It’s a raw material for the process plants get Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Terrestrial plants use
atmospheric Carbon dioxide while aquatic plants use Carbon dioxide dissolved in water.

3. Water: This is another raw material for photosynthesis. Plants absorb water from the soil’ which is
transported to leaves through xylem vessels .

4. Sunlight

Light energy is used in breaking down the water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen, enabling the light
dependent and light independent process of photosynthesis to proceed and produce the products and by
products of this process.

Adaptation of leaves for photosynthesis

Adaptation Purpose

1. Large surface area To absorb more light

2. Thin Short distance for CO2 to diffuse into leaf cells.

3. Chlorophyll Absorbs sun light to transfer energy into chemicals to reach inner cells

4. Network of veins To support the leaf and transport water, mineral ions and sucrose sugar

5. Stomata Allow carbon dioxide to diffuse into the leaf and oxygen to diffuse out

The process of photosynthesis

Photosynthesis takes place in the two stages namely the

1. Light stage and

2. Dark stage
1. Light stage
The light stage occurs in the grana of the chloroplasts. Chlorophyll traps light energy which is used to
split water molecules into oxygen molecules and hydrogen ions. This process is known as photolysis of
water. Some light energy is also used to form adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is later used in the
dark stage.

24
2. Dark stage

This stage occurs in the stroma of chloroplasts. In this stage, carbon dioxide combines with hydrogen ions
from the light stage to form glucose. This process is known as carbon dioxide fixation or Calvin cycle.

The overall equation that summarizes the process of photosynthesis is

Carbon dioxide + water Glucose + oxygen

6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2

The process is slow and is therefore catalyzed by enzymes present in the stroma of the chloroplast. ATP
is used to provide energy for the process. Some of the glucose formed is used for respiration, some is
converted to starch and lipids and the rest combines with nitrates to form proteins.

Factors influencing photosynthesis

a. Light intensity
Light provides the energy required for the process of photosynthesis.

The rate of photosynthesis increases as light increases.

b. Carbon dioxide concentration

The concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is relatively constant at 0.03%.
However, an increase in carbon dioxide concentration gradually increases the rate of photosynthesis.
c. Temperature:
Photosynthesis is an enzyme-controlled process. At very low temperatures the rate of photosynthesis is
slow because the enzymes are inactive. As temperature increases, the rate of photosynthesis increases
because the enzymes become more active. Rate of photosynthesis is optimum at (35-40) °C.Beyond 40°C
the rate of photosynthesis decreases and eventually stops since the enzymes become denatured.

d. Availability of water
Water is raw material for photosynthesis. Water also determines the turgidity of guard cells, which in turn
control the opening and closing of stomata.Water shortage may lead to guard cells becoming flaccid,
resulting in the closure of stomata. With the stomata closed, CO2 will not be available in the leaf, and
therefore photosynthesis may not take place effective. These 4 factors are called limiting factors.

Importance Of Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is important in nature because of the
 Produces energy for the ecosystem (food)
 Produces oxygen used for respiration.
 It reduce levels carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, cause global warming (greenhouse effect).
 Photosynthesis is the source of energy obtained from fire food, coal, oil and natural gas.

25
CHEMICALS OF LIFE- BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES OF LIFE
 These are chemical compounds that constitute the living organisms.
 Biochemistry is the branch of biology that deals with the study of the chemicals of life and their
reactions. Chemicals of life include carbohydrates, proteins and lipids.
Carbohydrates
 Carbohydrates are compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
 Hydrogen and oxygen occur in the ratio of 2: 1 as in water.
Carbohydrates are classified into three main groups:
1. Monosaccharides
2. Disaccharides
3. Polysaccharides
Monosaccharides
 These are simple sugars
 The most common monosaccharides are:
 Glucose - found free in fruits and vegetables.
 Fructose - found free in fruits and in bee honey.
 Galactose - found combined in milk sugar.
 The general formula for monosaccharides is (CH2O) n where n is 6.
 They have the same number of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen molecules i.e C6H12O6 .
Properties of Monosaccharides
 They are soluble in water
 They are crystallizable
 They are sweet
 They are all reducing sugars
Functions of Monosaccharides

 Quick source of energy during respiration.

 Formation of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
 Formation of ribonucleic acid (RNA).
 Monosaccharides are the units of forming complex sugars.
Disaccharides
 These are double sugars -contain two monosaccharide units.
 They are formed by linking two monosaccharides through a process known as condensation.
 Disaccharides are reducing sugars except for sucrose, which is a non-reducing sugar.
Common examples of disaccharides include sucrose, maltose and lactose.
Monosaccharide units Disaccharides

1. Glucose + fructose Sucrose – sugar cane and sugar beet

2. Glucose + glucose Maltose -malt sugar

3. Glucose + galactose Lactose - milk sugar

26
Properties Of Disaccharides
 Sweet tasting
 Soluble in water
 Crystallisable
Functions of disaccharides
 Quick Sources of energy
 help with the absorption of nutrients.
 build other molecules like proteins and lipids
Polysaccharides
 They are long chains of carbohydrate molecules, which composed of several smaller
monosaccharides.
 These are multiple sugars made up of long chains of monosaccharides linked together through
condensation.It may consist of hundreds or even thousands of monosaccharide units.
Examples of polysaccharides:
 Starch - storage material in plants
 Glycogen is a storage carbohydrate in animals like starch, but has longer chains
 Cellulose - structural carbohydrate in plants.
 Chitin - forms exoskeleton in arthropods
Importance and Functions of Polysaccharides
 They are storage carbohydrates - starch in plants glycogen in animals .
 They are hydrolysed to their contituent monosaccharide units and used for respiration
 They form structural material e.g. cellulose makes cell walls
 Cellulose has wide commercial uses e.g. Fibre in cloth industry
 Cellulose is used to make paper.
PROTEINS
Proteins are the most abundant organic compounds in cells and constitute 50% of total dry weight.
Proteins are compounds which are made up of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and sometimes
Sulphur and phosphorus. The structural units of proteins are amino acids. The nature of a protein is
determined by the types of amino acids it is made of . there are about 20 common amino acids that make
up proteins.
There are two types of amino acids
1-Essential amino acids are those which cannot be synthesized in the body of an organism and must
therefore be provided in the diet. There are ten amino acids which are essential for humans. These are
valine, leucine, phenylalanine, lysine, tryptophan, isoleucine, methionine, threonine, histidine and
arginine.
2- Non-essential amino acids are those which the body can synthesise and therefore need not be
available in the diet. There are ten of them-These are glycine, alanine, glutamic acid, aspartic acid, serine,
tyrosine, proline, glutamine, arginine and cysteine. Proteins are essential in the diet because they are not
stored in the body. Excess amino acids are deaminated.

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 Formation of Proteins
 Proteins are made up of many amino acid units joined together through peptide bonds
 When two amino acids are joined together a dipeptide is formed
 The chemical process involved is called condensation and a molecule of water is eliminated
 When many amino acids are joined together a polypeptide chain is formed
 The nature of a particular protein depends on the types, number and sequence of amino acids from
which it is made.
Properties of Proteins

 They dissolve in water

 They are denatured at temperatures beyond 40°C.They are amphoteric- possess both basic and basic
properties.
 They are sensitive to PH. Extreme changes in PH can change the shape of the proteins.
Functions of proteins

 They form part of the structures of organisms.

 Cell membrane is protein in nature.
 Hair, nails, and hooves are made up of protein keratin.
 They assist in growth and repair
 They form part of hormones and enzymes
 They are used as a source of energy during starvation.
 Proteins such as antibodies provide protection to the body against infections
 Proteins play a vital role in blood clotting e.g. fibrinogen
LIPIDS

 These are fats and oils

 Fats are solid at room temperature while oils are liquid.
 They are made up of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen atoms.
 The structural units of lipids are fatty acids and glycerol.
 Fatty acids are made up of hydrocarbon chain molecules with a carboxyl group (-COOH) at one
end.
 In the synthesis of a lipid, three fatty acid molecules combine with one glycerol molecule to form
a triglyceride.
 Three molecules of water are lost in the process.
 This is a condensation reaction and water is given off.
 Lipids are hydrolyzed e.g. during digestion to fatty acids and glycerol, water is added.
Condensation

Glycerol + 3 Fatty hydrolysis Lipid + Water acids

Properties

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 Fats are insoluble in water but dissolve in organic solvents e.g. in alcohols
 They are chemically inactive, hence used as food storage compounds

Functions of Lipids

 Structural materials - as structural material they make up the cell membrane

 Source of energy - they are energy rich molecules one molecule of lipid provides more energy
than a carbohydrate molecule.
 Storage compound - They are stored as food reserves in plants and animals.
 Insulation - They form adipose tissue which act as heat insulator in the body.
 Protection - Complex lipids e.g wax on leaf surfaces protects the plant against water-loss and
overheating. They protect delicate body organs such as heart and kidney.

VITAMINS
Vitamins are organic compounds, found in natural foods which are required for normal growth and
maintenance of the body. Both humans and animals require vitamins for their growth. The word vitamin
is a combination of Latin words “vita” and “amine” which means life and nitrogen respectively.

1. Vitamins are of two types: Fat-soluble vitamins - A, D, E, and K are fat-soluble.

2. -soluble Vitamin - C and all the B vitamins.

29
Table below shows major vitamins, their sources, functions, and deficiency disease.

Vitamin name Functions Sources Deficiency

symptoms
A (Retinol)  Promotes good night Milk, egg yolk,  Night
vision seeds, nuts, fresh blindness
 Gives resistance to skin fruits, and carrots  Dry and rough
diseases skin
C (Ascorbic acid)  Maintain healthy bones Fresh green  Weak teeth
and teeth vegetables, fruits and bleeding
 It is important for quick such as lemons, gums
healing of wounds oranges, grapes, and  Reduced
 It provides resistance to bananas resistance to
infections disease
D (Calciferol)  It promotes absorption Liver, milk, egg  Rickets knock
of calcium and yolk, liver oil. knees
phosphorus  Poor teeth and
 It helps formation of bones
strong teeth and bones development
 Maintains healthy cell
growth
B9 (Folic acid)  It promotes Fresh vegetables Pernicious
haemoglobin anaemia
formation
K (phylloquinone)  It is important in the Liver, green Haemorrhages
formation of vegetables, whole
prothrombin during grains, and egg yolk
clotting of blood

MINERAL SALTS

MINERAL SALTS

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Mineral salts: are important inorganic compounds containing elements required for essential body
functioning. Depending on body requirements, mineral salts are of two classes:
1-Macro-nutrients: Nutrients required in large quantities. These include nitrogen, sulphur,
phosphorous, calcium, sodium, iron and magnesium.
2-Micro-nutrients: Nutrients required in small quantities. Include copper, manganese, boron, iodine
and cobalt.
Table below shows major minerals, their sources, functions, and deficiency symptoms.
Mineral name Functions Sources Deficiency symptoms
Iron It aids in the formation of Liver, meat, and Anaemia
haemoglobin in red blood green vegetables
cells.
Calcium  Helps in the formation Milk fish, cheese, Rickets (soft bones)
of bones and teeth cabbage, and
 It is important for blood brocolli
clotting
 It is important for
muscle contraction
 It promotes normal
functioning of the nervous
system
Iodine It aids in the synthesis of Iodized salt, sea Goiter (swollen
thyroxin hormone which food, and cheese thyroid gland)
regulates metabolism.
Phosphorus  Aids in the formation of Milk grains, Poor bone formation
healthy bones and teeth and lean meat
 It synthesizes of proteins
 It is involved in the
formation of ATP sources

Roughage
Roughage is the fiber found in food. This undigested part of the diet is called fiber or roughage.The
cell walls of plant consist of mainly of cellulose, but we do not have enzyme for digesting this
substance. It reach the large intestine (colon) without being digested.
Function of roughages
 It helps improve digestion and promotes gut health
 Roughages play an important role in prevention of many diseases of the digestive tract.
 Soluble dietary fibers in beans, oats and lentils reduce the amount of cholesterol in blood.

BALANCE DIET

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A balanced diet is one which includes all the nutrients in the required proportion along with water in the
required proportion along with water and roughage. A balanced diet is essential for pregnant, lactating
mothers, and growing children.
Role of balanced diet .
- A normal mental & physical status- An increased work capacity - Ability to resist diseases.
Enzymes

Enzymes : are organic catalysts that speed up the rate of chemical reactions in the body but remain
unchanged or unaffected by the reaction. These are chemical substances, protein in nature that speeds
up chemical reactions. Enzymes are produced by living cells (exocrine glands).There are two types of
enzymes, namely

Extracellular: Are produced within the cells but used outside the cells e.g. digestive enzymes.
Intracellular: Are enzymes produced and used within the cells e.g. respiratory enzymes.
How enzymes work
 Enzymes are specific to one particular substrate.
 Substrate is any molecule on which enzyme forms a complex for its conversion into product
molecules.
 Enzymes are much greater than their substrate.
 Enzymes have specific areas called active site which fits with a particular substrate.

Factors affecting enzymes activity

Temperature- PH- Substrate concentration- Enzyme concentration

Temperature

 At low temperatures, kinetic energy of enzymes and molecules are low.

 There are few collisions leading to low enzyme activity. As temperature increases, the kinetic
energy of the enzyme and substrate molecules increases leading to increased collisions hence
increase in enzyme activity. Enzyme activity is optimum at (35 -40°C)
 Beyond 40 °C the rate of enzyme activity decreases and eventually stops. This is because
enzymes get denatured, and their active sites get destroyed.

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PH

 Enzymes work best under different pH conditions.

 Some enzymes work best under alkaline conditions e.g. amylase. Some also work better under
acidic conditions e.g. pepsin.
 However, most intracellular enzymes work better under neutral conditions.
 Altering the pH conditions would affect enzyme activity.
Substrate Concentration

 At low substrate concentration, the rate of enzyme activity is low.

 Increase in substrate concentration increases the rate of enzyme activity
Enzyme concentration

The speed of a reaction is directly proportion to the concentration of enzyme.

Increase in enzyme concentration causes a rapid increase in rate of reaction, until all the substrates have
bound with every available enzyme, so that any increase in enzyme concentration does not cause an
increase in rate of reaction. The speed of a reaction is directly proportion to the concentration of
enzyme.
Teeth in mammals
In the life of mammals are two sets of teeth
1. Milk teeth and
2. Permanent teeth

1. Milk teeth
 It is the first set of teeth found in early childhood, starting growth about age of 5-6
months.
 The milk set when complete have 20 teeth.
 The set will be complete at the age of 2-3 years and gradually shaded between ages of 5-8
years to be replaced by permanent teeth.
2. Permanent teeth
  Is the second set of teeth which starts to grow when milk teeth fallout.
  The permanent set may be complete at ages of 12-14.
  When complete, the set contains 32 teeth. This set cannot be replaced.
 The last molar teeth which do not always develop, or developing late in life are
called wisdom teeth
Types of Teeth in Humans.

Teeth in mammals

In the life of mammals are two sets of teeth

1. Milk teeth and

2. Permanent teeth

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 1. Milk teeth
 It is the first set of teeth found in early childhood, starting growth about age of 5-6
months.
 The milk set when complete have 20 teeth.
 The set will be complete at the age of 2-3 years and gradually shaded between ages of 5-8
years to be replaced by permanent teeth.
2. Permanent teeth
 Is the second set of teeth which starts to grow when milk teeth fallout.
 The permanent set may be complete at ages of 12-14.
 When complete, the set contains 32 teeth. This set cannot be replaced.
 The last molar teeth which do not always develop, or developing late in life are
called wisdom teeth
Types of teeth and their functions

There are four types of teeth

1. Incisors
2. Canines
3. Premolars
4. Molars

This table below shows Summary of types of human teeth and their functions

Type Incisor Canine Premolar Molar

Diagram

Position in Front Either side of Behind canines Back

mouth incisors
Description Chisel-shaped Slightly more Have two points Have four or five
(sharp edge) pointed than (cusps); have one cusps; have two
incisors or two roots or three roots
Function Biting of pieces Similar function Tearing and Chewing and
of food to incisor grinding food grinding food

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 STRUCTURE OF TOOTH

STRUCTURE OF TOOTH

1. Enamel
 Is the hard white material that covers the crown of the tooth
 It forms the biting surface.
 It protects the inner parts of the tooth from bacteria, injury, and changes in temperature
2. Dentine
 This a layer tissue beneath the enamel and surrounding the pulp.
 Dentine forms the bulk of tooth and is necessary for support of the enamel.
3. Pulp
 It is in the center of the tooth and comprises blood vessels and nerve fibres.
 The main function of the pulp are nourishment, defense, sensation, and formation of dentine.
4. Cementum
 Is the outer layer of the tooth’s root
 It protects the root and provides a rough surface for attaching the tooth to the jawbone.
Dental formula (D.F)
 Dental formula is a short form of expressing the type and number of teeth on one half
of the upper and lower jaws.
 The D.F represents half of the upper jaw as numerator, and the lower as a denominator.
 The 1st number means for I and 2nd for C, the 3rd for P, and 4th for M. absence of a
particular teeth is indicated by zero in the formula.

35
Examples of dental formula
1. Find the dental formula of the man
a. Milk teeth 2120
2120
𝟐𝟏𝟐𝟑

𝟐𝟏𝟐𝟑
b. Permanent teeth

2. Find the dental formula for the following

a. Pig 3143
3143

0033
b. Sheep
3133

𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟑

𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟑
c. Rat

3142
d. Dog
3143

3131
e. Cat
3121

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 Digestive System
Digestion is the process through which complex food substances is broken down physically and
chemically into simpler food substances that can be absorbed by body cells.
 Digestion takes place inside the lumen of the alimentary canal.
 However, small molecules like those of vitamins, mineral salts and water are directly absorbed
into the bloodstream without undergoing digestion.
 Digestion occurs in the mouth, stomach, duodenum, and ileum.
 The digestive system of humans consists of a muscular tube with several specialized
organs.
 The tube that extends from the mouth to the anus is called alimentary canal.
 In addition, there are glands that secrete digestive juices in the tube.
 The epithelial wall that faces the lumen has mucus glands (goblet cells)
 These secrete mucus that lubricate food and prevent the wall from being digested by digestive
enzymes
 The liver and pancreas are organs that are closely associated with the alimentary canal
 Their secretions get into the lumen and assist in digestions.
Stages of food processing
a. Ingestion: This is the introduction of the food into the mouth
b. Digestion: This is the mechanical and chemical breakdown of the food into simpler, soluble and
absorbable units
c. Absorption: Taking into blood the digested products
d. Assimilation: Use of food in body cells
e. Egestion – the passing out of food that has not been digested or absorbed, as faeces, through the
anus.
There are two types of
1. Physical digestion: mechanical breakdown of the food takes place with the help of the teeth.
2. Chemical digestion: chemical digestion involves enzymes.

37
Digestion in the Mouth
 In the mouth, both mechanical and chemical digestion takes place
 Food is mixed with saliva and is broken into smaller particles by the action of teeth
 Saliva contains the enzyme amylase
 It also contains water and mucus which lubricate and soften food in order to make swallowing easy
 Saliva is slightly alkaline and thus provides a suitable pH for amylase to act on cooked starch,
changing it to maltose
 The food is then swallowed in the form of semisolid balls known as boluses
 Each bolus moves down the oesophagus by a process known as peristalsis
 Circular and longitudinal muscles along the wall of the alimentary canal contract and relax pushing
the food along.
Digestion in The Stomach
 In the stomach, the food is mixed with gastric juice secreted by gastric glands in the stomach
wall
 Gastric juice contains pepsin, rennin and hydrochloric acid
 The acid provides a low pH of 1.5-2.0 suitable for the action of pepsin
 Pepsin breaks down protein into peptides
 Rennin coagulates the milk protein casein
 The stomach wall has strong circular and longitudinal muscles whose contraction mixes the food
with digestive juices in the stomach.

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Digestion in the Small Intestine
Digestion in the small intestine takes place in its two parts
 Duodenum and
 Ileum
Stomach enzymes are working best in acidic PH whereas duodenum enzymes work best in
alkaline PH.
As soon as the acidic chyme leaves the stomach and enters the duodenum through the pyloric
opening, it will be neutralized by the hydrogen carbonate contained in the bile, so that an alkaline
medium will be created for the digestive enzymes in the duodenum.

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DUODENUM

 Duodenum is the first section of the small intestine.

 In humans it measures about 25-38 cm.
 Duodenum is the upper part of small intestine into which bile and pancreatic
juice are secreted.
 Bile is a greenish-yellow liquid manufactured in the liver and its storage
organ is gall bladder.
 This alkaline solution bile neutralizes the acidic medium of the stomach, and it
changes big fat or oil molecules into small. This is called emulsification.
 Pancreatic juice it is secreted by pancreas, and it contains the enzyme
pancreatic amylase, lipase, and trypsin.
 The pancreatic amylase chemically breakdown the starch escaped from the
mouth into maltose.
 The pancreatic lipase chemically digests lipids into fatty acids and glycerol.
 Trypsin catalyzes the chemical break down of peptones into peptides.

Ileum : It is lower part of the small intestine that secretes intestinal juice, containing the
enzymes maltase, sucrase, lactase, lipase and trypsin.
 Maltase: speeds up breakdown of maltose to glucose
 Sucrase: speeds breakdown of sucrose to glucose and fructose
 Peptidase or erepsin: speeds breakdown of peptides to amino acids
 Lipase: speeds breakdown of lipids to fatty acids and glycerol.
 Lactase: speeds breakdown of lactose to glucose and galactose.
 Polypeptidase: speeds breakdown of polypeptides into amino acids
 By doing so, ileum ends digestion that produces glucose, amino acids, fatty
acids, glycerol, vitamins, and minerals.
 The last portion of the small intestine(ileum), however, is the main organ of
absorption.

40
Ileum it is well adapted for this purpose because of the following unique features:
 It is the largest part of the gut
 The surface area of its inner walls is greatly increasing by being raised
into many tiny finger-like projections called villi
 The villi are I constant motion. Each slowly expands and contracts
about five minutes per minute.
 The epithelium (lining) of the villi is very thin and so substances can
easily pass through it.
 The villi are well supplied with blood capillaries and lacteals for
transport of the .absorbed food.
The Large Intestine (Colon And Rectum)
 The material passing into the large intestine consists of water with undigested matter,
largely cellulose and vegetable fibres (roughage), mucus and dead cells from the lining
of the alimentary canal.
 The large intestine secretes no enzymes but the bacteria in the colon digest
part of the fibre to form fatty acids, which the colon can absorb.
 Bile salts are absorbed and returned to the liver by the blood circulation.
 The colon also absorbs much of the water from the undigested residues.
 About 7 liters of digestive juices are poured into the alimentary canal each day.
 If the water from these was not absorbed by the ileum and colon, the body would
soon become dehydrated.
 The semi-solid waste, the faeces or ‘stool’, is passed into the rectum by peristalsis and
is expelled at intervals through the anus.
 The residues may spend from 12 to 24 hours in the intestine.
 The act of expelling the faeces is called egestion or defecation.

41