UNIT 4

Basics of Propulsion
Introduction to aircraft power plants – classification – principle of
operation, Characteristics of piston, turboprop, turbofan and
turbo shaft engines, use of propeller and jets for thrust
production. Comparative merits and demerits
Principle of operation of rocket, types of rocket and typical
applications.
 Requirements
• Reliability.
• Durability.
• Compactness.
• Low weight per horsepower.
• High specific power output.
• Reasonable cost.
• High thermal efficiency.
• Freedom from vibration.
• Ease of maintenance.
• Operating flexibility.
Aircraft propulsion refers to the mechanisms and systems used to generate the thrust
required for an aircraft to overcome drag and achieve forward motion through the air.

In general - based on Newton’s Third Law of Motion: For every action, there is an equal
and opposite reaction - the propulsion system expels mass (air or exhaust gases) backward
at high speed, resulting in a forward thrust.

The forward force depends on the mass of air expelled and its velocity.

Two basic means are used to provide thrust for an aircraft in flight:
Propeller
Jet Propulsion
In propeller driven aircraft either a piston driven engine or a turboprop engine is
used to drive a propeller to push air backwards.
In jet propulsion, there is no propeller so forward thrust is provided by the
discharge of high speed gases through a rear-facing nozzle.
Direct Reaction Propulsion:

All the gas kinetic energy is used for propulsion i.e. thrust (rockets and ramjets).

The gas kinetic energy is partially used for propulsion and the rest is transformed
into mechanical energy (turbojets).

Indirect Reaction propulsion:

The gas kinetic energy is almost totally transformed into mechanical energy i.e.
power (turboprop and turbo shaft engines).
Working of gas turbine engine
Reciprocating Engines
Number of Strokes
On the basis of number of stroke, the types of engine are:
Four Stroke Engine Two Stroke Engine

The engine in which the piston does four The engine in which the piston does two times
times motion to produce a power stroke motion to produce a power stroke
Number of Cylinders
On the basis of number of cylinders present in the engine, the types of engine
are:
Arrangement of Cylinders
On the basis of arrangement of cylinders the engines classification is:
Combustion Cycle:
Intake:
• The intake stroke begins as the piston starts its downward travel

• When this happens, the intake valve opens, and the fuel/air mixture flows into the cylinder
Compression:
• Compression begins when the intake valve closes and the piston starts moving back to the top of the cylinder
• This phase of the cycle enables a much greater power output from the fuel/air mixture upon ignition
Power:
• The power phase begins when the fuel/air mixture is ignited

• Ignition causes a tremendous pressure increase in the cylinder and forces the piston downward away from the
cylinder head, creating the power that turns the crankshaft
Exhaust:
• Used to purge the cylinder of burned gases

• Exhaust begins when the exhaust valve opens and the piston starts to move toward the cylinder head once
again
 Working of Jet Engines
Non reciprocating aircraft engines, all of which operate on the principle of Jet
propulsion, include the turbojet, turbofan, turboprop, ramjet and rocket engines.
➢ The air that enters the intake of the engine is firstly compressed in a compressor.
➢ Fuel is then added to the gas stream thereby increasing the gas temperature and its
volume.
➢ The high pressure gases are partially expanded through a turbine which drives the
compressor (and propeller in case of a turboprop engine).
➢ The residual gases that are now at intermediate pressure are accelerated by
expansion through a rear facing nozzle, to produce high velocity and the desired
thrust.

Courtesy :Google images

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 Gas Turbine vs. Reciprocating Engine
➢ Both are air breathing type.
➢ Both the engines have same series of events (intake, compression, power and exhaust).

The salient differences between gas turbine and reciprocating engines are:

➢ In a gas turbine engine all the events take place simultaneously i.e. they are continuous.
However, in reciprocating engine each event follows the preceding event.
➢ In a gas turbine engine, each operation in the cycle is performed by a separate component
for which it is designed. However, in a reciprocating engine, all the functions are
performed in one component.
➢ Gas turbine engines operates at higher operating speeds due to absence of reciprocating
parts.
➢ Due to exclusive use of rotating parts in a gas turbine engine, the vibrations are practically
eliminated.
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 Types of Gas Turbine Engines
Gas turbine engines fall into two categories

Reaction engine: Where the thrust is produced directly from the acceleration of flow of
hot gases.
Torque engine: In this type of engine, torque is produced first and a propeller or a
helicopter rotor is incorporated which converts this torque into thrust.

Reaction engines: Torque turbine engines:

•Rocket •Turbo prop
•Ramjet •Turbo shaft
•Turbo jet.
•Turbo fan

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 Major components of Gas Turbine Engines
Major Components:
Air Intake (Inlet)
Compressor
Combustion Chamber (Burner)
Shaft
Turbine
Courtesy :Google images
Exhaust Duct
Air Intake: Subsonic Intake
• For subsonic aircraft, the inlet is a duct which is
required to ensure smooth airflow into the
engine despite air approaching the inlet from
directions other than straight ahead. The duct
length is minimized to reduce drag and weight.

• For supersonic aircraft, the inlet has features Supersonic Intake

such as cones and ramps to produce the most
efficient series of shockwaves. The air slows
down from the flight speed to subsonic velocity
through the shockwaves, to about half the
speed of sound at the compressor through the
subsonic part of the inlet.
Compressor:
The main function of a compressor is to increase the pressure of the mass of air received from
the air inlet duct and discharge it into the combustion chamber at proper temperature, pressure
and velocity conditions.

The secondary function is to supply bleed air required for various purposes in the engine and
the aircraft e.g. cabin pressurization, air-conditioning, anti icing, etc.

Types:
Centrifugal flow compressor
Axial flow compressor
Centrifugal-Axial flow compressor
Combustion Chamber:
• Located between the compressor and the
turbine.
• Always arranged coaxially with the compressor
and turbine. It consists of an outer casing, an
inner liner, a fuel injection system, an ignition
system and fuel drainage system to drain-off
unburned fuel after engine shutdown.

• The primary function is to burn the fuel-air

mixture, thereby adding heat energy to the air.

Types:
• Can types.
• Annular type.
• Can-Annular type.
Combustors
The combustion chamber must:
• Provide the means for mixing the fuel and the air to ensure good combustion.
• Burn this mixture efficiently.
• Cool the hot combustion products to a temperature which the turbine blades can
withstand under operating conditions.
• Deliver the hot gases to the turbine section.
Turbine:
• The function of a turbine is to drive the
compressor and engine accessories by
extracting a portion of the pressure and kinetic
energy from the high temperature combustion
gases. In case of a turboprop engine, it drives
the propeller also.

• In a typical jet engine, about 75% of the power

produced internally is used to drive the
compressor and the remaining power is used to
produce thrust.

• Regardless of the types of compressor used, all

turbines are of axial-flow design. They consist
of one or more stages located immediately after
the combustion section.
Exhaust Duct:

• The exhaust duct takes the relatively high pressure and

low velocity gas leaving the turbine wheel and
accelerates this gas flow to sonic or supersonic speeds
through the nozzle at its rear.

• Convergent exhaust ducts. Divergent exhaust ducts.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) exhaust ducts.

Convergent exhaust nozzle:

• The rear opening of the exhaust duct is the exhaust

nozzle. The nozzle acts as an orifice. May be fixed or
variable (open or close automatically with increase in
the fuel flow) in area.
• Convergent exhaust nozzle accelerates the exhaust gases
as they leave the engine. The velocity of the gases
within a convergent exhaust duct is usually held to a
subsonic speed.
Turbojet Engine

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 Turbojet engine
The turbojet is an air breathing jet engine, usually used in aircraft. It consists of a gas turbine with a propelling
nozzle.
The various components of a turbojet engine are:
•An air inlet/ intake (diffuser)
•Compressor
•Combustion chamber
•Turbine
•Exhaust nozzle
Principle of operation
AN INTAKE, is needed in front of the engine to help direct the incoming air smoothly into the moving compressor
blades. It also coverts the kinetic energy of the incoming air into static pressure rise

The COMPRESSOR used in a turbojet engine can be either centrifugal or axial. The incoming air from the intake
moves into the compressor where the air is compressed to very high pressure ( about 3-12 times its original
pressure)
 Turbojet engine
• This high pressure air then enters the COMBUSTION CHAMBER where fuel is added in metered quantity. As a
result of which combustion takes place.
The combustion of fuel air mixture produces hot gases of very high temperatures and pressures.

•These hot gases then pass through a TURBINE section, where the gases gets expanded
• The turbine is directly connected to the compressor through a shaft. And the main function of the turbine is to
provide power, to drive the compressor and the auxiliaries..

•After the gases leave the turbine they expand further in the NOZZLE SECTION, in the nozzle section , the
velocities of the exhaust gases increases to very high values and are ejected into the atmosphere. Thereby
producing thrust

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 Turboprop Engine
A turboprop engine is a turbine engine that drives an aircraft propeller.
In contrast to a turbojet, the engine's exhaust gases do not contain enough energy to create significant thrust, since
almost all of the engine's power is used to drive the propeller.
The propeller is coupled to the turbine through a reduction gear that converts the high RPM,
low torque output to low RPM, high torque.

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 Turboprop Engine

In its simplest form a turboprop consists of the following components:

Propeller
Intake,
Compressor
Combustor,
Turbine and
Propelling nozzle.

Principle of operation:
• Air is drawn into the intake and compressed by the compressor.
•Fuel is then added to the compressed air in the combustor, where the fuel-air mixture then combusts.
•The hot combustion gases expand through the turbine. Some of the power generated by the turbine is used to drive the compressor.
The rest is transmitted through the reduction gearing to the propeller.
• Further expansion of the gases occurs in the propelling nozzle, where the gases exhaust to atmospheric pressure.
•The propelling nozzle provides a relatively small proportion of the thrust generated by a turboprop.
•In a turboprop engine, the turbine extracts much more power because the turbine is to provide power for both the compressor
and the propeller

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 Turbofan Engine

A turbofan engine has a large fan at the front, which sucks in air. Most of the air flows around the outside of the engine,
making it quieter and giving more thrust at low speeds. Most of today's airliners are powered by turbofans.

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 Contd.

In a turbojet all the air entering the intake passes through the gas generator (engine core section) which is composed
of the compressor, combustion chamber, and turbine. However In a turbofan engine only a portion of the incoming
air (primary air) goes into the combustion chamber. The remaining air or secondary air or the BYPASS AIR leave
separately around the engine core and finally mixes with the exhaust gases at the rear end of the engine

The objective of this sort of bypass system is to increase thrust without increasing fuel consumption. It
achieves this by increasing the total air-mass flow and reducing the velocity within the same total energy supply.

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 Turbofan Engine
A Turbofan engine consists of the following components:
•A ducted fan at the inlet
•Compressor
•Combustion chamber
•Turbine
•Exhaust nozzle

Principle of operation:

•The first part of the turbofan is the ducted fan.

•The fan, which almost always is made of titanium blades, sucks in huge quantities of air into the
engine.
•The air moves through two parts of the engine. Some of the air (primary air) is directed into the
engine's core, where the combustion will occur. The rest of the air, called "bypass air", is moved
around the outside of the engine core through a duct.
•This bypass air creates additional thrust, cools the engine, and makes the engine quieter by
blanketing the exhaust air that's exiting the engine. In today's modern turbofans, bypass air produces
the majority of an engine's thrust. 31
 Contd.

•The primary air from the inlet section now flows into the Compressor section which can be either centrifugal
type or axial type.
•As the air flows through the compressor, its pressure is increased to higher values as the air is compressed.

•This high pressure air now enters the Combustion chamber where metered quantity of fuel is injected.
•Combustion of Fuel and Compressed Air occurs which produces enormous amounts of Exhaust gases

•These exhaust gases produced due to combustion now flow across the Turbine blades where the gases expand
•The turbine is directly connected to the compressor through a shaft. And the main function of the turbine is to
provide power, to drive the compressor and the auxiliaries

•After the gases leave the turbine , the primary air gets further expanded in the Nozzle section
•In a turbo fan engine, at the nozzle section both primary air exhaust and the secondary air or (BYPASS AIR)
reattach at the rear end and produce the additional thrust require.

•This ratio of Secondary air flow (air flow through the outside or duct) to the Primary airflow(airflow through
the engine core ) is referred as BYPASS RATIO

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 Contd.
Bypass Ratio:
The bypass ratio (BPR) of a turbofan engine is the ratio between the mass flow rate of air
drawn through the fan disk that bypasses the engine core (un-combusted air) to the mass flow rate
passing through the engine core. For example, a 10:1 bypass ratio means that 10 kg of air passes around
the core for every 1 kg of air passing through the core.

High Bypass turbofan engine Low Bypass turbofan engine

Courtesy :Google images

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 Contd.
The flow from the fan nozzle, rather than the core exhaust from the hot nozzle,
produces most of the thrust in high-bypass designs. Bypass provides a lower thrust specific
fuel consumption. Also, the lower exhaust velocities reduce jet noise. High bypass designs are
the dominant type for commercial passenger aircraft and both civilian and military jet
transports.
Military combat aircraft usually use engines with low bypass ratios to compromise
between fuel economy and the requirements of combat: high power-to-weight ratios,
supersonic performance, and the ability to use afterburners, all of which are more compatible
with low bypass engines.

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 Turbo shaft Engine
A turbo shaft engine is a variant of a jet engine that has been optimized to produce shaft
power to drive machinery instead of producing thrust. Turbo shaft engines are most commonly used
in applications that require a small, but powerful, light weight engine, inclusive of helicopters
and auxiliary power units.
A turbo shaft engine uses the same principles as a turbojet to produce energy, that is, it
incorporates a compressor, combustor and turbine within the gas generator of the engine.
The primary difference between the turbo shaft and the turbojet is that an additional power
section, consisting of turbines and an output shaft, has been incorporated into the design.

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Turboshaft Engine
 Ramjets
Introduction
➢A ramjet, sometimes referred to as a flying stovepipe or an athodyd (an abbreviation
of aero thermodynamic duct), is a form of air breathing jet engine that uses the engine's forward motion
to compress incoming air without an axial compressor.

➢Because ramjets cannot produce thrust at zero airspeed, they cannot move an aircraft from a standstill.
A ramjet-powered vehicle, therefore, requires an assisted take-off like a rocket assist to accelerate it to a
speed where it begins to produce thrust.

➢Ramjets work most efficiently at supersonic speeds around Mach 3 (2,300 mph; 3,700 km/h). This type
of engine can operate up to speeds of Mach 6 (4,600 mph; 7,400 km/h).

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 Ramjets
Working

The fact of obtaining very high pressure ratios of about 8 to 10 by RAM compression has made it possible a jet
engine without a mechanical compressor

A typical ramjet engine consists of the following:

I. Supersonic diffuser
II. Subsonic diffuser
III. Combustion chamber
IV. Nozzle section
Both supersonic and subsonic diffusers convert the kinetic energy of the entering air into pressure rise.
This energy transformation is called RAM effect, and the pressure rise is called RAM pressure
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 Ramjets
The principle of operation is as follows:

• Air from the atmosphere enters at very high speeds and its velocity gets reduced initially at the supersonic
diffuser, thereby its static pressure increases.

•The air then enters the subsonic diffuser where its velocity decreases further causing an increase in more
pressure rise

•The high pressure air then enters the combustion chamber, where the fuel is injected by suitable injectors that
results in the combustion of fuel air mixture

•The exhaust gases then expand in the exhaust section of the engine. The exhaust gases will leave the engine at
higher velocities around Mach 4-5

•Since the ramjet engine cannot operate under static conditions, to initiate its operation, the ramjet must be
launched from an auxiliary means (launch vehicle is required)

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 Scramjets
A scramjet (supersonic combusting ramjet) is a variant of a ramjet air breathing jet engine in which
combustion takes place in supersonic airflow.
As in ramjets, a scramjet relies on high vehicle speed to forcefully compress the incoming air before
combustion, but a ramjet decelerates the air to subsonic velocities before combustion, while airflow in a
scramjet is supersonic throughout the entire engine. This allows the scramjet to operate efficiently at
extremely high speeds.

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 Scramjets
• The fact of obtaining very high pressure ratios of about 8 to 10 by RAM compression has made it
possible a jet engine without a mechanical compressor.
• A scramjet engine is supersonic combusting ramjet in which combustion takes place at supersonic
speeds.
• Scramjet engines operate on the same principle as the ramjet, but does not decelerate the flow to subsonic
velocities

A typical ramjet engine consists of the following:

I. Supersonic diffuser
II. Combustion chamber
III. Nozzle section
The principle of operation is as follows:

•Air from the atmosphere enters at very high speeds and its velocity gets reduced at the supersonic diffuser,
thereby its static pressure increases. Shock waves are generated in this section of the engine
•
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 Scramjets
•The high pressure air then enters the combustion chamber, where the fuel is injected by suitable
injectors that results in the combustion of fuel air mixture. The combustion in a scramjet engine
occurs at supersonic conditions

•The exhaust gases then expand in the exhaust section of the engine. The exhaust gases will leave the
engine at higher velocities around Mach 6-8

•Since the scramjet engine cannot operate under static conditions, to initiate its operation, the
scramjet must be launched from an auxiliary means (launch vehicle is required)

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 Comparative Merits and Limitations of various Gas Turbine Engines
.
Turbo prop Engine:
Advantages:
•On account of higher thrust at low speeds the take off roll is short requiring shorter
runway
•The specific fuel consumption (TSFC) based on thrust is low
•Propulsive efficiency within the range of operation is high

Disadvantages:
•Application is limited to lower speed and altitudes
•On account of large diameter propeller the landing gears have to be longer
•Higher weight per unit thrust

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 Comparative Merits and Limitations of various Gas Turbine Engines

Turbojet Engine:
.
Advantages:
•Suitable for long distance flights at higher speeds and altitudes
•Lower frontal area and shorter landing gears
•The power to weight ratio of a turbo jet is about 4 times that of a propeller system.
•Re heat can be employed for increased thrust

Disadvantages:
•Take off roll is longer requiring longer runway
•TSFC is comparatively higher at lower speeds and altitudes
• Uneconomical on short distance flights
• Lower thrust and propulsive efficiency at lower speeds

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 Comparative Merits and Limitations of various Gas Turbine Engines

Turbofan Engine:
Advantages:
.
•Short take off roll due to increased thrust at low speeds
•Comparatively quieter engine
•Weight per unit thrust is lower than the turboprop engine
•Thrust is higher than that in turbojet engine

Disadvantages:
•Increased frontal area and drag
•TSFC is higher compared to turboprop engine
•Engine is heavier and complicated compared to turbojet engine
•Lower speed limit(M<1) than that of the turbojet engine

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 Comparative Merits and Limitations of various Gas Turbine Engines
Ramjet Engine:
Advantages:
.
•High temperatures can be employed
•In the absence of rotating machinery, its construction is very simple
•It can operate efficiently at high supersonic mach numbers
•It provides high thrust per unit weight

Disadvantages:
•It requires a launching device at supersonic speed
•It is unsuitable for subsonic speed
•It has low thermal efficiency and high TSFC

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 Comparative Merits and Limitations of various Gas Turbine Engines

Scramjet Engine:
Advantages:
.
•High temperatures can be employed
•In the absence of rotating machinery, its construction is very simple
•It can operate efficiently at high supersonic mach numbers
•It provides high thrust per unit weight
•Very high velocities up to Mach 6-8 can be achieved

Disadvantages:
•It requires a launching device at supersonic speed
•It is unsuitable for subsonic speed
•It has low thermal efficiency and high TSFC
•Good insulation material is required

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 Solid Propellant Rockets
Solid propellant rockets are a type of rocket propulsion system that use solid fuel as both
the fuel and oxidizer, which are combined into a single solid substance. These rockets are
widely used in space exploration, military missiles, fireworks, and booster stages due to
their simplicity, reliability, and ease of storage.

Working Principle of Solid Propellant Rockets

The working principle of a solid propellant rocket is based on the Newton's Third Law of
Motion: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

When the solid propellant burns, it produces hot gases. These gases are expelled at high
velocity through the nozzle, generating thrust in the opposite direction, which propels the
rocket forward.
Main Components of a Solid Propellant Rocket-

1.Casing:
A strong outer shell (metallic or composite) that holds the propellant and withstands high
pressure during combustion.
2.Solid Propellant:
A mixture of fuel and oxidizer in a solid state. The propellant burns uniformly from the
inside out.
1. Fuel: Provides energy (e.g., powdered aluminum).
2. Oxidizer: Releases oxygen to sustain combustion (e.g., ammonium perchlorate).
3.Igniter:
A device that ignites the propellant, initiating the combustion process.
4.Combustion Chamber:
The part of the casing where the propellant burns and generates high-pressure gases.
5.Nozzle:
A converging-diverging (De Laval) nozzle that accelerates the hot gases to supersonic
speeds, creating thrust.
Solid Propellant Rockets
 Working
1.Ignition:
The igniter initiates combustion of the solid propellant.

2.Combustion:
The propellant burns in a controlled manner, producing large volumes of hot gases. The
combustion happens uniformly and generates high pressure.

3.Expansion of Gases:
The high-pressure gases expand and are forced through the nozzle. The nozzle converts the
thermal energy of the gases into kinetic energy by accelerating them to supersonic speeds.

4.Thrust Generation:
The high-velocity exhaust gases are expelled through the nozzle, creating thrust in the
opposite direction (as per Newton's Third Law).

5.Motion:
The rocket moves forward due to the reactive force generated by the expelled gases.
 Liquid Propellant Rockets
In these rockets, a liquid fuel and an oxidizer are pumped into a combustion chamber,
where they are mixed and ignited. The resulting high-pressure and high-temperature gases
expand and are ejected at supersonic speeds through a converging-diverging nozzle,
generating thrust.

Working Principle of Liquid Propellant Rockets

The working of a liquid propellant rocket is based on Newton's Third Law of Motion:
For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Main Components of a Liquid Propellant Rocket

1.Fuel Tank:
Holds the liquid fuel (e.g., liquid hydrogen, RP-1 kerosene).
2.Oxidizer Tank:
Stores the oxidizer (e.g., liquid oxygen, nitrogen tetroxide).
3.Pumps:
Turbopumps deliver fuel and oxidizer at high pressure to the combustion chamber.
4.Combustion Chamber:
The chamber where the fuel and oxidizer are mixed and burned, generating high-pressure gases.
5.Injector:
A device that sprays and mixes the fuel and oxidizer uniformly into the combustion chamber.
6.Igniter:
Initiates the combustion process.
7.Nozzle:
A converging-diverging (De Laval) nozzle accelerates the exhaust gases to supersonic speeds,
producing thrust.
Types of Liquid Propellant Rockets:

Liquid propellants are categorized into two main types:

1.Bipropellant Rockets:
Use separate fuel and oxidizer.
1. Example: Liquid Hydrogen (Fuel) + Liquid Oxygen (Oxidizer).

2.Monopropellant Rockets:
Use a single liquid propellant that decomposes in the presence of a catalyst.
1. Example: Hydrazine.
Liquid Propellant Rockets
Working Steps of a Bipropellant Liquid Rocket

1.Storage:
The liquid fuel and oxidizer are stored in separate tanks.

2.Pumping:
High-speed turbopumps pressurize and pump the fuel and oxidizer into the combustion chamber.

3.Injection:
The fuel and oxidizer are sprayed into the combustion chamber through injectors to ensure proper
mixing.

4.Combustion:
The igniter ignites the mixture, and combustion occurs. The chemical energy of the propellants is
converted into high-temperature, high-pressure gases.
5. Expansion of Gases:
The hot gases expand and flow through the nozzle. In the nozzle:
1. The gases are compressed in the converging section.
2. The gases expand and accelerate to supersonic speeds in the diverging section.

6. Thrust Generation:
The high-velocity exhaust gases are expelled through the nozzle, generating thrust in the opposite
direction as per Newton's Third Law.

7. Throttle Control:
By adjusting the flow rates of the fuel and oxidizer, the thrust can be increased, decreased, or even
shut off.
 Hybrid Propellant Rockets
Hybrid propellant rockets are a type of rocket propulsion system that use a
combination of solid fuel and liquid or gaseous oxidizer.

These systems combine the simplicity of solid rockets and the throttle control of liquid
rockets, offering an intermediate solution in terms of design, cost, and performance.

Working Principle of Hybrid Propellant Rockets

The working principle of hybrid rockets is also based on Newton's Third Law of
Motion: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Main Components of a Hybrid Propellant Rocket

1.Solid Fuel Grain:

The fuel is in solid form (e.g., Hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene - HTPB, paraffin wax, or
polymers).
2.Oxidizer Tank:
The oxidizer is in liquid or gaseous form (e.g., liquid oxygen, nitrous oxide, or gaseous
oxygen).
3.Feed System:
Pumps, valves, and pipes deliver the oxidizer into the combustion chamber.
4.Combustion Chamber:
The chamber where the oxidizer reacts with the solid fuel, producing combustion gases.
5.Igniter:
An igniter starts the combustion process, which is sustained by the reaction between the fuel
and oxidizer.
6.Nozzle:
A converging-diverging nozzle accelerates the exhaust gases to high velocity, generating
thrust.
Hybrid Propellant Rockets
 Working Steps of a Hybrid Rocket

1.Storage:
1. The solid fuel is preloaded in the combustion chamber.
2. The oxidizer is stored in a separate tank.

2.Ignition:
The igniter initiates combustion at the surface of the solid fuel.

3.Delivery of Oxidizer:
The oxidizer is released from the tank and flows into the combustion chamber
through a feed system.

4.Combustion:
1. The oxidizer reacts with the solid fuel at the fuel surface.
2. The combustion occurs in the gas phase near the fuel surface, and the solid fuel
burns layer by layer.
5. Thrust Generation:
•The combustion gases expand and are expelled through the nozzle at high velocity.
•The reactive force (thrust) propels the rocket forward.

6. Throttle Control:
•By regulating the oxidizer flow rate, the thrust can be increased, decreased, or even
stopped temporarily.
Thank You