AN IMPERIAL CAPITAL VIJAYNAGARA

Aryan Rathod Notes

Introduction to Vijayanagara

Vijayanagara, meaning "city of victory," refers to both a city and an empire founded in the fourteenth
century. At its peak, the empire extended from the Krishna River in the north to the southern tip of the
Indian peninsula. However, in 1565, the city was sacked and later abandoned. Despite its decline in the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the memory of Vijayanagara persisted, particularly in the Krishna-
Tungabhadra doab, where it was remembered as Hampi, named after the local goddess Pampadevi.
Oral traditions, archaeological discoveries, monuments, inscriptions, and various records have aided
scholars in rediscovering the Vijayanagara Empire.

The Discovery of Hampi

The ruins of Hampi were first documented in 1800 by Colonel Colin Mackenzie, an engineer and
antiquarian working for the English East India Company.
He created the first survey map of the site, relying heavily on the recollections of priests from the
Virupaksha temple and the shrine of Pampadevi. Starting in 1856, photographers began capturing
images of the monuments, facilitating scholarly study.
By 1836, epigraphists had begun collecting numerous inscriptions from Hampi and other temples,
which historians later combined with accounts from foreign travelers and literature in Telugu,
Kannada, Tamil, and Sanskrit to reconstruct the history of the city and empire.

Founding and Expansion of the Empire

According to tradition and epigraphic evidence, the Vijayanagara Empire was established in 1336
by two brothers, Harihara and Bukka. The empire encompassed diverse peoples who spoke various
languages and practiced different religions.
The Vijayanagara kings faced competition from contemporary rulers, including the Sultans of the
Deccan and the Gajapati rulers of Orissa, for control over fertile river valleys and resources from
overseas trade.
This competition fostered an exchange of ideas, particularly in architecture, as the Vijayanagara
rulers adopted and further developed building techniques from neighboring powerful states like the
Cholas and Hoysalas, who had previously supported the construction of grand temples.
Rulers and Trade Dynamics
The rulers of Vijayanagara, known as rayas, built upon existing architectural traditions, elevating
them to new heights. Warfare during this period relied heavily on effective cavalry, making the
import of horses from Arabia and Central Asia crucial for rival kingdoms.
Initially, this trade was dominated by Arab traders, with local horse merchants, known as kudirai
chettis, also participating.
The arrival of the Portuguese in 1498 introduced new dynamics, as they sought to establish trading
and military stations along the west coast, leveraging their advanced military technology,
particularly muskets, to influence regional politics.

Economic Prosperity and Trade

 Vijayanagara was renowned for its vibrant markets dealing in spices, textiles, and precious stones.
Trade was not only a means of economic sustenance but also a status symbol for the city, which
boasted a wealthy population with a high demand for exotic goods, especially precious stones and
jewelry.
The revenue generated from trade significantly contributed to the prosperity of the state,
reinforcing the importance of commerce in the empire's success.

the Apogee and Decline of the Empire

Rise and Rule of the Dynasties

The Vijayanagara Empire experienced significant changes in power dynamics, with various claimants to
authority, including members of the ruling lineage and military commanders. The first dynasty, the
Sangama dynasty, ruled until 1485, followed by the Saluvas until 1503, and then the Tuluvas, to which
Krishnadeva Raya belonged.

Krishnadeva Raya's Achievements

Krishnadeva Raya's reign (1509-1529) was marked by territorial expansion and consolidation. Key
accomplishments included:

Acquisition of the Raichur doab between the Tungabhadra and Krishna rivers (1512).
Subjugation of the rulers of Orissa (1514).
Defeats inflicted on the Sultan of Bijapur (1520).

Despite ongoing military readiness, the kingdom thrived in a period of peace and prosperity. Krishnadeva
Raya is also known for his contributions to architecture, including the construction of temples and
gopurams, and the establishment of Nagalapuram, named after his mother. His era produced some of
the most detailed descriptions of Vijayanagara.

Decline After Krishnadeva Raya

Following Krishnadeva Raya's death in 1529, the empire faced internal strife, particularly from rebellious
nayakas (military chiefs). By 1542, the Aravidu dynasty took control, ruling until the late seventeenth
century. The military ambitions of both Vijayanagara and the Deccan Sultanates led to shifting alliances,
culminating in a coalition of Sultanates against Vijayanagara.

The Battle of Talikota

In 1565, Rama Raya, the chief minister, led the Vijayanagara army into battle at Rakshasi-Tangadi
(Talikota), where they were defeated by the combined forces of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, and Golconda.
The aftermath saw the sacking and abandonment of Vijayanagara, with the Aravidu dynasty shifting
focus to Penukonda and later Chandragiri.

Relations with the Sultanates

Despite the destruction of Vijayanagara by the Sultanate armies, relations were not always hostile.
Krishnadeva Raya supported certain claimants in the Sultanates and was recognized as the "establisher
of the Yavana kingdom."

The Sultan of Bijapur even intervened in succession disputes in Vijayanagara after Krishnadeva Raya's
death. However, Rama Raya's attempts to manipulate the Sultanates ultimately led to their united
opposition and his defeat.

The Role of Nayakas

Military chiefs known as nayakas played a crucial role in the empire, often controlling forts and
accompanied by peasants seeking fertile land. While many nayakas submitted to Vijayanagara's
authority, they frequently rebelled, necessitating military intervention.

The Amara-Nayaka System

The amara-nayaka system was a significant political innovation, likely influenced by the iqta system of
the Delhi Sultanate. Amara-nayakas were military commanders assigned territories by the raya,
responsible for tax collection and maintaining a contingent of horses and elephants for military
purposes. This system helped the Vijayanagara kings exert control over the southern peninsula.

Tribute and Loyalty

Amara-nayakas were required to send annual tribute to the king and present gifts at the royal court to
demonstrate loyalty. Kings maintained control by transferring nayakas between regions. However, by the
seventeenth century, many nayakas established independent kingdoms, contributing to the decline of the
central imperial structure

Vijayanagara: Capital and Its Features

3.1 Water Resources

Vijayanagara is situated in a natural basin formed by the Tungabhadra River, which flows northeast. The
city is surrounded by granite hills, creating a stunning landscape. Streams from these hills flow into the
river, and embankments were constructed along these streams to form reservoirs.

Due to the arid conditions of the region, significant efforts were made to store rainwater. The
Kamalapuram tank, built in the early 15th century, was crucial for irrigation and supplied water to the
royal center through a channel. Another notable water feature is the Hiriya canal, which drew water
from a dam on the Tungabhadra and irrigated the valley between the sacred center and urban core,
likely constructed by the Sangama dynasty.

3.2 Fortifications and Roads

The city was enclosed by impressive fortress walls, noted by Abdur Razzaq, a Persian ambassador,
who described seven lines of forts surrounding the city and its agricultural lands. The outer wall
 connected to surrounding hills, constructed without mortar, using wedge-shaped stone blocks and
packed earth.
Significantly, these fortifications included agricultural tracts, which were essential for sustaining the
city during sieges. Abdur Razzaq and Paes both observed cultivated fields and gardens within the
fortified area, supported by a canal system from the Tungabhadra.
The fortifications included multiple lines: a second around the urban complex and a third
surrounding the royal center, with each major building enclosed by its own walls. Access was
through well-guarded gates that connected to major roads, featuring distinctive architectural
elements like arches and domes, characteristic of Indo-Islamic architecture.
Archaeological studies of roads revealed that they wound through valleys, avoiding rocky areas,
with significant roads leading from temple gateways lined with bazaars.

3.3 The Urban Core

1. Within the urban core, archaeological evidence of ordinary houses is scarce. However, fine Chinese
porcelain found in the northeastern area suggests it was occupied by wealthy traders, alongside a
Muslim residential quarter with tombs and mosques resembling temple architecture.
2. Portuguese traveler Barbosa described the houses of ordinary people as thatched but well-
constructed, organized by occupation along long streets with open spaces. Field surveys indicate
numerous shrines and small temples, reflecting a variety of cults supported by different
communities. Additionally, wells, rainwater tanks, and temple tanks likely served as water sources for
the townspeople.

The Royal Centre

Overview of the Royal Centre

The Royal Centre was situated in the south-western part of the settlement and was significant for its
numerous temples, totaling over 60. This indicates the importance of temple patronage and cults for
rulers aiming to establish and legitimize their authority through divine associations.

Palaces and Structures

Approximately thirty building complexes identified as palaces were found in the Royal Centre. These
palaces were large structures that did not serve ritual functions, contrasting with temples that were built
entirely of masonry. In contrast, the secular buildings had superstructures made from perishable
materials.

The Mahanavami Dibba

Among the notable structures is the "mahanavami dibba," a massive platform that rises from a base of
about 11,000 sq. ft to a height of 40 ft. It is located at one of the highest points in the city and likely
supported a wooden structure. The base features relief carvings, and the platform is associated with the
Mahanavami festival, a significant Hindu celebration.

The Mahanavami festival occurs during the autumn months of September and October.
 It is known by various names: Dussehra in northern India, Durga Puja in Bengal, and Navaratri or
Mahanavami in peninsular India.
Vijayanagara kings showcased their power and prestige during this festival.

The ceremonies included:

Worship of the image and the state horse.

Animal sacrifices, including buffaloes.
Dances, wrestling matches, and processions featuring horses, elephants, chariots, and soldiers.
Ritual presentations by chief nayakas and subordinate kings.

On the final day, the king inspected his army in a grand ceremony, where nayakas presented gifts and
tribute. However, scholars debate whether the "mahanavami dibba" was the center of these elaborate
rituals, as the surrounding space may not have been sufficient for large processions.

Other Notable Buildings

Another significant structure in the Royal Centre is the Lotus Mahal, named by British travelers in the 19th
century. Its exact purpose remains uncertain, but it is suggested that it may have served as a council
chamber for the king and his advisers.

While most temples were located in the sacred center, several were also found in the Royal Centre,
including the Hazara Rama temple. This temple was likely reserved for the king and his family, featuring
sculpted panels depicting scenes from the Ramayana, although the central shrine's images are missing.

Legacy of the Royal Centre

Despite the destruction of many structures during the sacking of Vijayanagara, the tradition of building
palatial structures continued among the nayakas, and several of these buildings have survived to this
day.

The Sacred Centre

5.1 Choosing a Capital

The northern end of the city, located on the banks of the Tungabhadra River, is significant in local
tradition. It is believed to be the site of the monkey kingdom of Vali and Sugriva from the Ramayana.
Additionally, Pampadevi, the local mother goddess, is said to have performed penance in these hills
to marry Virupaksha, the guardian deity of the kingdom, who is also recognized as a form of Shiva.
This marriage is celebrated annually at the Virupaksha temple. The area is also home to Jaina
temples from the pre-Vijayanagara period, indicating its association with various sacred traditions.
Temple construction in the region has a long history, influenced by dynasties such as the Pallavas,
Chalukyas, Hoysalas, and Cholas. Rulers often promoted temple building to associate themselves
with the divine, with the deity often identified with the king. Temples served as centers of learning
and were supported by land grants and resources from rulers, making them significant religious,
social, cultural, and economic hubs. For rulers, constructing and maintaining temples was a way to
gain support and recognition for their power, wealth, and piety.
 The choice of Vijayanagara's site was likely influenced by the existing shrines of Virupaksha and
Pampadevi. The Vijayanagara kings claimed to rule on behalf of Virupaksha, signing royal orders as
“Shri Virupaksha” in Kannada script. They also used the title “Hindu Suratrana,” a Sanskrit
adaptation of the Arabic term Sultan, meaning king, which translates to Hindu Sultan.
While drawing on earlier traditions, the Vijayanagara rulers innovated by incorporating royal portrait
sculptures in temples and treating the king's visits to temples as significant state events, attended
by important nayakas of the empire.

5.2 Gopurams and Mandapas

During this period, temple architecture showcased new features, including large structures that
symbolized imperial authority. The raya gopurams (royal gateways) were particularly notable, often
overshadowing the central shrine towers and serving as reminders of the king's power and
resources. Other distinctive architectural elements included mandapas (pavilions) and long, pillared
corridors surrounding the shrines within temple complexes.
Two notable temples are the Virupaksha temple and the Vitthala temple. The Virupaksha temple
was constructed over several centuries, with the earliest shrine dating back to the 9th-10th
centuries. It underwent significant expansion during the establishment of the Vijayanagara Empire,
particularly under Krishnadeva Raya, who built the hall in front of the main shrine and the eastern
gopuram. These additions resulted in the central shrine occupying a smaller area within the
complex.
The halls of the Virupaksha temple served various purposes, including hosting images of gods for
music, dance, and drama performances, celebrating deity marriages, and providing spaces for
deities to swing. Special images distinct from those in the central shrine were used for these
occasions.
The Vitthala temple is another significant site, dedicated to Vitthala, a form of Vishnu worshipped
primarily in Maharashtra. The introduction of this worship in Karnataka reflects the Vijayanagara
rulers' efforts to blend different traditions into an imperial culture. The temple features multiple halls
and a unique shrine designed as a chariot. A characteristic aspect of the temple complexes is the
chariot streets, which extend straight from the temple gopuram, paved with stone slabs and lined
with pillared pavilions for merchants' shops.
Similar to their advancements in fortification, the nayakas also continued and expanded upon
temple building traditions, contributing to the construction of some of the most impressive
gopurams.

Vijayanagara Architecture
Overview of Vijayanagara Documentation

The study of Vijayanagara has involved extensive documentation of its architectural and cultural
heritage, utilizing various sources such as photographs, plans, elevations, and sculptures. Initial surveys
by Mackenzie laid the groundwork, and subsequent information was gathered from travelers' accounts
and inscriptions. The Archaeological Survey of India and the Karnataka Department of Archaeology and
Museums played crucial roles in preserving the site throughout the twentieth century.

Recognition and Documentation Efforts

In 1976, Hampi was designated a site of national importance. This recognition led to a significant project
in the early 1980s aimed at documenting the material remains of Vijayanagara through detailed surveys.
Over nearly two decades, numerous scholars contributed to this effort, employing various recording
techniques to compile and preserve the information.

Mapping Methodology

A key aspect of this documentation was mapping. The area was divided into 25 squares, each labeled
with a letter. These squares were further subdivided into smaller units, allowing for meticulous surveys
that uncovered thousands of structures, including shrines, residences, and temples. Additionally, traces
of roads, paths, and bazaars were identified through remnants like pillar bases and platforms, indicating
the presence of once-thriving markets.

Imagining the Past Structures

Scholars such as John M. Fritz, George Michell, and M.S. Nagaraja Rao emphasized the importance of
imagining the lost wooden elements of the structures, such as columns, beams, and ceilings, which were
likely decorated and painted. Although only stone structures remain, travelers' descriptions help
reconstruct aspects of the vibrant life during the Vijayanagara period.

Understanding Architectural Significance

The surviving buildings provide insights into spatial organization, construction techniques, and materials
used. For instance, studying fortifications can reveal a city's defense strategies and military
preparedness. Furthermore, comparing architectural styles with other regions can highlight the spread of
ideas and cultural influences.

Symbolism and Cultural Context

Buildings often reflect the intentions of their builders or patrons, imbued with cultural symbols. To fully
understand these symbols, it is essential to integrate information from literature, inscriptions, and popular
traditions.

Perspectives of Ordinary People

While architectural investigations reveal much about the structures themselves, they do not capture the
perspectives of the ordinary people who lived in the city. Questions arise regarding their access to royal
and sacred centers, their interactions with sculptures, and their reflections on the symbolism present in
these impressive buildings. Additionally, the thoughts of laborers who contributed to these monumental
projects remain largely undocumented.