LEARN

PYTHON

PROGRAMMING QUICKLY
A BEGINNER'S GUIDE TO CODING
WITH PYTHON PROGRAMMING BY
LEARNING JUST 5 SIMPLE
CONCEPTS. START CODING
WITHIN 3 HOURS

Ankit Pandey
 CONTENTS

Introduction

1. Introduction to Python
The Benefits of Learning Python
Different Versions of Python
How to Install Python to Get Started
2. Basics of Python
Python Interpreter
IDE (Integrated Development Environment)
Pycharm
Working with Pycharm
Python Style Guide
Python Comments

3. Variables
Understanding Variables
How to Name Variables
How to Define Variables
How to Find the Memory Address of the Variables
Local and Global Variables in Python
Reserved Keywords
Operators in Python
Different Types of Operators
Operator Precedence

4. Data Types in Python

What Are Data Types?
Understanding Data Types
Type Casting

5. Lists and Tuples

What Is a List Data Type?
Understanding Tuples
Understanding Dictionaries
Sample Exercise
Exercise:

6. User Input and Output

 Why Are Input Values Necessary?
Understanding input() Function
How to Write Clear Prompts for the User
Int() to Accept Numeric Input
Output
Sample Exercise
Exercises:

7. Conditional and Loops

Comparison Operators
What Are Control Flow Statements in Programs?
Programming Structures
If/else Conditional Statements
If Elif else
For loop
While loop
Break and Continue Statements
Exception Handling
Sample Exercise
Exercises:

8. Functions and Modules

What Are Functions? Using
Parameters in the Functions Passing
Arguments Keyword Arguments
Default Values in Python
Understanding Scope in Python
Understanding the ‘Global’ Statement
How to Import Modules How to
Create Modules Built-in Function and
Modules String Methods Sample
Exercise Sample Exercise Exercise:

9. Fundamentals of Classes
What Are Classes and Objects?
Exercises:
What Are Class and Instance Variables?
What Are Class and Static Methods?

10. Python Inheritance

Method Overriding in Python
 Special Methods in Python ( _repr_ and _str_)
11. Files in Python
Understanding Files and File Paths
Exercise:
12. Advanced Programming
Python Recursion
Python Lambda Function
Advanced Dictionary Functions
Threading
Pip Package Manager
Virtual Environment
Using Pillow Library to Edit Images
Mastering Python Regular Expressions (Regex)
Understanding JSON Data
Understanding Sys Module
Iterators and Generators
Jupyter Notebook
Unit Testing
GitHub for Python programmers
Different Python Libraries

Conclusion
References
 1

INTRODUCTION TO PYTHON

Python is a high-level, general-purpose programming

of 1989 out of boredom. He had the core goal of making it
appeal to Unix/C hackers. Seeing the project gaining
attention in the programming community, he spent much
time improving its core implementation. With experience in
working as a core developer on CWI (Centrum Wiskunde &
Informatica) to create ABC programming language,
Rossum adopted ABC’s different features to create an
interpreted programming language that was easy and
intuitive. He named the programming language after
Monty Python, a famous British comedy group.

Since its release in 1990, Guido van Rossum has been the
Benevolent Dictator for Life in the Python programming
community, making him the chairman of project
development in open-source terminology. Python has
become one of the most popular programming languages
with the release of Python 2.0 in 2000. The introduction of
features such as garbage collector, list comprehensions,
and support for Unicode has made many programmers
migrate to Python from more traditional programming
languages such as Pearl. Further significant changes in
the
Python community came when Python 3.0 was released in
2008.
Python has consistently been mentioned as one of the most
innovative and popular programming languages in the
programming community. According to TIOBE rankings, it
has been in the Top 10 programming languages almost all
years from its inception.
Initially, the popularity of Python as a programming
language increased mainly due to its motto, “There should
probably only be one way to do it.” This contradicted the
motto of the then-popular language, Pearl, ''There are many
ways to do it.” Python uses a minimalist philosophy and
encourages programmers to create code that is not
complicated.
Its minimalist approach also helped it get popular among
beginners; it's taught as a reference programming
language for first-year undergraduate students in
universities worldwide. Before the invention of Python,
programmers mainly used the high-level programming
languages for scientific development. With the entrance
of Python, real-world software development has increased
exponentially.
The Python core team has expanded its ability to create
software applications in different domains. Some of these
applications are provided below to help readers understand
the magnanimous impact of Python on software engineering.

1. Python is extensively used as a scripting language for

developing web applications. Python third-party
frameworks such as Django and Tornado can create
complex applications that can provide both reliability
and security to the website's visitors. Python is highly
 implemented in various popular websites such as
Facebook, Netflix, and Google for multiple
implementations. For example, Twisted, a framework
used by Dropbox engineers, can help companies
effectively interact with their computers in their
network.
2. Python is also extensively used in scientific
computing areas. It has libraries such as Numpy and
Scipy that programmers can use to create
applications depending on different mathematical
areas such as geometry and calculus. Python is also a
significant resource for programmers working with
digital vision and image processing applications.
3. Python has also made its mark in the now evolving
artificial intelligence and machine learning stream.
Libraries such as Tensorflow and Sci-kit learn are
reliable resources for developing and experimenting
with machine learning models. Python's adaptability
to natural language processing also helps companies
use it to create automatic translators.
4. The impact of Python on software development is
enormous. It helped developers create complex
software such as GIMP, Blender, and Maya. It also
has decent adaptability for making mobile video
games.
5. Python is the preferred scripting language for Devop
engineers who usually have to deal with a ton of
Linux software. Developers write almost all Linux
installation tools in Python for better portability
among different distros. macOS, the popular
operating system provided by Apple, also uses Python
to write various default software.
6. The adaptability of Python to both black and white
hackers is also commendable. Many black hat
hackers use Python to create exploits that can
automatically find vulnerabilities in a flawed system.
 Penetration testers also use Python for exploit
development that can detect these flaws way before
the hackers do.
7. Python is also a preferred programming language for
creating automated tools such as bots and scrapers
to reduce manual work for programmers.

With its huge impact on software engineering, Python has

influenced modern programming languages in different
aspects. Developers of Go, Groovy, and Swift, inspired by
Python, implemented minimalistic philosophy in their way
while deploying these languages.

THE BENEFITS OF LEARN IN G PY THON

During the great internet boom of the 1990s, many software

companies employed programmers to write complex code to
meet demand from individuals worldwide. However, the
development cycle of software increased tremendously as
the code started to become complicated. Most of the
development time had gone into code maintenance and
resolving bugs. During this time, Python was a lifesaver for
thousands of programmers, enabling them to create a
simplified coding style to help them maintain and deploy
new code quickly.
Understanding the different benefits that Python provides
for its users is essential for beginners to take note of.
1. Interpreted programming language
Python uses an interpreter to execute various instructions
that a programmer provides directly. It parses the code
during this process and creates an intermediary machine-
level language to reduce the waiting time during
execution. Due to being a high-level language, Python uses
natural
language elements that make the code easier to use and
automate.
2. Open source
Python is an open-source language, and hence anyone can
modify and distribute it without any problem. Its open-
source nature is the main reason for its success in the real
world. Python has always been in the top three
programming languages in GitHub. Open-source culture
also helps programmers save time by not creating code
that has already been written.
Beginners can also use these open-source projects to
understand Python's complex programming logic behind
software development.
3. Dynamically typed
Unlike static programming languages that use compilation
time to run their code, dynamically typed languages use a
runtime mechanism. While both static and dynamic typing
languages have their advantages and disadvantages,
dynamically typed programming languages such as Python
are believed to be more reliable and reusable, according to
experienced computer scientists.
4. It supports multiple paradigms
Any high-level programming language needs to support
programming paradigms to reuse the already written code
effectively. Python provides all three popular paradigms for
its users: structured, functional, and object-oriented. Even
though Python provides multiple paradigm opportunities for
its users, it is always recommended to use a consistent
paradigm for better code maintainability.
5. It uses garbage collection mechanism
Every programming language uses its strategy for effective
memory management. Python uses garbage collectors to
use memory that is no longer referenced. Garbage
collectors can help programmers interact with data that has
just been deleted or modified to increase the program's
speed.
6. Excellent software quality
Python's success is mainly due to its readability. All the code
written supports coherence and is hence easily
maintainable. Written Python code is also always uniform
and therefore the complex logic involved in the software
development is easy to understand. Software quality also
increases developer productivity by taking less time to
debug the code. For example, it only takes a third of the
code to rewrite a C language parsing library using Python.
7. Portability
Python is developed in a way that it can run in any operating
system or platform with a simple installation of its
interpreter. Its extreme portability has helped programmers
create portable GUIs (Graphical User Interfaces) for various
standalone applications.
If you have written a program to run in a Linux system using
Python, you can quickly change it by adding a few lines to
work in either Windows or macOS.
8. Huge standard and custom libraries
There is no denying that the popularity of Python is most
probably due to its extensive standard and custom
libraries that programmers can use to create any
application in any domain.
All the standard libraries can help programmers create and
interact with the system at an application level, whereas
portable libraries can help programmers develop
applications in different domains such as data analysis and
machine learning.
9. Component integration
Python can integrate itself into any pre-written code or
application, and hence it is a preferred programming
language for customization. Its extension capabilities are
intense and can help programmers interact with any
traditional programming language and library.
Its extension capabilities have helped developers create
new custom interfaces for various legacy software.
10. Supportive community
Python has a very supportive community that helps
beginners not get overwhelmed by the enormous number of
libraries available. There are many forums where
programmers can ask questions when they are stuck with an
error while deploying or debugging the code.
Resources related to standard and custom libraries are also
excellent for beginners to start working on projects. A vast
number of open-source projects available in GitHub can also
help programmers write their code using the same
principles.
DIFFERENT VERSIONS OF PY THON
Python 2 and Python 3 are the two popular versions that
beginners can use to create real-world applications.
Understanding the differences between them in detail
can help you while working with a real-world project or
for a client.
Python 2
Python 2 was first released in 2000 with various innovative
features that helped it become a preferred choice for
programmers who craved simplicity.
In 2021, the Python 2.7 version has become a legacy
software, and no further development will be provided to it,
making it an impractical choice for programmers. However,
there are programmers who are stuck with Python 2.7 due
to difficulties migrating written code into Python 3. Many
companies and libraries don’t migrate their code instantly
because it requires both money and time.
Many notable features available in Python 3 have been
backported by the Python developer team to Python 2.7 for
migrating the projects swiftly. Researchers say that even
though Python 2.7 has become a legacy software, there will
be a demand for Python 2 developers until 2025.
Python 3
Python 3 was released in 2008 and since then has gone
through significant changes to make Python as effective as
possible for real-world projects. Unlike Python 2, it uses
simpler syntax and hence can be easy to maintain.
The popularity of Python 3 is also due to its adaptability with
different modern computing fields such as artificial
intelligence and machine learning. All the developers are
creating libraries specifically for Python 3, which is why it is
essential to learn it. Python 3.9 is the latest available version
for developers.
What Should I Choose?
While the Python version you choose is entirely a personal
choice according to your requirements, I recommend
Python 3. Python 3 is not only simpler to learn but also
helps programmers create more reliable code. Python 3 is
also more versatile and powerful, and hence it is my
recommended choice for anyone beginning with Python.
Note : All the code provided in this book uses Python 3
syntactical rules.

HOW TO INSTALL PYTHON TO GE T S TARTE D

Python is highly portable and can run on any operating

system. Head over to Python.org to download Python 3.
Any program or application that you develop can run in all
the operating systems with a slight change in the code.
For example, a Python network mapper written for the
Windows platform can also work with Linux if you can
change the implementation of ports in the software as both
operating systems use different approaches to interact with
ports.
As a programmer, it is essential that you understand
installing Python in different operating systems.
Python on Linux
Linux is an open-source operating system that is majorly
used by programmers. As Linux is specifically designed for
programming, almost all Linux distros have Python pre-
installed in it.
To check whether or not Python is installed in your Linux
system, you need to enter a terminal. To open a new
terminal in your system, use Ctrl + Alt + N.
Once a terminal is opened, enter the following command.
Terminal Code :
 $ python3

If Python is installed in your system, you will be welcomed

with license information related to Python. However, if you
receive a blank screen, it means that the Python 3 is not
shipped with your Linux distro. You will need to use
package managers to install Python.
You need to first upgrade all your programs before trying to
install new software. Upgrade all the software in your
Ubuntu Linux system using the upgrade command and then
proceed with the installation of Python.
Terminal Code :

$ sudo apt-get upgrade

$ sudo apt-get install python3

Many other popular Linux distros, such as Arch, Gentoo and

Kali, use different commands and package managers to
install a package. Make sure you research according to your
Linux distro not to face any errors.
Python on macOS
macOS is one of the popular operating systems that Apple
maintains. Like Linux, macOS also deploys its operating
systems with inbuilt Python support.
To check whether or not Python is installed in macOS, you
need first to enter a terminal. Open a terminal by entering
the Utilities menu in your home bar.
Once a terminal is opened, enter the below command.
Terminal code :

$ python3
If you are not welcomed by a license message, then Python
is not installed in your system. It will help if you use a
package manager such as Homebrew to install the latest
version of Python in macOS.
Terminal code :

$ brew install python3

Python on Windows
Windows is the popular operating system in the world that
Microsoft developed. Windows systems are not available as
default software in Windows, and hence you need to install
an executable package to start experimenting with Python
programs.
To install Python 3 in Windows, head over to Python.org and
click on the downloads tab, where you can find different
executable files according to your operating system.
Download the executable installer which automatically
installs Python according to your preferred location. After
installing the Python installer, make sure that you add
“path” in environment variables using a control panel to
avoid conflicts with any other programming language
interpreters present in the system.
You can confirm whether or not a Python interpreter is
installed in a Windows system using the below command.
Command prompt code :

> python --version

If you face any problems while installing Python in your

preferred operating system, we suggest you Google the
error displayed in the terminal.
 2

BASICS OF PYTHON

o create software applications using Python, you need to

Tutilize a development environmen
programming tasks. This chapter is designed to help
readers understand the importance of a productive
development style that Python programmers should focus
on.

PYTHON INTERPRETER
Python is an interpreted language. It comes with additional
advantages that other high-level programming languages
cannot provide. For example, Python programs are easy to
test as they involve less waiting time.

Compared to its predecessor compilers, interpreters can

directly perform actions and are recommended as a
favorable choice for beginners.
When you install Python in your system, an interpreter along
with an IDLE (Integrated Development and Learning
Environment) will be installed in your system. You can either
search it in your system or enter the command “python” to
trigger IDLE in the shell terminal.
Python IDLE can be considered an ideal development tool
for beginners who are just starting with Python. IDLE first
reads the line in a program, evaluates its instructions,
prints them on the screen, and loops into the following
line. This mechanism is known as REPL and is a
fundamental concept all interpreters use to parse and run
the code effectively.
With the IDLE, you can easily edit and create files with a
.py extension. IDLE provides tracebacks to mention the
errors in a particular line to keep beginners from getting
overwhelmed with failed executions.
How to Use the Python IDLE shell?
Open a terminal using the default “python” command in the
terminal.

Terminal code :
$ python
The terminal will open a shell window, as shown below.

Output :
>>>

Some examples:
IDLE can be used to test Python code with any simple
arithmetic calculations and for printing statements.

Program code :
>>> print ( “ This is a sample text “ )

When you press enter, the IDLE will enter into REPL mode
and will print the given text on the screen, as shown below.

Output : This is a sample text In the above example,

print() is a method in Python’s standard library that
programmers can use to output strings in the
terminal window.

Now, we will look at some of the arithmetic examples.

Program code :
>>> 2 + 5

Here, we are using an addition operator, and the IDLE will

instantaneously display seven as output once we press the
Enter key.

Output :
7
Note: Remember that once you start a fresh terminal, all
the ongoing code in the IDLE will destroy itself.
How to Open Python Files in IDLE
Python inbuilt text editor provides you three essential
features that are essential for a coding environment.

1. It can automatically highlight your code syntax

2. It can automatically help you complete default code
3. It can automatically indent your code

To open a file in IDLE, all you have to do is choose the File

menu in the toolbar and click open. Action will open your
file system so that you can choose the file. Advanced
programmers usually specify a path to open Python files
instantly.
How to Edit Files in IDLE
Once you successfully open a Python file, you will be able
to edit it with your code. IDLE will provide specific
information such as the file name, path, and line and
column numbers to help the programmer easily create and
debug the code.
After editing the file, you can execute it using the F5 key.
Python IDLE is also a great debugging tool for small
projects. It provides essential debugging features such as
breakpoints and catching exceptions to debug the code
quickly. However, if the volume of the project increases,
IDLE will struggle to parse and debug the code effectively.
Note: Python IDLE provides a help() function to provide
easy reference for programmers. You can use help() to find
implementation information about any method or standard
library.
IDE ( INTEGRATED DEVELOPME N T EN VI RON M E N T)
While Python IDLE is an excellent way to experiment with
small snippets of code, it becomes extremely tough to
organize all the written code for Python projects. To solve
the problem of messy organization of code and tight
integration capabilities, computer programmers use
advanced software applications known as IDE (Integrated
development environments).

IDE not only helps programmers to create neatly organized

code but also provides developer productivity. It consists of
built-in development tools such as code editor, debugger,
and automation tools to decrease the setup time that usually
involves building and migrating code with individual
applications.
Some of the features IDEs offer:
1. Easy integration with libraries and frameworks
IDEs make it easy for programmers to integrate with open-
source or private frameworks and libraries easily. Some
IDEs also provide options to integrate with online
repositories such as GitHub directly.
2. Tools for object-oriented programmers
Object-oriented programming is a highly preferred
programming paradigm for team projects. IDEs provide
class and object browsers to help programmers easily
interact with different components in a large project.
Several IDEs also provide the option of class hierarchy
diagrams as a reference to kick start the project.
3. Syntax highlighting
Syntax highlighting is an important feature that helps
programmers to determine different programming
structures and reserved keywords quickly. Programmers can
also use syntax highlighting to detect errors more swiftly
and save time by not encountering build-time errors.
4. Code Completion
IDEs provide intelligent code completion features to help
beginners not get deviated from the logical implementation
of programs. IDEs use complex artificial intelligence and
machine learning algorithms to predict the following
procedure in a programming task. However, remember not
to rely on them as programming is a human task entirely,
and it always will be.
5. Version Control
Libraries and frameworks usually get updated with time, and
API changes sometimes can break the application. To help
programmers effectively maintain the software applications,
IDEs provide version control and automatic refactoring.
Using these features, programmers can manage changes to
the program without messing with the core functionalities.

Apart from these features, most IDEs provide debugging and

customization options to make programming practical and
an exciting and enriching experience.
Python is also fortunate to have well-developed IDEs that
can facilitate any need by a programmer. Pycharm,
Spyder, and eclipse are some popular IDEs that
programmers can use to develop Python applications.
PYCHARM
Pycharm is an exclusive Python IDE developed by Jetbrains
to create and collaborate with Python projects. Using
Pycharm, developers can create concise and readable code,
all the while following Python default coding conventions.

Pycharm is also a cross-platform IDE that programmers can

install in Windows, macOS, and Linux. It offers support for
both Python 2 and Python 3. Pycharm provides both
community and professional versions for its users. The
community version is free and offers a lot of basic
functionalities with minimal customization capabilities.
However, if you want to interlink your project with web or
scientific frameworks, there is a professional version that
charges a fee.
What Are the Exclusive Features of Pycharm?
1. Code editor
Pycharm has an inbuilt code editor that helps programmers
create Python code that is of high quality. It provides
automatic code suggestions and provides a high-level color
scheme to detect different types of syntax easily.
An editor can also be customized using different themes and
plugins to improve your productivity and satisfy your visual
aesthetics.
The editor is created so that a programmer can easily detect
errors and warnings without interpreting them at once.
Code regeneration and automatic indentation are also some
of the additional features that Pycharm provides.
2. Code Navigation
Pycharm provides a tremendous organizational ability for
programmers to structure large projects effectively. Specific
features such as bookmarks and lens mode can help
beginners structure the code in a way that is intended.
3. Advanced Refactoring
Refactoring is an important feature to be aware of,
especially to implement changes related to local and global
files. Refactoring can help programmers quickly rename files
all at once from classes, objects, variables, and strings.
Pycharm provides advanced refactoring options to customize
the code as quickly and effectively as possible without
making any build errors.
4. Integration with web technologies
The professional version of Pycharm provides easy
integration with web technologies such as HTML, CSS, and
Typescript. Pycharm integrates all these technologies to
work with Python frameworks and modules intuitively.
Pycharm also provides live edit features to help Python web
developers follow the changes in the inbuilt web browser
instantaneously.
5. Integration with scientific libraries
Pycharm has provided tight integration with open-source
data science and machine learning libraries such as NumPy
and Anaconda in its professional version as Python has high
adaptability with data science projects.
6. Software testing
Pycharm also provides integration with unit testing
frameworks such as Nose to help programmers involved in
big projects. Visual debugger, database integration, and
remote development capabilities can maximize the
productivity of programmers involved in teams.

WORKING WITH PYCHAR M

Step 1: Installing Pycharm

Installation of Pycharm is an easy process, and you can
download it with a click on all operating systems. Linux
users may need to install Pycharm from their respective
package managers.
Head over to Jetbrains official website, click on the
download section and wait for the website to detect your
operating system. The website will provide an executable file
that you can use to install it in your system.
If you are willing to purchase a professional version of
Pycharm, you will have to provide your billing details so
that your IDE will function as it is expected to.
Once downloaded, install the executable file in your system
and wait for it to open automatically. When running on old
computers, Pycharm may not detect your Python version
automatically, so you may need to enter the path to make
everything work as expected.
Step 2: Creating a New Project
When Pycharm is opened, a pop-up will appear showing
recent projects. In the top left, you will find an option called
“File” on the toolbar which can make a new Python project
for you. Click on it, and the Pycharm interface will ask you
to select the interpreter you want to use for the project.
Select the default option ‘virtualenv’ for now and head over
to the editing interface.
Step 3: Organizing your files in Pycharm
Once a project is opened, you need to create a new folder
to organize all your script files. The organization is
essential, primarily if you use an object-oriented paradigm
to create your software applications.

Click New -> Folder to create a new folder

containing all the scripts or classes you need to.
You can also create a new file using,
New ->
File -> Python .

The above action will create a file with a .py extension. You
can easily rename it according to your requirements.
Step 4: Analyze the interface in Pycharm

1. Pycharm can automatically save your code. However,

if you still want to save your files manually, you can
 use ctrl + S if you are a Windows user. If you are a
Mac user you can use Command + S.
2. You can run and interpret your Python code using
Shift+ F10
3. In Windows, using Ctrl + F, you can easily find any
small snippet or method in your Python project. If you
are a Mac user you can use Command + F.
4. To debug the code, you need to enter “Shift + F9”.
Pycharm debugger provides breakpoints and line by
line debugging options to easily interact with the
code and find the logical problems involved.

PYTHON STYLE GUIDE

Python is a programming language that favors simplicity

instead of complexity. To understand Python's essence as a
programming language, readers must read Tim Peters’ “The
Zen of Python.” It provides 19 guiding principles that dictate
the Python style for all projects.
Understanding these principles and following them in their
programming workflow can help Python programmers
create code that other programmers can easily maintain
and understand.
You can find all the 19 working principles related to the
Python style guide using the below command in your
terminal.

Terminal code :
$ import this
Here are the critical five styling principles that Python
programmers need to be aware of.
1. Beautiful is better than ugly
All Python programmers are suggested to write beautiful
semantically code instead of code that is hard to read and
understand. Here ugly refers to code that is not clean and
unreadable. Remove unnecessary statements or
conditionals that can complicate the code. Use indentations
for better understanding the code according to the
structure. Beautiful code not only rewards you with good
readability but also helps to decrease the runtime required.
2. Explicit is better than implicit
Never try to hide the functionality of the code to make it
explicit unless required. Being verbose makes
understanding the programming logic difficult. This
styling principle is also mentioned to encourage Python
programmers to write open-source code that can be
redistributed.
3. Simple is better than complex
Make sure that you write code that approaches the logic
more straightforwardly instead of being complex. If you
can solve a problem with ten conditional statements or
with one method, solve it with one. Make it as simple as
possible.
4. Complex is better than complicated
It is not always possible to write simple code that can do
complex actions. To perform complex actions, strive to
write complex code instead of complicated code. Always
write code in a way that you can catch exceptions
whenever something unexpected happens. Exceptions
can help you quickly debug your code.
5. There should be only one way to do it
Python programmers are suggested to use only one
programming logic for a problem all around the project
instead of using three or four logics in different instances.
Maintain uniformity to let others easily understand your
program code. Uniformity provides flexibility which can lead
to easy and quick maintainability.

PYTHON COMMENTS

Comments are introduced to help programmers easily

remember or share the programming logic used for a
program with other team members while working during
projects. Nowadays, most libraries and frameworks work
with open-source systems, and it is practical to start using
comments so that others can understand your code
concisely.
Apart from this reason, comments are also highly
recommended to write lines that can be ignored by the
interpreter while testing the software application. As a
Python programmer, you need to start using comments
whenever possible. Comments can also help you while
updating the code directories in the future.
There are two types of comments Python programmers can
use to make their code clearer and more understandable.
1. Single line comments
Anything followed by # (hash symbol) in a Python program
can be called a single line comment.

Program code :
# This is a comment, and we will print a
statement
Print (“We have learned about comments”)
Output :
We have learned about comments

Only print statement is executed, and the interpreter has

ignored everything that is written after #.
Programmers can use single comments, especially in the
middle of the code, to describe program logic or while
initiating conditionals and loops.
2. Multi-line comments
You can use hash (#) to create multi-line comments, but it
is not considered a good practice. To create multi-line
comments, a Python programmer can use string literals.

Program code :
‘’’
This is a comment that can be used to write
sentences or paragraphs.
‘’’

Print (“We have just learned about multi-line comments”)

Output :
We have just learned about multi-line
comments

Only the print statement is executed, and the interpreter

ignores everything that is in between string literals.
Note: Remember not to be redundant while writing
comments. Write only what your team members or your
future self may need.
 3

VARIABLES

o maximize the potential of Python as a programming

Tlanguage, programmers need to
and operators in their programs. Variables and operators
are fundamental building blocks of programs that can help
build programming logic and create applications that can
manipulate memory effectively.

UNDERSTANDING VARIA B LES

Software applications usually deal with data. Users upload
or download data from applications to completely
experience the product. All these use cases have become
possible only with the help of variables.

Computer scientists developed variables to effectively store

data to a specific location in the computer memory.
Variables can be called labels and are usually the most basic
unit in a program.
You might have already used variables in mathematics
while working with algebra.

Example :
2x + 3y
 x = 3 and y = 4

Variables in mathematics are usually used to replace a value

in an equation. Computer scientists adopted the same
concept to effectively manage memory resources in the
initial stages of computer development.
To understand what happens when a Python program is
executed, read the below example.

Program code :
print (" This is an example ")
Output :
This is an example

What happens?

1. When the above program is executed, the editor will

send all the lines in the program into a Python
interpreter.
2. An interpreter will decipher all the words in the
program and determine its purpose.
3. If the interpreter is confused or finds words that it
cannot determine, it will throw out warnings,
exceptions, and errors.
4. When the above example is executed, an interpreter
will look at the 'print' statement and understand its
purpose is to display whatever is there between
parentheses on the screen.

Now, look at a slight variation of the above example.

Program code :
first = " This is an example"
print(first)
 Output :
This is an example

In the above example, 'first' is used as a variable to store a

string in a specific memory location. To be precise, the
variable named 'first' now holds a value and can be called
at any instance.
Python is not a statically typed language, and hence there
is no need to declare variables while creating them.
Programmers can also change the value of Python
variables at any instant.

Program code :
first = " This is an example"
print(first)
first = " This is a second example"
print(first)
Output :
This is an example
This is a second example

The variable's value has changed instantaneously after

declaring a different string for the variable in the above
example.

HOW TO NAME VARIABLES

Python programming guidelines provide strict rules while

creating variables, so they do not fall prey to errors. This
also improves the program's readability.
Rules for writing variables:
1. Python only allows numbers, letters, and underscores
for creating variable names. For example, '$message'
is not a qualified variable name.
2. Python programmers should not start variable names
with a number. For example, 'message1' is an allowed
variable name, but '1message' is not allowed.
3. Python doesn't allow you to use 33 reserved
keywords as identifiers while creating variables. For
example, 'print' cannot be used as a variable name.
4. Always write variables that are easy to follow. Writing
complex variable names is considered a bad
programming practice, especially if you work with
teams.

HOW TO DEFINE VARIABLES

You can define variables in a Python program using the

assignment operator '='.

Syntax format :
Variable name = " Variable value"
Example :
first = 2 # This is a variable with integer data type
second = " United States Of America." # This a
variable with String data type

HOW TO FIND THE MEMORY ADDRE SS OF THE

VARIABLES

Finding the memory address of the variables is important,

especially while working with complex applications that
constantly have a necessity to change their values.
Traditional languages such as C use pointers for using
memory addresses in programs.
Python provides a way to provide the memory address of
the variables easily. Usually, in high-level programming
languages such as C and C++, pointers are used to find
the memory address. But in Python, we need to use a
built-in function called id() to get the memory address of
the variable.

Program code :
first = 324
id(first)
Output :
1x23238200

In the above example, 1x23238200 is the memory address

of the variable 'first'. When a variable is replaced, the
memory address will remain the same.

Program code :
first = 324
id(first)
first = 456
id(first)
Output :
1x23238200
1x23238200

LOCAL AND GLOBAL VAR IAB LES I N PY THON

Python can have variables that can be declared to be used

only inside a function. Local variables cannot be assigned
or called outside the function.
 Program code :
#This is a function with a local variable
def exa() :
d = " This is a local"
print(d)
exa()
Output :
This is a local

In the above example, we declared a variable with a local

scope. On the other hand, global variables are usually
declared outside a function but can still be used to call
inside a function.
 Program code :
def exa() :
print(d)
#This is a global scope variable
d = " This is a global"
exa()
Output :
This is a global

Programmers can use variables with different data types

such as integers, strings, lists, and dictionaries. Variables
can also be combined with operators for creating complex
programs.

RESERVED KEYWORDS

Every programming language has its prebuilt syntax known

as reserved keywords usually needed to facilitate the
language. All these reserved keywords clearly define a
specific functionality while building the programming
language from scratch.
For example, "if" is a reserved keyword in Python and is
used to create a conditional statement while writing
Programs.
Programmers cannot use reserved keywords while creating
identifiers for other programming components such as
variables, functions, and classes. Python 3 currently has 33
reserved keywords.
Do it Yourself:
Open your Python terminal and enter the following
commands to list out all reserved keywords.

Program code :
>>> import keyword
# This statement helps to import a library
>>> keyword.kwlist
# All the reserved keywords will be displayed

OPERATORS IN PYTHON

Operators are usually used in mathematics to combine

literals and form statements.

Example :
2x + 3y = 7

Here, 2x, 3y, and 7 are literals, whereas + and = are

operators. Computer scientists adopted operators from
mathematics and used them effectively to assign and
manipulate values.
Operators are designed for computation and hence can be
combined with objects to create complex expressions. A
group of expressions usually form an effective
computational logic.
In Python, the values that an operator tries to combine are
known as operands.

Example :
>>> first = 45
>>> second = 78
>>> first + second
 Output :
133

In the above example, first and second are operands,

whereas '+' is the operator.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF OPE RATORS

Operators are usually complex and are of different types.

The most popular ones are arithmetic operators, which
are usually used to apply mathematical operations.
Any mathematical operation such as Addition, Subtraction,
Multiplication, and Division can be applied to the variables
and lists using these operators.
1. Addition (+)
The addition operator is usually used to add two literals;
‘+’ is its symbol. When you use the addition operator to
add two different data types, the Python interpreter will
automatically apply typecasting for suitable data types.

Program code :
A = 42 B = 33 C = A + B # + is an
addition operator Print(c)

Output :
75

2. Subtraction
The subtraction operator is usually used to find the
difference between two literal values or lists. ‘-’ is its
symbol.

Program code :
A = 42 B = 33 C = A - B # - is a
subtraction operator Print(c)

Output :
9

3. Multiplication
Multiplication operator is usually used to find the product
between two literal values or lists. It is represented using
the ‘*’ symbol.

Program code :
A = 42 B = 33 C = A * B # - is a
multiplication operator Print(c)

Output :
1386

4. Division
The division operator is usually used to find the quotient
when two numbers of any data type are divided.
Whenever two numbers are divided, you will usually be
given a floating-point number as a result. The symbol for
the division operator is ‘/’.

Program code :
A = 42
B = 33
C=A\B
# / is a division operator
Print(c)
Output :
1.272
5. Modulus
Using this special operator, you can find a number modulo
with another number. Mathematically we can call modulo
also as the remainder between two numbers. The symbol of
the modulus operator is ‘%’.

Program code :
A = 42 B = 33 C = A % B # % is
the modulus operator Print(c)

Output :
9

6. Floor division
Floor division is a special arithmetic operator that provides
the nearest integer value as the quotient value instead of
providing a floating-point number. The symbol of the floor
division operator when writing Python programs is ‘//’.

Program code :
A = 42 B = 33 C = A // B # // is a floor
division operator Print(c)

Output :
1

OPERATOR PRECEDENCE
When you create and work with mathematical expressions,
it is also important to know when and how to perform a
mathematical operation. For example, when there are
multiple operators in an expression, it is very important to
follow strict rules that exist to calculate them. If not, the
value may completely change.
Python programmers can follow operator precedence rules
to avoid these problems while creating software.
Rules:

1. parentheses is the element with ultimate precedence

in a Python expression. If you find any literals or
variables inside a parenthesis, then you need to
calculate them first before proceeding to others.
2. The second precedence is exponent operator followed
by bitwise operators
3. The next precedence order will be included with
multiplication, division, modulus, and floor division
operators.
4. The next precedence will be given to addition and
subtraction operators
5. Any logical or comparison operators will be with the
last precedence will working with the Python
programs
 4

DATA TYPES IN PYTHON

ython programming language deals with a lot of

Pdifferent types of data to create u
Understanding these different sets of values, the operations
that programmers can make, and their importance in
software development are essential for beginners.

WHAT ARE DATA TYPES?

In simple terms, data types are a set of values that
programmers define while creating variables in
programming languages. As Python is not a statically typed
language, there is no rule to define them specifically. The
Python interpreter will usually automatically detect the data
type for a variable and perform operations. Even though
there is no need to define them, understanding data types is
an essential skill for creating intricate programs.

For example, when you create a variable named 'first' with

a value 10, you typically create a variable 'value' with a
value '10' of data type 'integer'. Python automatically
detects the data types of all the variable values as it is a
dynamically typed language.

Program code :
 first = 10

Statically typed languages such as C make it mandatory for

programmers to mention the data type when declaring a
variable.
For example, in C language, a variable with a float data
type is declared, as shown below.

Program code :
float age = 64;

UNDERSTANDING DATA TY PES

To understand data types in much more depth, you need to

understand some of the essential code fragments in a
Python program.

Example :
a = 64 b =
54 c = a +
b

Here a, b, and c act as variables and '+' and '=' are

operators.
The value given to the variables is known as a literal and
represents a data type value. 64 and 54 are the literals in
the above example. A literal usually acts as a directive to
insert a specific value into a variable.
The popular data types in Python are integer, float, string,
and Boolean. Understanding data types in depth and the
operations possible on them is a mandatory prerequisite for
Python programmers.
Strings
Strings are data types that are used to represent text in
programs. Strings are usually enclosed in single quotes and
have a sequence of characters. When you use a string data
type, an 'str' object with a sequence of characters is created.

String data types are necessary because a computer reads

data in the form of binary. It is required to convert
characters using an encoding mechanism so that the
computer can understand and manipulate them according
to our instructions. ASCII and Unicode are some of the
popular encoding mechanisms programming languages use
to read text data.
Until Python 2, there was no way to interact with foreign
languages such as Chinese and Korean effectively. Python
3, however, has introduced a Unicode mechanism to deal
with data other than English.
How Are They Represented?

Program code :
a = ' This is a string.'
print(a)
Output :
This is a string.

Everything in between the quotes can be called a string

literal, and it can be called anywhere in the program using
the variable 'a'. In the above example, the string consists of
14 characters, excluding whitespaces.
Python strings can also be represented using three other
different ways.
 Program code :
a = " This is a string."
# Literals in double quotes
print(a)
a = ''' This is a single line '''
# Literals in triple single quotes
print(b)
a = """ This is a multiple
lines program """
# Literals in triple double quotes for
representing multiple lines
print(c)
Output :
This is a string
This is a single line
This is a multiple lines program

String data types in Python can be used to create any

amount of information. All special characters, symbols,
letters, digits, and whitespaces can be entered between the
quotes. Python also provides particular components known
as escape sequences to format the data present effectively.
For example, programmers can use '\n' to create a new line.

How to Access Characters in a String

Python provides different ways to interact with string data
easily. We can easily access a specific location of a string
using indexes. Python also uses the concept of slicing to
access a range of characters in a string.
Positive indexing usually starts with 0, and negative
indexing starts with = -1. For slicing, a colon (:) is used to
provide the range.
 Examples:
# Accessing Strings in Python sample = '
Python' print('sample =' , sample) # Will print
the first character print(' sample[0] = ',
sample[0]) # Will print the last character
print(' sample[5] = ', sample[5]) # Will slice
from 3rd to 6th character print(' sample[2: 5]
= ', sample[2:5]) # Using negative indexing
print(' sample[-1] = ', sample[-1])

Output :
sample = Python
sample[0] = P
sample [5] = n
sample [2:5] = thon
sample [-1] = n

Because they are immutable, it is impossible to either

change or delete elements in a string. You can, however,
reassign the string literals easily. When you try to replace a
string element using indexing, a type error will occur.
String Formatting
Strings are usually used to display the information that
wants to appear when action appears in the program. Many
also use strings to display input values dynamically given by
the user.
To perform string formatting, Python programmers can
primarily follow two different strategies.
1. Format with placeholders
In this method, programmers are required to use the %
(modulus) operator to format the appearance of the strings.
Using placeholders to format strings is the oldest method,
and '%' is famously called a string formatting operator.

Program code :
>>> print ( " %s is a great game" %
'football')
Output :
football is a great game

Using the placeholders method, you can also format two

strings at the same time.

Program code :
>>> print ( " %s is the national sport of %s"
('Baseball', 'USA') )
Output :
Baseball is the national sport of USA

Remember that while %s is used to format strings, you can

use %d to format integers and %f to format floating-point
numbers.
 Program code :
>>> print ( " Brazil won FIFA world cup %d
times" % 5)
Output :
Brazil won FIFA world cup 5 times

To format floating-point numbers in a string, you need to use

a different format known as %a.bf. Here, a represents the
minimum number of strings displayed on the screen, and b
represents the number of digits used after the example.

Program code :
>>> print ( " The exchange rate of USD to EUR
is : %5.2f" % (0.7546))
Output :
The exchange rate of USD to EUR is : 0.75
2. Format with .format() string
Python 3 has provided a special method known as .format()
to format strings instead of the traditional modulus (%)
operator. Python 2 also has recently adopted the .format()
method into its standard library.

Example :
>>> print ( “ Football is popular sport in
{}.” .format(' South America') )
Output :
Football is popular sport in South America
Using .format(), we can also format the
strings using indexed based positions.
Program code :
>>> print( ' {3} {2} {1} {0}' .format ( '
again' , 'great' , ' America' , ' Make') )
Output :
Make America great again

Apart from these two ways, you can also format strings in
Python using f-strings. Lambda expressions can be used in
this method and are used when there is a requirement for
advanced formatting scenarios.
While it is tempting to use the placeholder method as it is
easy to implement, we recommend using the .format()
method as it is considered the best practice by many
Python 3 experts. The placeholder method usually takes a
lot more time to execute during runtime and is not a good
solution, especially for large projects.
String Manipulation Techniques
Strings are the most utilized data type in programs because
data instantiation usually happens through strings.
Understanding string manipulation techniques is a
prerequisite skill for Python programmers. Many data
scientists and data analysts solely depend on these
manipulation techniques to create rigorous machine
learning models.
The most important string manipulation technique Python
programmers need to be aware of is concatenating and
multiplying the strings.
1. Concatenate
Concatenate refers to joining strings together to make a new
string. To concatenate two strings, you can use the
arithmetic operator ‘+’. You can also separate the added
strings using white space for better readability.

Program code :
Sample = ‘ This is ‘ + ‘ ‘ + ‘ FIFA world
cup’
Print( sample)
Output :
This is FIFA world cup

In the above example, if the white space is not provided,

both strings will be together as Python interpreter
usually displays output without formatting.
2. Multiply
Multiplying refers to copying strings again and again easily.
A Python programmer can use the mathematical operator "*"
to multiply strings easily.

Program code :
Sample = ‘ welcome ‘ * 4
# This makes the string to multiply itself 4
times
 Sample1 = ‘ To whoever you are ‘
Print( sample + sample1)
Output :
welcome welcome welcome welcome To whomever
you are

In the above example, we first multiplied the strings and

then concatenated them to another string.
3. Appending strings
While both concatenating and multiplying strings are
considered basic string manipulation techniques, you can
further improve your strings efficiency by appending the
strings using a special operator (+=).

Example :
Sample = ‘ This is a great’
Sample += ‘example’
Print(sample)
Output :
This is a great example

In the above example, += is used to append another string

at the end. You can, however, not use this operator to add
information in the middle of the string.
4. Length
Apart from using string operations, you can use certain
prebuilt string functions in the Python library to do
additional tasks. Having a good grasp of these techniques
can help programmers to format their data in Python
applications effectively.
Length is one of these methods that help programmers to
mention the number of characters in a string. Remember
that blank space will also be added as a separate character
in the count.

Program code :
Sample = ‘ Today is Monday’
Print(len(sample)
Output :
13

5. Find
Finding a part of the substring in a large string is an
important task for many Python programmers. Python
provides an inbuilt find() function for this purpose. This
method will output the starting index position of the
substring.
Note:
Python programmers can use only positive indexes, and
also the index starts with 0.

Example :
Sample = ‘ This month is August’
Result = sample. Find(“ Augu”)
Print(result)
 Output :
12

If you try to find a substring that is not present in the main

string, then the Python interpreter will give the result as
‘-1’

Program code :
Sample = ‘ This month is August’
Result = sample. Find(“ July”)
Print(result)
Output :
-1

6. Lower and higher case

You can use the .lower() method to convert all the
characters in a string to lowercase letters.

Program code :
Sample = “ Football is a great sport”
Result = sample. Lower()
Print(result)
Output :
football is a great sport

In the above example, if you notice, you can find that all the
uppercase letters are converted into lowercase.
You can perform a similar operation with the help of the
.upper() method, but to convert all the characters in a string
to upper case letters.

Program code :
Sample = “ Football is a great sport”
 Result = sample. Higher()
Print(result)
Output :
FOOTBALL IS A HIGHER SPORT

7. title()
A Python programmer can also easily use the title() method
to convert a string to camel case format.

Program code :
Sample = “ Football is a great sport”
Result = sample. Title()
Print(result)
Output :
Football Is a Great Sport

8. Replace strings
A Python programmer often needs to replace a part of the
string. You can achieve this using the inbuilt replace ()
method. However, remember that all the characters in the
string will be replaced whenever you use this method.

Program code :
Sample = “ Football is a great sport”
Result = sample.replace( “ Football”, “
Cricket”)
Print(result)
Output :
Cricket is a great sport

Apart from all these manipulation techniques, you can also

use escape sequences such as print line(\l) and new tab (\t)
to format the data on the output screen effectively.
Integers
Integers are the data types in Python that are used to
represent numbers from 0 to 9. Programs often use ‘int’
literals because they are required for both program logic
execution and complex arithmetic calculations.
When a Python interpreter encounters an ‘int’ while
execution, it creates an int object with a specified value. This
value can be replaced whenever we need to.
"int" objects are often used in programs and are the basic
building blocks of an efficient program. For example,
colors on a web page use a string of values that are
represented in integers.
Python also uses operators such as +,-,*,/ on these literals.
As a beginner, you need to remember the unary operators
‘+’ and ‘-’, representing the sign of an integer.
For example, +12 represents a positive integer, whereas
-12 represents a negative integer.

Representing Integers
a=6
print(a)
Output :
6

It also should be remembered that the range of integer

literals is usually huge in Python. You can input literals with
more than ten digits in a variable. Even though there is no
problem with using large integers, there is always a problem
of memory leakage when a program fills the computer's
memory with operations involving huge integers. To get rid
of bottleneck situations, make sure that expressions
involving large integer literals are practical.
Floating-Point Numbers
Float is a special data type in Python that programmers can
use to represent floating-point numbers while working with
program variables. Usually, when we create software, we
need to work with real numbers along with a decimal point.
You can represent as far as ten decimal points using a ‘float’
data type variable.

Program code :
A = 7.1213
Print(a)
# This represents a floating-point variable
Output :
7.1213

You can also use a floating-point variable to represent a

hexadecimal integer, a popular numerical representation
method.

Example :
A = float.hex ( 3.1212)
Print(a)
Output :
'0x367274872489’

Python programmers can also use floating-point numbers to

represent both complex and exponential numbers.
Boolean Data Type
Boolean is a special data type that can help programmers
to represent true or false during an instance. The two
Boolean values are TRUE and FALSE.
You can mostly use Boolean data types along with relational
operators.
 Example:
Print ( 100 < 32)
Output :
False

As this is a false statement, the Python interpreter will

output Boolean value ‘False’ to the programmer.

TYPE CASTING

Usually, when we work with programs, situations occur

when the data type of a variable needs to be changed.
Python provides an opportunity to convert data types
without messing up the program using casting.
Usually, type casting can be performed using two types:
implicit and explicit type casting.
1. Implicit type casting
Using implicit type casting, Python automatically converts
the data types whenever required.

Example:
X = 32
Print(type(x))
# This prints the data type of x
Y = 2.0
Print(type(y)
# This prints the data type of y
Z = x +y
Print(Z)
Print(type(Z))
# implicit type casting occurs
Output :
<class ‘int’>
 <class ‘float’>
64.0
<class ‘float’>

In the above example, when a float variable is multiplied

with an integer variable, the result has already been
implicitly converted to a floating-point data type
variable.
2. Explicit type casting
When a Python programmer changes the variable data types
with their involvement, it is known as explicit type casting.
Usually, explicit type casting is performed using data type
functions.
Typecasting int to float :

X = 32
# This is an int variable with a value ‘32’
Z = float(x)
# Now the int data type is type casted to
float
Print(Z)
Print(type(Z))
Output :
32.0
<int ‘float’>

In the above example, we have converted a variable with

data type ‘int’ to data type ‘float’ using implicit type
casting.
Typecasting float to int :

X = 32.0
# This is an int variable with a value ‘32’
Z = int(x)
 # Now the float data type is type casted to
int
Print(Z)
Print(type(Z))
Output :
32
<class ‘int’>

In the above example, we have converted a variable with

data type ‘float’ to data type ‘int’ using implicit type
casting.
Typecasting int to string :

X = 32
# This is an int variable with a value ‘32’
Z = str(x)
# Now the int data type is type casted to
float
Print(Z)
Print(type(Z))
Output :
32
<int ‘string’>

In the above example, we have converted a variable with

data type ‘int’ to data type ‘string’ using implicit type
casting.
Typecasting string to int :

X = 32
# This is a string variable with a value ‘32’
Z = int(x)
# Now the string data type is type casted to
int
 Print(Z)
Print(type(Z))
Output :
32
<class ‘int’>

In the above example, we have converted a variable with

data type ‘int’ to data type ‘float’ using implicit type
casting.
Exercise:
Following the examples mentioned earlier, try to type cast a
string variable to a float variable using the same input data.
 5

LISTS AND TUPLES

s a programmer, you need to deal with a lot of data

Ainstead of single linear data. Pyth
structures such as lists, tuples, and dictionaries to handle
more data efficiently. Understanding these data structures
that help Python programmers manipulate and easily
modify the data is an essential prerequisite for beginners.

WHAT IS A LIST DATA TYPE ?

A list is a unique data structure that can hold multiple values
of different data types in sequential order. Whenever
programmers mention ‘list value,’ it represents the whole
list itself. Like any variable, the list itself can be
manipulated, replaced, passed to a function and can destroy
the Python variable mechanism.

Lists are usually represented as shown below:

[64,48,32]
Here 64, 48, and 32 are list elements. All the elements in
the list are of integer data type.
Lists usually start with a square bracket and end with a
square bracket. Commas will usually separate all the
elements in the list. If the elements in the lists are of string
data type, they will be enclosed within quotes. Elements
inside the list can also be called items.

Example :
[USA, China, Russia]
Here USA, China, and Russia are the elements
in the list. They are string data types.
List to variable:
>>> sample = [USA, China, Russia]
> > > sample
Output:
[USA, China, Russia]

In the above example, the variable ‘sample’ has now stored

the list provided. You can call the list using a variable like
you print any other value of standard data types on the
screen.
Empty List
If the list doesn’t consist of any elements, it is called an
empty or null list.
It is usually represented as [].

Program code :
>>> sample = [ ]
# This is an empty list

Understanding Index in Lists

Every element in the list can be individually called,
manipulated, or modified using a unique Python feature
known as indexes. Usually, the index numbers start with
‘0’, and you can use them as shown in the below example.
Let us suppose that the list is [USA, China, Russia].

Program code :
>>> sample = [USA, China, Russia]
>>> sample[0]
>>> USA
>>> Sample[1]
>>> China
>>> sample[2]
>>> Russia

In the above example, when we insert the index number ‘0’,

the interpreter will print the first element in the list.
Similarly, we can call any element in the list with its
respective index.

Example :
>>> ' Hi’ + sample2
Output:
Hi Russia

You can also call an element in your list in the following

manner.

Program code :
>>> [USA, China, Russia] [1]
Output :
China

If you provide an index value more than the maximum

index, then the Python interpreter will throw an error.

Program code :
Sample = [USA, China, Russia]
 Sample[3]
Output :
Index Error: list index out of range

Note : You can only use integer data type for indexes.
Usage of floating-point data type can result in TypeError.

Program code :
>>> sample = [USA, China, Russia] [1.0]
Output :
TypeError: list index should not be float but
should be an integer

Remember that all the list elements can consist of other lists
in them. To be precise, all the parent lists can have child
lists.

Program code :
>>> sample = [[Football, Cricket, Baseball],
USA, China, Russia]
>>> sample[0]
Output :
[Football, Cricket, Baseball]

You can also use child list elements using the following
index format.

Program code :
>>> sample[0][2]
Output :
Baseball

In the above example, the interpreter has first used the first
list in the element and then later for the third element
to print it on the screen.
You can also call list elements using negative indices.
Usually, -1 refers to the last element and -2 to the last
before.

Program code :
sample = [USA, China, Russia]
Sample[-1]
# will print the last element
Output :
'Russia’

Slicing Using Lists

You can create sub-lists easily using the slicing method.
Using the slicing method, you can extract specific elements
and create separate new lists.

Syntax :
Listname index start : index end

A colon usually separates the index numbers. The first index

number will provide the value about where the slicing
should start, and the end index number will provide the
value about where the slicing should end.

Program code :
>>> sample = [USA, China, Russia, Japan,
South Korea]
>>> sample[0 : 2]
Output :
[USA, China, Russia]
Program code :
>>> sample[2 : 3]
Output :
 [Russia, Japan]

You can also slice without entering the first or last index
number. For example, if the first index number is not
provided, the interpreter will start from the first element in
the list. In the same way, if the last index number is not
provided, then the interpreter will extend the slicing till the
last element.

Program code :
>>> sample = [USA, China, Russia, Japan,
South Korea]
>>> sample[ : 1]
Output :
[USA, China]
Program code :
>>> sample[2 :]
Output :
[Russia, Japan, South Korea]
If you don’t provide both values, then the whole list will be
given as an output.

Program code :
>>> sample [ : ]
Output :
[USA, China, Russia, Japan, South Korea]

Getting List Length

The inbuilt lens() function can help a Python programmer
print out the list's length.

Program code :
 >>> sample = [ USA, China, Russia, Japan,
South Korea]
> > > len(sample)
Output :
5

You can directly change values inside lists using the

assignment operator. Remember that whenever you replace
them, the value will be lost forever, and you cannot retrieve
them back. Only let your programs use them if it is
necessary.
 Program code :
>>> sample = [USA, China, Russia, Japan,
South Korea]
>>> sample [2]= [‘Germany’]
>>> print(sample)
Output :
[USA, China, Germany, Japan, South Korea]

In the above example, after using the assignment statement

on the second element, the value has changed from ‘Russia’
to ‘ Germany’.
You can also directly replace one list value with another
using the assignment statement.

Program code :
>>> sample = [ USA, China, Russia, Japan,
South Korea]
>>> sample[2] = sample[4]
Output :
[USA, China, Russia, Japan, Russia]

In the above example, the end element in the list is

replaced by the second element in the list.
List Concatenation
You can add two different lists using the "+" operator.
However, remember that both should be of the same data
types. If not, then it may throw errors sometimes.

Program code :
[4,5,6] + [5,6,7]
[4,5,6,5,6,7]

List Replication
You can multiply two strings using the list replication
technique. To perform the replication technique, you need to
use the "* "operator.

Program code :
[4,5,6] * 3
Output :
[ 4,5,6,4,5,6,4,5,6]

You can also easily remove an element from a list using del
statements. However, remember that when you delete a
middle element, the value of indices will change
automatically, so your results may change. Confirm whether
or not it will affect any other operation before proceeding
with the deletion.
 Program code :
>>> sample = [USA, China, Russia, Japan,
South Korea]
>>> del sample[3]
>>> sample
Output :
[USA, China, Russia, South Korea]

‘in’ and ‘not in’ Operators for Lists

Python provides two operators called ‘in’ and ‘not in’ to
determine whether or not an element is there in a list. All
the output results for these operators will be given as a
Boolean value.

Program code :
>>> 'China’ in [USA, China, Russia, Japan,
South Korea]
Output :
TRUE
Program code :
Sample = [USA, China, Russia, Japan, South
Korea]
'Mexico’ not in sample
Output :
TRUE
You can also use multiple assignment statements to allot a
list element to a variable.

Example :
Sample = [USA, China, Russia, Japan, South Korea]
Result1 = sample[0] Result2 = sample[2]
 Result3 = sample[1]

Instead of assigning a variable to an individual list item

separately, you can use the following format.

Program code:
Result1,result2,result3 = sample

However, remember that you can only use this with the
exact elements you have on your list. Otherwise, a type
error will occur and will crash the program.
Finding Value In a List Using The index() Method
Python also provides various inbuilt functions that help
programmers to extract different additional data from
these data structures.
 Program code :
Sample = [USA, China, Russia, Japan, South
Korea]
Sample.index(‘Japan’)
Output :
3

In the above example, the index method has mentioned a

list element as an attribute, and so it gave the index
number of the list as a result. If you provide a list
element that doesn’t exist, then a type error will occur.

Program code :
Sample = [USA, China, Russia, Japan, South
Korea]
Sample.index(‘Switzerland ’)
Output :
Type error : list element doesn’t exist

Adding Values to a List Using append() And insert()

Adding list elements in your favorable index position is
essential when you are working with python programs.
 Program code :
Sample = [USA, China, Russia, Japan, South
Korea]
Sample.append(‘ Canada’)
Sample
Output :
[USA, China, Russia, Japan, South Korea,
Canada]

The above example used the append() method to add an

element to the end of the list.
You can also use the insert() method to insert a list element
at any index position. Insert method also uses a specific
format that asks the programmer to insert the index
number where the element should be inserted.
Insert (index position, ‘item’)

Example :
Sample = [USA, China, Russia, Japan, South
Korea]
Sample.insert(3, ‘Canada’)
Sample
Output :
[USA, China, Russia, Canada, Japan, South
Korea]

In the above example, a new element called ‘Canada’ is

added in the index position 3, and the previously present
elements move an index forward.
Removing List Elements Using remove()
Using the remove() method, a programmer can quickly
delete an element from the list.
 Program code :
Sample = [USA, China, Russia, Japan, South
Korea]
Sample.remove(‘Japan’)
Sample
Output :
[USA, China, Russia, South Korea]

In the above example, the element ‘Japan’ is removed from

the list using the remove() method. If you try to remove an
element that doesn’t exist in the list, a value error will
occur.

Program code :
Sample = [USA, China, Russia, Japan, South
Korea]
Sample.remove(‘Canada ’)
Sample
Output :
Value error : The list element doesn’t exist

Sort List Elements Using sort()

Sorting is an essential trick to arrange numbers or string
values present in an order. Usually, when we use the sort()
method, all the elements will be arranged in ascending
order.

Program code :
Sample = [3,5,1,9,4]
Sample.sort()
Output :
[1,3,45,9]
You can also sort string elements. The elements will be
ordered using alphabetical order.

Program code :
Sample = [USA, China, Russia, Japan, South
Korea]
Sample.sort()
Sample
Output :
[China, Japan, Russia, South Korea, USA]

To sort the elements in descending order, you can use

‘reverse’ as a keyword argument along with the sort()
function.

Program code :
Sample = [USA, China, Russia, Japan, South
Korea]
Sample.sort(reverse = True)
Sample
Output :
USA, South Korea, Russia, Japan, China

Remember that when you try to sort elements in a list, all

the elements in the list should be of the same data type. If
not, the Python interpreter, which has no way to compare
values between two different data types, will throw a
TypeError.

Program code :
Sample = USA, China, 3,4,5.4
sample.sort()
Sample
Output :
TypeError: These values cannot be compared
UNDERSTANDING TUPLES
Lists are mutual objects in Python. All the elements in a list
can be easily removed, added or deleted using different
functions. Tuples, on the other hand, are immutable lists.
Any element that is entered into a tuple cannot be modified.
Trying to change an element in a tuples data structure can
result in a “TypeError”.

Also, remember that they are denoted using parentheses

instead of square brackets that list data structures. You can
also represent tuples without using parentheses.

Program code:
Sample = (‘football’ , ‘baseball’ ,
‘cricket’)
Print(sample)
# creating a tuples without a parenthesis
Output:
‘football’, ‘baseball’, ‘cricket’
Program code:
Sample = (‘football’ , ‘baseball’ ,
‘cricket’)
Print(sample)
# creating a tuples with a parenthesis
Output:
(‘football’, ‘baseball’, ‘cricket’)
Concatenating Tuples
Just like lists, you can add or multiply tuple elements in
Python.

Program code:
Sample1 = (21,221,22112,32)
Sample2 = (‘element’, ‘addition’)
 Print( sample1 + sample2)
# This concatenates two tuples
Output:
(21,221,22112,32,’element’,‘addition’)

You can also nest a tuple into another using Python.

Program code:
Sample1 = (21,221,22112,32)
Sample2 = (‘element’, ‘addition’)
Sample3 = (sample1,sample2)
Print(sample3)
Output:
( ( 21,221,2212,32), (‘element’, ‘addition’))

You can also repeat the elements in a tuple using the

replication technique.

Program code:
Sample1 = (‘sport’, ‘games’) * 3
Print(sample1)
Output:
(‘Sport’,’ games’,’ sport’, ‘games’, ‘sport’,
‘ games’)

Remember that tuples are immutable. So, if you try to

change a value of the element, then a TypeError will occur.

Program code:
Sample1 = (21,221,22112,32)
Sample1[2] = 321
Print(sample1)
Output:
TypeError: Tuple cannot have an assignment
statement
How to Perform Slicing in Tuples
To perform slicing, you need to enter the starting and
ending index of tuples divided by a colon (:).
 Program code:
Sample1 = (21,221,22112,32,64)
Print(sample1[2 : 4])
Output:
(22112,32,64)

How to Delete a Tuple

Even though you cannot delete elements present in the
tuple separately, you can delete the tuple itself.

Program code:
Sample1 = (21,221,22112,32,64)
Del sample1

Now, when you call the tuple, it will receive a TypeError

because the tuple has already been deleted.

UNDERSTANDING DICTION ARIE S

Dictionary is a special data structure that helps Python

store values as a map instead of a single value data
element. Dictionaries use the “key : value” pair to make the
data more optimized. Dictionaries use curly brackets to
represent them in a program.
How to Create a Dictionary
To create a dictionary, you need to place a sequence of
elements in curly brackets. Dictionaries usually hold a pair
of values and are separated by a comma.

Syntax:
Dictionary = [key : value , key : value]

You can insert any value such as a variable or a list in these

key : value pairs.

Example :
Sample = {1 : USA , 2 : China , 3 : Brazil ,
4 : Argentina}
Print(Sample)
Output:
{1: USA, 2: China, 3: Brazil, 4: Argentina}

You can also create a nested dictionary using Python.

Program code:
{1 : USA , 2 : China , 3 : Brazil , 4 : { 1 :
Football , 2 : Cricket , 3 : Baseball } }

To add an element to a dictionary, you can use various

techniques. The most popular one is adding all the elements.

SAMPLE EXERCISE

Write a Python program to print Even Numbers in a List.

Program code:
 #These are sample numbers we have used
sample = [22,32,11,53,98]
# Using a for loop to solve the logic
for num in list1:
# Logic for detecting even numbers
if num % 2 == 0:
print(num, end = " ")
Output:
22,32,98

EXERCISE:

1. Write a Python program that can create a matrix

using lists and provide an inverse matrix.
2. Write a Python program to form a few lists and
interact with each other to play a word scrambling
game.
3. Write a Python program to reverse all elements in the
list and find out the character length of all the strings in
the list
4. Write a Python program to effectively ascend or
descend the values and key Pair present in them
5. Write a Python program to create a list that provides
popular 100 English synonyms with meanings
6. Write a Python program to invert a dictionary and
replace their elements with the RGB values of Blue,
Green, and Orange colors.
 6

USER INPUT AND OUTPUT

ost of the programs are designed to provide a purpose

Mfor the user. Most of the softwar
provides a unique solution to the user. To provide a unique
experience to software, you need to get some information
from the user. Python programmers need to access this
user input and perform operations based on that input,
usually for providing a unique experience to the user. All
real-world applications need both user input and output for
working efficiently.
With the help of the information provided about input and
output in this chapter, you will be able to create long
programs that perform according to user’s input.

WHY ARE INPUT VALUES NE CESSARY ?

Software behaving based on input provided by users is one
of the general rules to create great software. When you log
in to Facebook, you will input your email and password, and
the database will verify your credentials based on the input
data. Even facial recognition technology uses your face
mapping as input data. Every real-world application asks
the user to provide input in one way or another.
For example, let us suppose that you are supposed to let
users access the application only if they are 18 years old. To
implement this condition, you have created a programming
logic that verifies users' age and passes them into the
application only if they are 18. However, for this
programming logic to apply, the user first needs to enter
their age using the input functionality. Inputs can be of any
data type that Python supports.

UNDERSTANDING INPUT() FUN CTI ON

Whenever you use an input() function while writing Python

programs, it will pause the program during execution and
wait for the user to enter an input depending on the prompt
provided. Once entered, the user usually needs to press
‘enter’ to store the provided input inside a variable.

Example :
Sample = input ( “ Do you like football or
baseball more? “)
Print(sample)
When the above example is executed, the user will first see
an output as shown below.

Output:
Do you like football or baseball more? :
Football

You should now enter a string. For example, let us suppose

that you have entered football as an input. The output will
then be shown as the program asked to print the input for
the user.

Output:
Football

When you use an input() function, your only argument is

the prompt that will be displayed on the screen.

HOW TO WRITE CLEAR P ROM PTS FOR THE USE R

Whenever you use the input() function, you must create a

prompt that users can easily understand and respond
accordingly.
Your prompt should be in simple words and dictate what you
want the user to enter in the terminal. There should not be
any fluff or unnecessary text.

Program code:
Sample = input( “ What is your nationality? :
“)
Print ( “ So you are from “ + sample +” ! “)
Output:
What is your nationality? France
So you are from France!
You can also use the input() function to print multi-line
strings as an input, as shown below.
 Program code:
Prompt = “ This is a great way to know you “
Prompt += “ \n now say what is your age? "
Sample = input(prompt)
Print( “ \n You are “ + sample + “ years old”
)
Output:
This is a great way to know you
now say what is your age? : 25
You are 25 years old

INT() TO ACCEPT NUMERI C IN PUT

Usually, when you obtain input from the user using the
input() function, your input result will be stored in a string
variable. You can verify it using an example.
If your result is enclosed in a single quote, then it is a
string variable.
Storing values in strings is feasible only until you don’t
need it for any other further calculations.

Example :
Sample = input ( “ What is your age? “)
Output:
What is your age? 25

However, now when we call it using a comparison operator,

it throws back a TypeError.

Program code:
>>> sample >= 32
It throws an error because a string cannot be in any way
compared to an integer.
To solve this problem, we can use an int() function that
helps the interpreter enter details into an integer value.

Program code:
Sample = input ( “ What is your age? “)
Output:
What is your age? 25
Program code:
>>> sample = int(sample)
> > > sample >= 32

This will now display the output as FALSE as 25 is not

greater than or equal to 32.

OUTPUT

Right from the beginning of this book, we have been using

the print() function to output the results of a program on
the screen. All the expressions you enter into a print()
function will be converted into a string and displayed on
the screen.
While most Python programmers usually use the print()
function without any arguments, you need to be aware of
different arguments that can change how you can output
your data according to your use case and convenience.
Let us first look at a typical example with a print() function.

Program code:
print( “ This is how the print statement
works “ )
All the statement did is recognize the string in between
parentheses and display it on the screen. This is how a print
statement works usually. You can now learn about some of
the arguments that the print() function supports in Python.

1. String literals
Using string literals in Python, you can format the output
data on the screen. \n is the popular string literal that
Python programmers can use to create a new blank line.
You can use other string literals such as \t, \b to work on
other special instances to format the output data.

Program code:
Print ( " this is \n a great line " )
Output:
This is
a great line

2. End = “ “ Statement
Using this argument, you can add anything specified on the
end once a print() function is executed.

Program code:
Print ( “this is a great line”, end =
“great”)
Output:
This is a great line great

2. Separator
The print() function can be used to output statements on
the screen using different positional arguments. All these
positional arguments can be divided using a separator.
You
can use these separators to create different statements
using a single print() function.

Program code:
>>> Print( “ This is “ , “ Great”)
Output:
This is Great

SAMPLE EXERCISE

Write a program to accept floating numbers in a list as an

input.

Program code:
list = []
x = int(input(" What is the list size? : "))
for i in range(0, x):
print("What is the location?", i, ":")
result = float(input())
list.append(item)
print("Result is ", result)
Output:
What is the list size? 5
2.3,5.5,6.4,7.78,3.23
Result is : 2.3,5.5,6.4,7.78,3.23

EXERCISES:

1. Write a Python program to get input from the user.

Using this input, use different arithmetic all
operators such as multiplication and division. You can
also try to find the remainder.
2. Create a Python print() statement with a poem of
your own choice.
3. Create a Python program that encourages Unicode
developers to write code with good functionality.
4. Write a Python program to convert a decimal number
to a hexadecimal number.
5. Write a Python program that defines both.
 7

CONDITIONAL AND LOOPS

e already know that programs are a combination of a

Wset of instructions. To make prog
we need to have the ability to skip or loop the instructions
instead of executing them one by one, like a static list.
Programming is dynamic, and to achieve several use cases,
we need to understand the ability to control flow
statements that all high-level programming languages
support.
Without control flow statements, programs will become
dumb and mechanical, increasing the program's runtime. A
good programmer should always use programming
components that can decrease program execution time.
Programming languages provide control flow statements for
this exact purpose. Understanding control flow statements is
a prerequisite for advanced topics such as functions and
object-oriented programming concepts that we will explore
later.

COMPARISON OPERATORS
Understanding different comparison operators is an
essential prerequisite for understanding the power that
control flow statements can provide to a Python
programmer.
Comparison operators, also known as relational operators,
usually compare values present in two operands and return
whether this condition is true or false using a Boolean
value. There are different variations of these comparison
operators in the core Python library.
'TRUE’ and ‘FALSE’ are the Boolean values that Python will
display after successfully verifying the condition.
1. Less than (<) operator
Less than (<) operator usually checks whether or not the
left value is lesser than the right value in the condition.

Program Code:
34 < 45
Output:
TRUE
Program Code:
45 < 34
Output:
FALSE
In the first example, the left value is lesser than the right
value and hence ‘TRUE’ Boolean value is displayed as an
output. However, the second example does not meet the
condition, and hence ‘FALSE’ Boolean value is displayed
on the terminal.
You can also compare int values with floating-point values
using a less than operator.

Program Code:
5.2 < 6
 Output:
TRUE

Programmers can use less than operator to compare

strings using the ASCII format.

Program Code:
'Python’ < ‘python’
Output:
TRUE

In the above example, the statement has a ‘TRUE’ Boolean

value because the lower case letters have higher ASCII
values than the upper case letters.
Comparison operators can also be applied to tuples, as
shown below.

Program Code:
(3,5,7) < (3,5,7,9)
Output:
TRUE

However, remember that when comparing with tuples, the

data types should be the same. If not, a traceback error will
occur and will crash the program.

Program Code:
(3,5,7) < (‘one’, 5,6)
Output:
Error: Cannot be compared

2. Greater than (>) operator

Greater than (>) operator usually checks whether or not the
left value is greater than the right value in the condition.

Program Code:
34 >45
Output:
FALSE
Program Code:
45 > 34
Output:
TRUE
In the first example, the left value is not greater than the
right value and the ‘FALSE’ Boolean value is displayed as
an output. However, the second example met the
condition, and the ‘TRUE’ Boolean value is displayed on
the terminal.
Exercise:
Find out all different types of instances that we have tried
for less than operator on greater than operator on your
own.
3. equal (== operator)
We use this operator when we want to check whether or
not two values are equal.

Program Code:
34 == 45
Output:
FALSE
Program Code:
23 == 23
Output:
TRUE
WHAT ARE CONTROL FLOW STATE M E N TS I N PROGRAM S?
The program design of an application should follow a critical
technique known as ‘control flow’ to communicate with
users effectively. Using these statements, a user can
perform actions necessary and ignore actions that are not.

Control flow statements are essential for every programming

language. Without control flow statements, all the programs
will be executed linearly, making them dumb and
impractical. Conditionals and loops are the famous control
flow statements that exist in the Python language.

PROGRAMMING STRUCTURE S
Computer programmers use programming structures to
represent logical reasoning to code effectively. Python
programmers commonly use three programming structures
to organize and execute code effectively.

1. Sequential structure
In a sequential structure, all the steps involved in a
program are executed linearly.

Example :
A=6
Print(a + “is a number” )
Output:
6 is a number

In the above example, the Python interpreter has executed

all the steps linearly.
2. Conditional structure
The conditional structure is also called a selection structure
and uses conditional statements to choose which steps of a
program to execute. In this structure, only partial
statements are executed as when a program makes a
decision, the Python interpreter will ignore the other part in
the conditional statement.
“If” and “if-else” are some of the famous conditional
structure statements.
3. Looping structure
The looping structure uses conditions to execute the same
programming step repeatedly until the condition is not
satisfied. Loop termination is decided by the judgment
condition that the programmer writes.
“While” and “for” loops are some of the famous looping
structure statements.

IF/ELSE CONDITIONAL STATEM E N TS

Decision making is essential while writing Python programs

as all real-world applications need certain conditions to be
satisfied for performing specific operations.
Python provides an if/else statement to make programmers
implement the logic of decision making in their programs.

Syntax:
If Condition
Body Statement
Else
Body Statement

Program code:
Sample = 64
 If sample % 4 == 0
Print ( “ This is divided by four “)
else :
Print ( “ This is not divided by four “)
Output:
This is divided by four

IF ELIF ELSE

You can further expand the ability of your programs by using

multiple conditional expressions. If you have multiple
statements that need to be checked, then using this
conditional statement is recommended.

Program code:
Sample = 64
If sample > 0 :
Print ( “ This is a positive real number “)
Elif sample == 0 :
Print( “ The number is zero “)
else :
Print ( “ This is a negative real number “)
Output:
This is a positive real number

You can also create nested if/else statements to check more

conditions and execute statements according to them.

FOR LOOP

For loop is used to iterate over some of the sequences

repeatedly until they satisfy the condition. You can perform
for loops with sequences such as lists, tuples, and strings.
 Syntax:
For val in list :
Body of loop

The for loop usually goes through all the elements in the
list until it is said so.
 Example:
Sample = [2,4,6,8,10]
Result = 0
For val in sample :
Result = result + val
Print ( “ The sum of the numbers is “,
result)
Output:
The sum of the numbers is 30

In the above example, the for loop has executed all the
numbers in the list until the condition is satisfied.

WHILE LOOP

While loop differs from for loop slightly. It can loop over any
piece of code again and again until the condition is satisfied.
The for loop is used when a programmer knows how many
times a loop is going to be done, whereas the while loop is
used when a programmer is not aware of the number of
times a loop can happen.

Syntax:
While condition Body statements of while
Example: Sample = 10 First = 0 Second = 1 While
second <= sample First = first + second Second =
second + 1 Print ( “ The sum of numbers is: ", first )
Output:
Enter n: 4
 The sum of numbers is 10

You can interlink while and for loops with conditional

statements to create complex programming logic.

BREAK AND CONTINUE S TATE M E N TS

Loops can be controlled and customized with the help of

break and continue statements provided by Python. While
loops are designed to iterate over a code block until they
satisfy a condition, programmers can customize them to end
or skip certain statements based on a result using break and
continue.
What is Python break?
Whenever the Python interpreter sees a break in a loop
statement, it ends the program flow. If a break is
encountered in a loop, then the innermost loop will be
terminated.

Syntax:
Break

What is Python continue?

Whenever the Python interpreter encounters a continue
statement, it will skip the code that follows. The loop,
however, doesn’t exit completely in this condition. It just
skips to the next iteration once it encounters it.

Syntax:
Continue

EXCEPTION HANDLING

Programming languages use exception handling to detect

the common errors and find a way to run the program
instead of getting crashed. Writing valid exceptions is an
essential skill for all the programmers involved in
software development. Exception handling also acts as a
great tool to detect both familiar and strange bugs during
the testing and maintenance stage of the project.
To handle errors, you need to be aware of try and except
statements that can help you to provide a reason for the
encountered error to the user.
Example:
Visit your Facebook page and try to insert an image with a
size of more than 64MB as your profile picture. After a few
minutes of loading, the website will pop you with an error
that says, “Image size is too large”.
Here, the Facebook programmers have created an exception
handling statement that displays a possible error to the user
when image size is exceeded.
Exception handling is also an excellent tool for programmers
to learn how a program responds to different instances.
Many web and mobile application libraries in Python provide
prebuilt exceptions to help programmers quickly create bug-
free applications.
Divide-by-Zero Error
When we divide a number by zero in mathematics, it cannot
be done and results in an undefined value. Even in
programming, it is impossible to define when a number is
divided by zero, and therefore all the core programming
languages provide divide-by-zero error for their users.
We can use this error type to understand exception
handling with try and except statements.

Program code:
Def division(value) :
Return 64 / value Print(
value(4) ) Print( value (0)
) Print ( value(16) )

Output:
16
ZeroDivisionError : Division by zero
In the above example, when we try to call a function with
an argument of 0, the program ends with a
ZeroDivisionError. So, we try to show this error and
proceed further with the program using try and except
statements.
What Are Try and Except Statements?
Python programmers need to write the potential error block
that may occur while executing the program in the ‘try’
block and should provide a logical solution about what the
interpreter should do when it catches an exception in the
‘except’ block.

Program code:
Def division(value) :
Try :
Return 64 / value
Except ZeroDivisionError:
print ( “ A number cannot be divided by zero
”)
Print( value(4) )
Print( value (0) )
Print ( value(16) )
Output:
16
Error: A number cannot be divided by zero
4

Different Types of Errors

Zero division error is only one of the many system errors
that Python provides. Knowing about some of these
system errors can be a great learning curve to quickly
debug or clear your errors.
1. Value error
Value type error occurs when you have provided correct
arguments for a function but with a value not supported by
the method.
2. Import error
Import error occurs when you try to import a module that
is not present at the moment in your directory. You will
receive this error with online packages if they are either
deleted or disabled.
3. OS error
This error occurs when there is a problem with the
operating system that you are working with. These can also
be called system-related errors.
4. Index error
Index error occurs with list data types when the index of a
list is way out of the bound that the list actually supports.
5. Key error
Key error occurs when a key in a dictionary data structure
is not available to process.
6. TypeError
TypeError occurs when a function or object has been given
a value of non-supportive data type.
7. Name error
This error occurs when there is no variable provided in
either local or global scope.

SAMPLE EXERCISE

Reverse a given integer number using loops.

 program code:
value = 453
result = 0
print(" What is the number? ", value)
while value > 0:
reminder = value % 10
result = (result * 10) + reminder
value = value // 10
print("Reversed Number is ", result)
Output :
What is the number? 453
Reversed number is : 354

EXERCISES:

Make sure that you create Python code for all these
exercises on your own. Only refer to the internet after trying
your best and not being able to crack it.

1. Write a Python program to list out numbers up to

2,000, divisible by 12 and multiples of 5. Use
separators while listing out the elements.
2. Write a Python program that can convert pounds into
kilograms using both for and while loop.
3. Create a random number generator between a
number range (1,000 to 10,000) using Python.
4. Use loops to create at least five rangoli patterns
5. Using continue statement, create a Python program
that can complete the Fibonacci sequence
6. Write a Python program using loops that can convert
USD to both EUR and GBP.
7. Write a Python program that can verify the password
authenticity of your input. Make sure you follow
password standards to verify them.
Rules:

1. Maximum characters should be 18 letters.

2. You cannot use symbols other than @, $, %, and &.
3. You should use both upper and lowercase letters.
4. You should use at least one letter.
5. Create a Python program that creates patterns of all
alphabets. Make sure that you use both loops and
conditionals while working on this code.
6. Create a Python program to verify whether or not a
year is a leap year and print out all the years that are
leap years in the end.
7. Write a Python program that will provide horoscope
results based on the date of birth you have supplied as
input.
 8

FUNCTIONS AND MODULES

Python programmer needs to be aware of different

Aprogramming paradigms that are
Functional programming is popular with Pythonists due to
its versatile nature of doing things simply. Writing functions
and calling them whenever you need them in a program is
easy to follow and effective in runtime execution time. For
beginners, understanding functions and learning to
implement them is crucial.

WHAT ARE FUNCTIONS?

In mathematics, functions are a binary relation between two
sets and are widely acclaimed as many mathematicians'
most impactful discoveries. Computer programmers first
implemented functions in Z4, the first digital computer. Alan
Turing then revolutionized its impact in the computer
industry by calling and returning using functions. Functions
can also be called methods or subroutines. Every famous
programming language implements the usage of subroutines
in its core for its users. Python is one of the modern
programming languages that enforce functions more
straightforwardly.

What Are Functions in Programming?

Programmers usually create programs to complete tasks. To
complete tasks, programmers typically need to create an
algorithm that completes it in a step-by-step instruction.
However, many times a programmer needs to perform a task
multiple times. It is not considered a practical solution as it
decreases productivity to write and link the same code
repeatedly. Hence, functions are created to reuse code to
perform different computational and logical tasks.
Functions can also be either user-defined or system
functions. Python provides huge libraries of built-in
functions that can complete many tasks without rewriting
the code again. All these built-in functions of Python are
created to be on the point and non-repetitive for
programmers.
Example:
Let’s suppose that you downloaded a mobile application that
can change filters for your photos. This kind of application
uses pre-written functions to manipulate your photos' hue
and saturation, resulting in applying a filter to the provided
image. Here, the application's programmers created a
function to apply these filters to any photo provided instead
of doing it all over again for every image.
Almost every interface or component in real-world
applications uses functions to create use cases that serve a
purpose for the software user. A Python programmer should
remember that the prime focus of writing a function is to
encapsulate meaningful code to achieve a task.
How Functions Work
The philosophy of functions is simple in all programming
languages. First, a programmer writes a block of code that
performs a task. Programmers should include this block of
code with all the logical and computational logic that a
program needs to commit to complete the task.
Now, this block of code can be called with the function's
name whenever needed instead of writing the code all over
again. Function calling is sensitive and can end up in errors
if not done correctly. Functions also contain parameters to
call functions with specific input values for more robust
results.
How to Define Your Own Functions
Python uses the “def” keyword to create a custom function
in the program.
We will now create a small function known as welcome() to
explain how a function is defined and called.

Program code:
def welcome() :
“This displays a welcome message for the
user”
Print ( “Hi! We give you a warm welcome to
our software” )
welcome()
Output:
Hi! We give you a warm welcome to our
software

Explanation:

1. In line 1, def is used to define a function in the

Python programming language. Without writing a
function definition, the interpreter will not detect it
as a function. A function definition includes def and is
followed by the name of the function. Welcome() is
the name of the function in the above example. All
 the parameters of the functions will usually be placed
between parentheses. A colon is placed at the end of
the function definition
2. All the lines that follow the function definition belong
to the body of the function. Usually, all the
programming logic that performs a task is included in
this section. The first line of the function body is
typically a docstring. Docstring will be used to
describe what a function does. While it is not
mandatory to use docstrings, it is considered a good
practice by many Python programmers. Docstrings
are usually enclosed in triple quotes and can be
multiple lines.
3. In the above example, the third line uses a print
statement to display content on the screen. While in
this example, the function has only a single purpose,
in the real world, however, a function body usually
has more than ten lines to complete a task.
4. The fourth line represents a function call that
precisely says to execute the content in the function.
When an interpreter finds a function call, it will head
over to the written function and run it. As the above
example is a function with no parameters, the
interpreter will execute simply by printing the
statement provided.

USING PARAMETERS IN THE FUN CTI ON S

In the previous example, we have defined a basic function

with zero parameters. But in the real world, programmers
regularly use parameters to improve the functionality of
the application.
For example, we can dynamically display the user name
using an input parameter in the function.
 Program code:
def welcome(name) : “ This displays a welcome
message for the user along with their name”
Print ( “ Hi, “ + name.title() + “ ! \n We give you a
warm welcome to our software” ) welcome(‘tom’)
welcome(‘grace’)

Output:
Hi, Tom! we give you a warm welcome to our
software
Hi, Grace! we give you a warm welcome to our
software

Explanation:

1. In the function definition, we added a parameter

called ‘name’ that will accept any value to print on
the screen. As Python is not a statically typed
language, there is no need to mention the data type
of the parameters.
2. In the print statement, we gave the user ‘name.title()’
to provide a value to the defined parameter. If you do
not provide a value for the parameter, the program
will not execute and end with an error. The title()
string function prints the names in a camel case style
for better readability. You can use other string
functions such as lower() or upper() to achieve
different results.
3. In the final lines, we have called the functions with
two different parameter arguments. Each argument
will display a different output. Here, ‘tom’ and ‘grace’
are the arguments that we have given to a parameter
in the function.
The sole difference between a parameter and an argument
is that the parameter is essential for the function to work.
In contrast, an argument is just a value that programmers
can change.

PASSING ARGUMENTS

Functions in real-world applications usually have multiple

parameters, and hence you need to know different ways to
pass your arguments to the function parameters. While
there are several ways to pass arguments, positional and
keyword arguments are the most popular.

1. Positional arguments

When you use a positional way of passing arguments, you

need to match the number of arguments. In positional
arguments, the order of passing arguments also becomes
essential.

Program code:
def sports(country, number) : '” This describes how
many times a country has won FIFA world cup ‘“
Print ( country + “ has won FIFA “ + number + “
times”) Sports(‘Brazil’ , 5) Sports(‘ France’ ,4)

Output:
Brazil has won FIFA 5 times
France has won FIFA 4 times

In the above example, the arguments are provided at the

end of the program using the parameter.
In positional arguments, the change in order can become
messy or sometimes result in errors, as shown below.

Program code:
def sports(country, number) :
'” This describes how many times a country
has won FIFA world cup ‘“
Print ( country + “ has won FIFA “ + number +
“ times”)
Sports(5, Brazil)
Sports(4,France)
Output:
5 has won FIFA Brazil times 4
has won FIFA France times

The main advantage of positional arguments is that they are

easy to call functions using this way, especially when you
want to do it multiple times.

KEYWORD ARGUMENTS

Keyword Arguments is another famous way to pass

arguments to functions. It usually uses a key : value pair to
give arguments to functions. Keyword arguments are mainly
used to avoid confusion when passing arguments. They also
don’t have any order restrictions as the values are directly
linked. However, one major defect is that it takes more time
and sometimes can become complicated when passing
multiple values.

Program code:
def sports(country, number) :
'” This describes how many times a country
has won FIFA world cup ‘“
 Print ( country + “ has won FIFA “ + number + “
times”) Sports(country = ‘ Brazil’, number = 5)
Sports(country = ‘ France’ ,number = 4)
Output:

Brazil has won FIFA 5 times

France has won FIFA 4 times

DEFAULT VALUES IN PYTHON

Python also provides an easier way to provide default values

for different parameters while creating a function. Using
default values while writing parameters is entirely optional.
You can either enter it with the parameter or directly enter
the argument values in a function call.
Using default values is considered a good practice as it
reduces boilerplate code. Boilerplate code is automatic
unnecessary code that programmers need to write for an
interpreter. Reducing boilerplate code while writing an
application can make your code look less complex and
increase readability.

Program code:
def sports(country, number = 5) :
'” This describes how many times a country
has won FIFA world cup ‘“
Print ( country + “ has won FIFA “ + number +
“ times” )
Sports(‘Brazil’)
Sports (‘Argentina’)
Output:
Brazil has won FIFA 5 times
Argentina has won FIFA 5 times
In the above example, using default values has simplified
function calls.
Remember that the Python interpreter will use a default
value only when an argument value is not provided during
the function call. If an argument value for the parameter is
provided, then the supplied argument will be used instead of
the default argument value.

Program code:
def sports(country, number = 5) :
'” This describes how many times a country
has won FIFA world cup ‘“
Print( country + “ has won FIFA “ + number +
“ times” )
Sports(‘Brazil’)
Sports (‘Argentina’, 4)
Output:
Brazil has won FIFA 5 times
Argentina has won FIFA 4 times

In the above example, when we called the function with only

one parameter, it automatically used the default value.
However, when we call the function with two parameters,
the default value is replaced by the new argument value.
UNDERSTANDING SCOPE I N PY THON
Usually, the parameters and variables declared within a
function can only be called or used within that function.
With respect to function, these variables will be called local
scope variables, whereas those declared outside the function
will be called global scope variables.

Note: A function is either a local or a global variable; it

cannot be both.
Why is a Scope Essential?
The scope is essential because it helps to store all variables
given to it while executing a program. For example, if a
program is destroyed, the interpreter will forget all the
previously given variables, and a new set of variables is
required when the program restarts.
Whenever you call a function in the program, a local scope
will be created and used until the function returns a value.
When the function returns a value, the interpreter will
forget all the variables given.
The main reason why programmers prefer to use the scope
in their applications is that they can help programmers find
the code lines that create a buggy situation in the program.
If you use a global scope for all the variables, you may have
to recheck all the variables from different functions. Using
local and global variables will increase your productivity
and can help you maintain big projects efficiently.
Understanding Local and Global Scope in Depth
1. You cannot use local variables in a global scope.

Program code:
def vegetable() :
Brinjal = 32
Vegetable()
Print(eggs)
Output:
Traceback error

The example mentioned above will generate a traceback

error because you have called a print function with a local
variable that doesn’t support global scope. Just remember to
use only global variables in the global scope.
2. All the local functions, however, can use global
variables whenever needed.

Program code:
def vegetable () :
Print(brinjal)
Brinjal = 32
Vegetable()
Print(brinjal)
Output:
32
 32

The example mentioned above will print the variables both

times as the local functions can use variables with global
scope.
3. Local variables of one function cannot be used by
any other functions.

Program code:
def vegetable() :
Brinjal = 32
Fruits()
Print(brinjal)
def fruit() :
Apple = 21
Brinjal = 42
Vegetable()
Output:
32

The above example is complex and needs to be carefully

understood for writing better Python programs.

1. When the function vegetable() is called, a local scope

variable of brinjal with a value of 32 is created.
2. Immediately, another function, fruit(), is called, and it
creates two local scope variables, ‘Apple’ and
‘Brinjal’, with values 21 and 42. Remember that
multiple scope values can co-exist in a Python
program.
3. Now, the fruit() function is returned, and hence all
the local scope variables that are stored will be
destroyed
4. In the following line, when a print statement is used,
the interpreter prints 32 instead of 42.

Both local and global variables can have the same name.
There won’t be a conflict while writing programs. For
example, a local and global variable named ‘sample’ can
be created without generating any errors. While it is
acceptable to use the same names for variables with a
local and global case, we recommend you not follow it as
it may lead to confusion.

UNDERSTANDING THE ‘ GLOB AL’ S TATE M E N T

Global statement is usually used to change the global scope

variable value from within a function.

Program code:
def vegetable() :
Global brinjal
brinjal = ‘ tasty’
Brinjal = ‘ global ’
Vegetable()
Print(brinjal)
Output:
Tasty

1. As we have mentioned in the global statement for

brinjal, whenever a function is called, a local variable
will not be created, but instead, a variable with global
scope will be created.
2. Hence, when the interpreter executes the print
statement, the value of ‘tasty’ will be printed as it is a
variable with global scope.
The usage of scopes in Python programs can be compared
to a “black box” where you only need to know the
arguments and parameters you are giving. All modern
programming languages and libraries will not burden you
by asking you to look at all the present global scope
variables.
From a beginner’s perspective, all you have to do is
understand what the program does and insert the values to
that function.

HOW TO IMPORT MODULE S

Modules are formed by combining a group of classes. Every

program needs modules to complete tasks efficiently. To use
modules, you need to import them using the ‘import’
statement. Importing modules is quite similar to '#include'
in C/C++ languages. Importing a module usually provides
permission to use the methods present in those classes in
other programs.

Syntax:
import (Module name)
Example:
import math

The above statement imports Python standard library math

into the program.
When an import module statement is used, it searches the
_imnport()_ function that is used while creating modules.
Any operation can be performed easily using this scenario.
 Example:
import math
Print(math.pi)

The above command will first import all the functions

present in the math library and then provide you with the
literal value of ‘pi’. If not imported, the above print
statement will give a not defined error. Also, note down that
pi here is a variable in the math module.
If you try to import a module and the Python interpreter
cannot detect it, the interpreter will show an import
error on the computer screen.

HOW TO CREATE MODULE S

The module is a Python component that can consist of

different statements and functions in an organized way. For
example, suppose you want to create a mobile application. In
that case, you can make all the functions related to your
user interface (UI) in one module and functions associated
with networking in another module.
The advantage of modules is you can easily export them and
use them with other applications. Many programmers use
modules to create software in team management.
How do you create your own Python module?

1. Create a Python file with a .py extension. For

example, we have to create a Python file named
sample.py
2. You can now create functions in this file.

Here, I will create a simple function to add two numbers.

File - sample.py
Def addition(x,y) :
'’’ This is a definition that is created to
add any two numbers ‘’’
Z=x+y
Return Z

3. Now, you have to create a Python file that consists of a

function that adds two numbers. You have also created a
module. You can call this with the file name.

Program code:
>>> import sample

4. As the functions in the module are imported, you can

now call the addition function using a dot operator.

Program code:
>>> sample.addition(10,20)
Output:
30

In the above example, the Python interpreter uses the

addition function in the sample module to provide the result.
BUILT-IN FUNCTION AND MODULES
Python provides several inbuilt functions and modules to
help programmers create code effectively. For example,
math is a standard Python library that offers different
functions that can perform mathematical operations.
Learning about some popular built-in functions and modules
can be a great way to understand what you can achieve with
Python.

1. print()
Print() is probably the most popular and used built-in
function in Python. It prints out whatever is present in
between quotes onto the computer screen.

Program code:
Print ( “ Hello world”)

2. abs()
abs() is a Python built-in function that returns the absolute
value for any integer data type. If the provided input is a
complex number, then it returns magnitude. In simple
terms, it will print the positive value of it if a negative value
is provided.

Program code:
C = -67
Print ( abs(c))
Output:
67

3. round()
round() is an inbuilt Python function that provides the
closest integer number for floating-point numbers.

Program code:
C = 12.3 D = 12.6
Print(round(c))
Print(round(d))

Output:
12 13

4. max()
max() is a built-in Python function that will output the
maximum number from the provided input values. max()
function can be performed using any data type, including
lists.

Program code:
A = 4 B = 8 C = 87
Result = max( a,b,c)
Print(result)

Output:
87

5. sorted()
sorted() is a built-in function that programmers can use to
sort out elements in ascending or descending order.
Usually, the sorted built-in function is applied on lists.

Program code:
A = (3,34,43,2,12,56,67)
 B = sorted (a)
Print(b)
Output:
(2,3,12,34,43,56,67)

6. sum()
sum() is a particular built-in tuple function that adds all the
elements and provides a result to the user.
 Program code:
A = ( 6,8,45,34,23)
Y = sum(a)
Print(y)
Output:
116

7. len()
Length is an inbuilt python function that will return the
length of the object. These are mainly used with lists and
tulles.

Program code:
A = ( 2,4,5)
B = len(A)
Print(B)
Output:
3

8. type()
Type is an inbuilt Python function that provides information
about the arguments and the data type they hold.

Program code:
A = 3.2323
Print(type(a))
Output:
<class ‘float’>

STRING METHODS

1. strip()
strip() is a built-in Python string function that returns a
result after deleting the arguments provided from the string.
Usually, it removes both leading and trailing characters.

Program code:
A = “ Hello world”
Print(a.strip(‘wo’)
Output:
Hell rld

2. replace()
replace() is a built-in Python string function that
programmers can use to replace a part of a string with
another. You can also mention how many times you want to
replace it as an optional parameter.

Program code:
Sample = “ This is a great way to be great”
Print(sample.replace(“great”, “ bad”)
Output:
This is a bad way to be bad

3. split()
You can use this built-in Python function to split a string
according to the separator provided. If no character is
provided, the Python interpreter will automatically use white
space in its place.

Program code:
sample = “ Hello world”
Print( sample.split(‘r’)
Output:
‘ Hello wo’ , ‘rld’
In the above example, the string is split at ‘r’ and is placed
in a list as output.
4. join()
The join() method is a unique string function that can help
you add a separator to the list or tuple elements. You can
use different separators provided by Python or even use
custom separators from different Python modules. You can
only join string elements in a list. You can’t join integers or
floating-point numbers in a list. You can also use an empty
string instead of a separator.

Program code:
Sample = [‘16’ , ‘32’ , ‘48’ , ‘64]
Result = “ -“
Result = result.join(sample)
Output:
16-32-48-64

SAMPLE EXERCISE

Q. Write a Python function that accepts a string and

calculates the number of uppercase letters and lowercase
letters.

program code:
def sample(s):
d={"Upper":0, "Lower":0}
for c in s:
if c.isupper():
d[“Upper"]+=1
elif c.islower():
d["LOWER_CASE"]+=1
else:
pass
 string_test('This is great')

Output:
Upper : 1 , Lower : 10

SAMPLE EXERCISE

Q. Write a Python class to implement pow(x, n).

program code:
class example:
def pow(self, first, second):
if first==0 or first==1 or second==1:
return first
if first==-1:
if second%2 ==0:
return 1
else:
return -1
if second==0:
return 1
if second<0:
return 1/self.pow(first,-second)
res = self.pow(first,second/2)
if second%2 ==0:
return
res*res
return res*res*first
print(py_solution().pow(2, -3));
Output:
-8

EXERCISE:
1. Create a Python program to randomly generate ten
numbers and that automatically finds the maximum
value in those ten numbers. Use the max() method to
solve this program.
2. Create a list and reverse all the elements in it and
add them consequently.
3. Write a Python program to input ten strings and
reverse each one of them.
4. Write a recursive function to find the factorial of 100
5. Create a 3-page essay using string manipulation
techniques. Represent all of them just like how you
represent them on paper. Use as many methods as
you can.
6. Write a Python program that provides rows related to
Pascal’s triangle.
7. Create a Python program that automatically extracts
an article from Wikipedia according to the input
provided.
8. Create a Python program that can create a color
scheme for all the RGB colors.
 9

FUNDAMENTALS OF CLASSES

bject-oriented programming is a programming

Oparadigm style that changed how
work. Object-oriented programming provides several
practical approaches to writing software when working
with teams. Python as a programming language supports
both functional and object-oriented programming styles. As
a Python programmer, you must understand and
distinguish between classes and objects to write a program
that represents real-world things and their instances.

WHAT ARE CLASSES AND OB JE CTS ?

Classes represent real-world things in a program code. They
act as a blueprint so that programmers can easily interact
with real-world things for different situations. This prototype
creates objects, and these object characteristics are usually
written whenever you make a class.

Classes help programmers to bundle various functionalities

into a single entity. Whenever you create an object from a
class, it will have all the behaviors you provided when you
made a class. In addition, programmers can give every
object unique traits to interact with them more efficiently.
Object-oriented programming has an incredible relatability
with real-world application use cases, and hence it is
currently one of the most popular programming paradigms
in the industry.
Classes help programmers reduce the boilerplate code and
define the same instances again and again. Along with
making things simpler, object-oriented programming also
allows programmers to write complex code with a simple
instantiation and many instances.
Example:
Let us suppose that you are creating an application for cat
breeds using Python. You are collecting information about
more than 100 cat breeds and will try to detect them by
clicking a picture. To make this happen, without object-
oriented programming, you need to input all the
information about breeds manually or by using an API. It is
still challenging to make this data extracted from an API
interact with your application using modular or functional
programming even with these complex procedures.
Using object-oriented programming, you will reduce the
code repetition by creating a “Cat” class consisting of
several instances and methods that will quickly display
different cat details using the objects created.
For example, the “age” method in the “cat” class can
provide the maximum age of the cat for a particular breed
after extracting the data from an API and printing them
according to the method. To print the exact same details for
a different breed, you need to create another object.
Apart from simplicity, object-oriented programming is a
lifesaver for programmers working in teams. Because of
classes, they can divide the work in a more organized way.
As Python provides different ways to interact with variables
inside and outside a class, you can also restrict team
members from accessing certain data. Object-oriented
programming in Python comes with great customization
options that can help you improve your implementation of
program logic.
How to Create and Use a Class
Python provides a simple syntax rule to create classes in
Python.

Class ClassName :
Example:
Class Cat:

Here, “Cat” is the class name. Remember that you cannot

use reserved keywords for class names. Let us now create a
simple example about cats using Python classes.

Example:
Class Cat():
“ This is used to model a Cat.”
Def __init__(self, breed, age) :
“”“ Initialize breed and age attributes “””
self.breed = breed
self.age = age
Def meow(self) :
“”” This describes about a cat meowing “””
print(self.breed.title() + “ cats meow
loudly”)
Def purr(self)
“”“ This describes about a cat purring “””
print( self.breed.title() + “ cats purrs
loudly”)

Explanation:
First, we have created a class with the name Cat. There are
no attributes or parameters in the parentheses of the class
because this is a new class where we are starting everything
from scratch. Advanced classes may have many parameters
and attributes to solve complex problems that are required
for real-world applications.
Immediately after the class name, a docstring called ‘ This
is used to model a cat’ describes the necessity for this
class. It would be best if you practice writing docstrings
more often to help other programmers understand the
details about your class.
In the next step, we created an _init_ () method and defined
three arguments. This is a unique function that Python runs
automatically when an object instance is created from a
class. _init_ function is a mandatory Python function;
without it, the interpreter will reject the object initiation.
Similarly, we have created two other functions, ‘ meow’ and
‘ purr’, with arguments for each. In this example, these two
functions just print a statement. In real-world scenarios,
methods will perform higher-level functionalities.
You should have observed the ‘ self’ argument in all the
three methods in the above class. self is an automatic
function argument that needs to be entered for every
method in a class.
In a class, all the variables can be called using a dot
operator (.). For example, ‘ self.age’ is an example for calling
a variable using a dot operator.

EXERCISES:

1. Write a Python program that will import all the

essential classes in Pandas machine learning library.
2. Use a built-in module in Python to list out all the
built-in functions that Python supports. Create a
Python program to list out all these functions in a
table format.
3. Using object-oriented programming, create an OOP
model for a library management system. Introduce all
the modules that can be used and list out all the
arguments that need to be given.
4. Write a Python class of shapes to calculate the area
of any figure.
5. Write a class and create both global and instance
class variables.
6. Use Python classes to convert Roman numerical
standard to the decimal system

WHAT ARE CLASS AND INSTAN CE VARIAB LES?

When using objects to amplify your program features, you

need to use two types of variables: instance and class
variables.
Class Variables
Variables are first used to store information with a
significant identifier. A class variable is specifically created
to ensure that you provide a programming component for a
consistent time. When you create a class variable, they can
be used anywhere in the program without worrying about
unsupported or import errors. All these class variables are
usually entered during class construction.
The problem with class variables is that programmers
cannot initialize from an instance variable.

Syntax:
Class example
 Game = “ Football”

Here Game is a class variable with a value of “Football”.

Class variables can be added and replaced easily, making it
an easy option for dynamic Python programs and software
programmers.
Instance Variables
Instance variables, on the other hand, are variables that are
created explicitly for this purpose. Programmers cannot
provide them with variables that are different. Many
instance variables are defined within the class itself, and
hence it becomes difficult for beginners to understand how
they can be replaced or how dynamic allocation can be
provided. While there are many ways to create memory
allocation for the programs, you cannot use instance
variables for universal programs.
You can efficiently work with both class and instance
variables to create evergreen software.

WHAT ARE CLASS AND STATIC M E THODS?

Functions are different types. They provide value and

information to the reader. They can be used to do a simple
thing again and again. Programmers can use both class
methods and static methods according to Python. Python
also provides details about built-in functions.
Class Method
A class method is a built-in method that is evaluated when
every function is created. A class method is like a
constructor for Python programs and can receive implicit
first arguments to make instances repeat easily.
When you use a class method, you cannot find what the
object of the class is. A class method is implicit and is also
said to receive instant information that is otherwise not
controlled and provided by any object in the class.

1. Class methods should be bound to various instance

variables that are already present.
2. You should also be able to use a class parameter that
can provide multiple information about classes and
instances that are present right now in the program
cycle.
3. All the variables can be modified and can be called as
instances for the class.

Static Method
A static method is a specific programming analysis that
python founders provide to help python programmers
understand the importance of static arguments common in
other high-level languages such as Swift and C.
Many objects present in the class are augmented and cannot
be ignored by the instance classes that are present. Not
everyone can use classes to decide what their modifying
function should be.
To understand the differences between static and instance
classes, you need to know both static and instance method
constructors. All these constructors have parameters that
cannot change because they correlate with functions that
are not easy to create.
Many do not try to understand the essence of Parameters
as they are created to efficiently extract information from
methods. Also, as a Python programmer, you should find
different ways to make literals understand why it is
essential to use code that can both be changed and
extracted using data such as class methods. As a
programmer, you also need to be aware of statically
supported methods that can interact with standard modules
of other Python software.
 10

PYTHON INHERITANCE

bject-oriented programming provides a solution for not

Orepeating code that another prog
written. When you write a class, you create different
attributes and methods using those attributes. Let us
suppose that you need to use that class along with a few
other new methods. In this situation, you can use
inheritance.
Inheritance is a classic object-oriented programming
concept that helps programmers inherit one class's
properties to another class. The original class from which a
new class is inherited is usually known as a parent class, and
the inherited class from a parent class is known as a child
class.
Child class, along with inheriting all the attributes and
methods present in parent class, can also define new
methods for extending the capability of the parent class.

Syntax:
Class parent class : Body of parent class
class child class ( parent class) : Body of
child class
For example, let us suppose that a car is a parent class and
BMW is a child class, then the inheritance syntax will look
as shown below.

Inheritance syntax:
Class car
Print ( “ This is a car class”)
Class BMW(car) :
Print ( “ This is a BMW class”)

The BMW class now uses all the functions present in the
Car class without rewriting them again.

METHOD OVERRIDING IN PY THON

When you inherit a class, all the functions will be used by a

derived class. However, if there are two methods with the
same name in both parent and child classes, the interpreter
will prefer the child class instead of the parent class.
Inheritance From Multiple Classes
While creating complex applications, programmers will
sometimes find ways to create classes that have inherited
methods from different classes. In programming terms, this
phenomenon is known as multiple inheritance.

Syntax:
Class parent1 :
Body of parent 1
Class parent2 :
Body of parent 2
Class child( parent1, parent2) :
Body of child

A Python programmer will use super() during these

instances to call methods inherited from different parents.
Example:
We will use a mathematical program to explain how
inheritance works in Python.

Class shapes :
Def __init__( self, sidesprovided) :
Self.first = sidesprovided
Self.sides = [ 0 for result in
range(sidesprovided)]
Def firstside(self):
Self.sides = [ float(input( “ What side is
this?"+str(result+1)+" : "))
for result in range(self.first)]
def secondside(self):
for sample in range(self.result):
print( "Side",result+1,"is",self.sides
results)
This class has different attributes and functions that can
provide important information whenever there is a change in
the sides or when different sides are mentioned.
You can use the methods firstside() and secondside() to
display various detailed information about lengths using the
shapes class.
As we have a basic overview of important attributes required
for a shape class, we are now ready to start a child class
called ‘square’.

Program code:
Class square(shapes) :
def __init__(self):
Shapes.__init__(self,4)
# 4 because the square has 4 sides. We can use 3 sides if it
is a triangle and 5 if it is a Polygon

def docalc(self):
First, second,third = self.sides
Result = (first + second + third) / 2
area = (result *(result-first)*(result -
second)*(result-3)) ** 2
print( “The area of the square is %0.8f'
%docalc”)

In the above child class, we have mentioned the docalc()

function to provide a way to calculate the area of the
square quickly. The program has also used various
functions from the ‘shape’ class as it has inherited from
it.
You can also see instances of method overriding in this
example.
How Do We Import Classes?
When writing complex programs, you may sometimes want
to import a class from another file to your current class that
you are working in. This importing of classes made modules
exist in Python.

SPECIAL METHODS IN PY THON ( _RE PR _ AND _ STR_)

These are special Python functions that are provided by the

Python standard library. These special functions are usually
helpful for debugging purposes to log the information about
different object instances that will start because of a class
or function call.
1. Python __str__()
This method is usually used to return what an object
represents in a string format. Usually, whenever an object is
manipulated using a print() or a string() function, the
interpreter will call __str__().
2. Python __repr__()
Using this function, one can try to construct the object
again. This will also provide object information in a string
format whenever an object is manipulated using any string
function. The object information should be in expression
format for a better success rate of constructing the object
again.
Remember that to call these functions, you need first to use
str() and rep() functions. Without them, the Python
interpreter will not give results directly.
Many programmers get confused with these two functions
because both of them output data in string formats.
However, the difference is that the object information due
to __str__() function is always in readable format for end-
users. In contrast, the object information due to __repr__()
function is not in readable format but can be used to
construct the object again.

Program code:
Sample = date. Determine()
Sample.__str__
()
Sample.__repr__
()
Output:
'2021-08-01 22:32:22.27237’
'Datetime.datetime(2021,08,22,32,22)
From the above example, we can understand that the __str__
function provides a readable format, whereas __repr__
function is an object code that programmers and testers can
use to reconstruct the object. Reconstitution of objects can
help programmers quickly debug the code and store those
logging instances effectively.
If you are a unit tester, then using both of these functions is
extremely important to maintain the program.
 11

FILES IN PYTHON

ariables have limited time in a program life cycle. If a

Vvariable is ended, then the interp
the data stored in a variable. If the data you are dealing
with is sensitive and vital, you don’t want to lose it. To
counter this problem of storing and saving data in Python,
files have been implemented. Python files can help
programmers interact with files that consist of Terabytes of
data and modify them according to their convenience. To
become an efficient programmer, understanding file
operations that are present in Python is essential.
UNDERSTANDING FILES AN D FI LE PATHS
Any file in any operating system consists of two essential
properties. One is the file name which represents its
identity and helps users find the content present in it.
The other is the file path; this allows users to know where
the file is located in an operating system.

For example, if sample.pdf is a file, then

‘C:/users/python/sample.pdf’ is the path for the file. Here,
pdf is the extension of the file. A file management system
usually consists of folders and directories to effectively
organize all the files in the system.
For example, in ‘C:/users/python/sample.pdf’, C is the
system's root directory, and both ‘users’ and ‘python’ can be
called subfolders in the root directory. Whenever you need
to modify or add content to a file using Python, you
must explicitly mention the file's path. Otherwise, the
command provided will not work and will return you an
error.
Note: Remember that the Windows operating system uses
backslashes (\) to separate the folder names, whereas both
Linux and OS X systems use forward slashes (/) to separate
the folders. You can use the os.path.join function to
manually enter the path of the file without using back or
forward slashes.

Example:
Os.path.join(‘C’, ‘ users’ , ‘ python’)
'C\users\python’

Current Working Directory

When working with Python files, you often need to interact
with the files in your current directory. To help
programmers work efficiently, Python provides an easy way
to access all the files present in the current directory. All
you have to do is use the os.getcwd() function to let the
Python interpreter detect your current directory and list
out its path.

Example:
Os.getcwd()
'C:\\ windows \ program files \ python’

Advanced programmers use both absolute and relative paths

to access files and manipulate them using Python. However,
as a beginner, it is better to stick to the absolute path as it is
more straightforward.
Creating New Folders
Whenever you create a complex Python software, it may
need to create its directories and folders to efficiently
organize different system files. To help programmers solve
this problem, Python provides os.makedirs() function, which
can create a new directory for the software to interact with.

Example:
>>> import os
> >> os.makedirs( ‘ C :\ python\ software\
tutorials’)

The above example first imports all the functions from a

module named ‘os’ and will search for a method called
os.makedirs which can create a new directory according to
the path provided by the user.
As a Python programmer, you also need to verify different
functions present in the os.path() module to be aware of
Python's varying file manipulation methods.
How to Open, Read, and Write Files
Once you know the essential functions, you can directly
manipulate files by opening, reading, and writing content to
them. You can use both .txt and .py extension files to be run
with the Python interpreter. Remember that to interact with
particular files such as .pdf or .docx, you need to use third-
party Python libraries. These specific types of files are
known as binary files according to Python.
First of all, create a file named sample.txt in a new folder.
Let us suppose that a file named sample.txt is created in the
“ C:/ users/ python/ files/ sample.txt” path. We will now use
open(), read() and write() functions to interact with this
particular file.
For this example, assume that the data present in
sample.txt is as shown below.

Sample.txt:
' This is a sample file with a simple text.’

Opening Files With the open() Function

To open a file using Python, all you have to do is call the
function using the absolute or relative path of the file.
 Program code:
>>> result = open( ‘. C:/ users/ python/
files/ sample.txt’)
>>> # This will open the file in the Python
terminal

Once the open() function is used, the interpreter will open

the file in Python read mode. Users can verify and read the
information present in a binary file using the reading mode,
but the Python interpreter would be unable to read the file.
An interpreter will usually open the file with plain-text
support. If you are reading pdf or other high-level files, you
should install the supported Python modules to read them.
To talk in technical terms, whenever you open a file in
Python, the interpreter will form a new file object, and any
changes performed for the file will be performed using this
instance. If the file is not saved and an instance ends, the
interpreter will destroy all the changes.
Reading Files With the read() Function
Now, as the file object file has already been created when
you opened it, all you have to do is call a read() function so
that the Python software can read the entire content in the
file.

>>> sample = result.read()

>>> # This makes Python read the content in
the files
>>> sample
Output:
' This is a sample file with a simple text.’

As you have already provided the path before, the

interpreter will use it and read it and will read all the
content present in a file to either a variable or list
according to what you have mentioned.
You can also use the readlines() method to organize the
content in a file to separate lines easily.
Create a separate file named ‘example.txt’ in the current
directory. Enter the below mentioned data into it.

example.txt:
This is a paragraph
But with different lines
We use this example to determine
How Python detects different lines
And list out to us
>>> sample = open(‘ example.txt’)
> > > sample.readlines()
Output:
\[ ‘ This is a paragraph \n ‘, ‘ But with different lines
\n’, ‘ We use this example to determine \n’, ‘ How
python detects different lines \n’, ‘ And list out to us
\n’]

The above example lists all the lines in a list with a new line
character (\n).
Writing Content to Files With the write() Function
Python provides an option for programmers to write new
data into files using the write() function. It is pretty similar
to a print() function that writes output to the screen. The
interpreter will create a new object file whenever you open
a file using write() mode. You can change the content or
append text at the end of the file in this mode. To open the
file in write mode, you need to append ‘w’ as an argument
to the open() function.
Once you have completed writing the file, you can end it
using the close() method. When you use the close()
method, your file will be automatically saved by Python.

Program code:
Sample = open(‘ example,txt’, ‘w’)
# File now opens in write mode
Sample.write( ‘ This is about working in the
write mode \n’)

The output will provide the number of characters in the

file. For example, in the above example it is 40.
You can append text to the already written file, using ‘a’ as
an argument.

Program code:
Sample = open(‘ example.txt’, ‘a’)
# File now opens in write mode
Sample.write( ‘ We are now appending new
content to the file \n’)
# The above-written sentence will be added to
the file
Sample.close()

Now, once written, we need to make sure that the Python

has read the file to print it on the screen.

Program code:
Sample = open(‘ example.txt’)
Result = read(example.txt)
Print(result)
Output:
This is about working in the write mode
We are now appending new content to the file
In the above example, when we print the final result, the
written file content and the appended text are printed on
the computer screen.
Python also provides a shelve module to quickly interact
with data in the file and use them only when needed. To use
the shelve module, you need first to import it and once
imported, you can call them.
Copying Files and Folders
Using Python, you can use the built-in library known as the
shutil module to copy, move, rename, or delete your files.
However, like every other library, you need to import the
library first.

import shutil

A Python programmer can use shutil.copy() function to copy

files or folders. This function usually has two parameters
that ask you to enter both source and destination paths.

Example:
Shutil.copy(‘ C;\\ python.txt’, ‘
C:\\python’)

This command will make Python create a new file of the

same name and copy all the contents in the file.

Here, C;\\ python.txt is the path for the source file,

whereas C:\\python is the path for the destination.
Shutil.copy(‘ C;\\ python.txt’, ‘
C:\\python\python2.txt’)
This command will make Python create a new file with the
name ‘python2.txt’ and copy all the contents from the
python.txt.
Moving and Renaming Files and Folders
A Python programmer can use shutil.move() function to
move a file from one path to another. Remember that when
you move a file, it will be deleted from the current directory
entirely and sent to another location. This function uses
two parameters to complete the task.

Program code:
Shutil.move( ‘ C:\\ sample.txt’ , ‘ C;\\
python’)

This command will now move the sample.txt file to another

directory.
You can also move by providing a name if you are doubtful
that there is another file with the same name.

Program code:
Shutil.move( ‘ C:\\ sample.txt’ , ‘ C;\\
python.txt’)
In the above example, we renamed the file
name from ‘sample.txt’ to ‘python.txt’

How to Permanently Delete Files and Folders

To thoroughly delete files or folders from a path, you can
use the below mentioned built-in Python functions.

1. os.unlink( path) This function will delete a particular

file from the path provided.
2. os.rmdir(path) This function will delete the folder
name provided. However, remember that the folder
should consist of no files.
3. shutil.rmtree(path) This function will delete a folder
along with all files and subfolders present in it.

EXERCISE:

1. Write a Python program so that the computer can

read the entire text file.
2. Write a Python program and create content using the
number of lines.
3. Write a Python program to find consistent details
about a variable or a list.
4. Write a Python program that automatically provides a
sum to the user.
5. Write a Python program so that we can understand
how frequency works with programmers.
 12

ADVANCED PROGRAMMING

irst of all, congratulations for completing the sections of

Fthis book that deal with the basi
programming. With sufficient knowledge about the basics,
you are now all set to get a detailed overview of some of
the advanced Python programming concepts that will
facilitate all the basics you have learned. Understanding
these advanced concepts can help you appreciate the
ability of Python from different perspectives.

PYTHON RECURSION
Recursion is a process that defines itself. Programming
languages often use the same concept to create a function
and make them call themselves repeatedly. These functions
are known as recursive functions and are often believed to
have less runtime as they don’t usually interact with other
functions.

Recursive functions make the code look simpler and can

help programmers organize a problem better. However, it is
not always possible to create recursive functions because
they are often hard to write and can also take up a lot of
computer memory. Recursive functions are also hard to
debug because they repeat themselves and don't interact
with other variables or program instances.
Finding factorial using Python recursive function:

Def find factorial(number) :

“”” This is a recursive function that is
designed to find factorial of any integer “””
If number == 1 :
Return 1
else :
Return ( number * findfactorial*(number-1))
Value = 4
Print( “ The factorial of “ , value, “is”,
findfactorial(value))
Output:
The factorial of 4 is 24
What happened?
In the above example, find factorial() is a recursive function
and calls itself. When we mention the number as a positive
integer, it uses the provided programming logic to call the
function so that the factorial is determined.

PYTHON LAMBDA FUNCTI ON

A lambda function is a Python function that is defined

anonymously in programs. To represent a lambda function in
a program, you need to use the keyword ‘lambda’. Python
programmers usually use lambda functions to create
anonymous functions that have a minimal purpose in the
overall program. Lambda functions are also said to have a
remarkable correlation with inbuilt python functions such as
filter().

Syntax of lambda function:

Lambda arguments : expression

Remember that lambda functions are encouraged to have

any number of arguments but should consist of only one
expression.

Example:
Sample = lambda result : result * 2 *
Print(sample(5))
Output:
10

ADVANCED DICTIONARY FUN CTI ON S

Dictionaries are advanced data structures in Python that can

effectively monitor and note down the data.
Dictionaries still need the usage of advanced handling
functions such as max(), min() and sort() to achieve some
exceptional results.
Using the max() Function
The above example will first check for all the dictionaries
key : value pairs to determine the highest value and print
out its key. You can also use the max() function with lambda
functions.

Program code:
Movies = {American Pie : 7 , Schindlers list
: 10 , Shashswank redemption : 9 , Avatar :
8}
Maximum = max( Movies, key = movies.get)
Print(Maximum)
Output:
Schindler's list

Using the min() Function

The above example will first check for all the dictionaries
key: value pairs to determine the lowest value and print out
its key. You can also use the min() function with lambda
functions.

Program code:
Movies = {American Pie : 7 , Schindlers list
: 10 , Shashswank redemption : 9 , Avatar :
8}
Minimum = min( Movies, key = movies.get)
Print(Minimum)
Output:
American pie
Using the sorted() Function
You can sort elements present in a dictionary in Python
using the sorted() method. While there are different ways,
such as using an items() method or dictionary
comprehension, the most popular way is to use it as an
Iterable argument.

Program code:
Movies = {American Pie : 7 , Schindlers list
: 10 , Shashswank redemption : 9 , Avatar :
8}
Print(sorted(Movies))
Output:
{American Pie : 7 , Avatar : 8 , Shashwank
redemption : 9 , Schindlers list : 10}

THREADING

Threading is a phenomenon that allows your Python

program to run two instances concurrently without ending
any one of them. Without the concept of threading in Python,
real-world applications cannot experience a significant
speed.
A thread creates a separate flow of execution in your
program. Multiprocessing of threads can sometimes need
extra knowledge related to Python. To run faster programs,
ensure that you import the ‘multiprocessing’ module before
implementing a threading function.
To create a separate thread instance in a program, you
need to use .start()

instance.start()
Usually, when you end a program, all the threads will exit
automatically. Daemon threads, however, will not exit and
will run in the background. Any software that needs the
ability to track should use daemon threads not to close the
instance completely. Daemon threads utilize significantly
less memory power to make them operate for practical
implementation.
Some additional threading functions:

1. .join() You can join two threads using this threading

function.
2. .lock() You can unlock or lock an instance using this
threading function.

PIP PACKAGE MANAGER

Pip is a standard package manager for Python. It is usually

used to install additional packages or dependencies that
are not present in the standard library. Due to its
popularity among programmers, the Python development
team has decided to include pip as a default package
manager in Python 3 latest versions.
What can you do with Pip?

1. Install new packages and dependencies

2. Find packages from different repositories or Python
Package Index (PyPI)
3. Review and install the requirements that are
essential for a new package or broken packages
4. Uninstall packages and dependencies with a click

To check whether or not Pip is installed in your system, use

the below command.

Terminal command:
$ pip — version

If it prints out the version details, then the package manager

is installed. If not, you need to install it manually from the
official website.
Installing Packages
Installing packages using pip is straightforward and takes
significantly less time to complete a transaction.
For example, to install http3, a popular Python library, you
can use the below mentioned syntax.

Terminal command:
$ pip install http3

To check the metadata of a Python package, use the below

command.

Terminal command:
$ pip show http3

Output will display all the metadata information such as

name, author, license, and location of the package.
To uninstall packages, you can use the below code format.

Terminal command:
$ pip uninstall http3

To search packages, you can use the below mentioned code

format.

Terminal command:
$ pip search oauth

This command will check for a package named ‘oauth’ in

the Python Package Index. You can also manually provide
any third-party software indexes to search in them.
VIRTUAL ENVIRONMENT
Usually, when we create Python projects in our system, we
use several libraries, all of which have separate
dependencies. Sometimes, however, Python programmers
need to work with two independent projects that have
different dependencies. Python creates an isolated virtual
environment to help programmers not mess up their system
or avoid errors during these types of situations.

A Python virtual environment can help programmers if they

are working with software of two different versions. Python
also provides the facility to create an unlimited number of
virtual environments.
How to Install Virtualenv
virtualenv is not a standard Python system library. I
recommend that you import the package using pip.

Terminal command:
$ pip install virtualenv

Once the library is downloaded, you can use virtualenv with

the help of one of the terminal commands listed below.

Terminal command:
$ virtualenv sample

When you enter the above command, the interpreter will

form a new directory named ‘sample’. It creates new
executables and packages that a brand-new application or
instance will need.
A newly created virtual environment can be used only after
successfully activating it using the below command.
 Terminal command:
$ source sample/bin/activate

Once you enter this command, a new environment will be

activated, and you can work on your project now without
worrying about any dependencies.
In the same way, you can deactivate a virtual environment
using the below command.

Terminal command:
(Sample)$ deactivate

USING PILLOW LIBRARY TO EDIT I M AGE S

Python has great adaptability with digital processing

technology and is used in a lot of its applications. You can
use a third-party library known as ‘pillow’ to understand the
basic essence of creating media manipulation software in
Python.
First you must install pillow by using the below command
via pip.

Terminal command:
pip install pillow

As the pillow library is very large, we will import only

specific functions that will do the work for us.

Terminal command:
from PIL import Image

Once the functions are imported, we now need to open an

image to work with. Download an image and move it to the
pillows folder. You can specify the path of the image if it is
in another directory.

Program code:
Sample = Image.open(“example.jpg”)

Now, you have an image that is ready to be manipulated by

other functions in the library. For now, we will learn how to
add text to the image using the pillow library.
To make this happen, you need to import a few other
functions into your program.

Program code:
from PIL import ImageFont, ImageDraw

ImageFont function provides a way to download a font

according to our requirements to our directory.

Program code:
Result = Imagefont.truetype(‘Helvetica.ttf’,
300)

In the above Python command, the Imagefont function takes

two arguments. The first argument mentions the font name,
and the second argument mentions the size of the font.

Now, with an image and font file in your directory, all you
need to do is render the text.

Program code:
Title = “ This is edited”
Sample.text((23,43), title , (232,342,212) ,
font = result)
The above function uses four arguments to render the
image and place the text provided on the screen.
In the above command, the first argument mentions the
coordinate position of the text. The second argument
mentions the text. The third argument uses RGB mode to
define what color the text should use. The final argument
provides the font style that needs to be used.

MASTERING PYTHON REGULAR EXPR E SSION S (R E GE X)

Regular expressions are a special sequence of characters

that programmers can use to search using a pattern.
Regular expressions are famous among Python
programmers due to their robust approach to finding a
pattern among a large chunk of data. Python provides a
separate module known as the ‘re’ module to handle all
the regular expressions.
How to implement a regular expression using Python

1. Specify a pattern string.

2. Provide a regular expression object to pattern string.
3. Find a string pattern using the regular expression
object.

Example:
Import re
Sample = “ This is an example” _ regex =
re.compile(sample)
Result = regex.search(“ This is an example”)

In the above example, we used the search() function and

regular expression to find a pattern in the string.
UNDERSTANDING JSON DATA
The Internet is filled with websites. Websites usually
communicate with servers to provide data to the user.
Servers save both simple and complex data. As a
programmer, you often need to communicate between data
and server to create groundbreaking applications. JSON
provides an easy way to structure the data.

To perform all JSON operations, an inbuilt Python library

‘JSON’ is provided for Python programmers. Using this
library, you can parse, serialize, and deserialize all the
objects related to JSON parameters.
How to read JSON files
To read JSON files in Python, you need first to import using
the below command.

Terminal command:
import json

Once the library is imported, you can create file objects, as

shown below.

Program code:
json.load(file object)

To paste the content present in a JSON file, a Python

programmer needs to use a loads() function.

Program code:
json.loads(content)
# This reads all json functions
Apart from making it easy for communicating with the
server, JSON also provides an easy way to write metadata
that is often required for python web programs. You can use
the json.write() function to add new JSON data to a module
or application.

UNDERSTANDING SYS MODULE

Python interpreter is an important component in the Python

ecosystem. A Python interpreter carefully analyzes every
literal, constant, method, and variable to create a step-by-
step execution of the logical program. The sys module is
provided in the Python standard library to provide advanced
information about Python interpreter. You can use the sys
module to know sensitive information about constants,
variables, and methods.
To use the sys module in your program, you need first to
import it, as shown below.
Program code:
import sys
1. To know information about all the existing modules
present in this instance, you can use the below command.
>>> Print( sys.Argv)
2. To know the default system path of Python in the system,
you can use the below command
>>> Print( sys.path)
3. To display the copyright of the program instance, you
can use the below command.
>>> Print( sys.copyright)
4. To display how many times a variable or instance object
has been used in the program, you can use the below
command.
>>> Print( sys.getrefcount(variable))

ITERATORS AND GENERATORS

Any process that uses the same logic while executing more
than one time is known as an iteration. For example, a loop
in a programming language like Python can be called an
iteration. If a for loop goes through six times, it can be said
to have iterated six times.
In Python, you can use the iter() function to create an
iterator object. You can also use the next() function to find
the next Iterable object.

Program code:
Sample = iter(‘x’,’y’,’z’)
Output:
XYZ

Generators are also a kind of iterator, but they use the

keyword ‘yield’ to implement them. Generators will also
return all the objects that are repeated more than once as
output.
The main difference between iterators and generators is that
iterators need a class to implement, whereas generators
need a function to implement them.

JUPYTER NOTEBOOK
Python has high adaptability to data science projects due to
many third-party libraries that can help data scientists
manipulate data in any way possible.
A notebook is a software tool developed for programmers,
which can provide an output related to visualizations,
media, and equations all in one place. Notebooks help
programmers to manage their data effectively. A data
scientist can use a Jupyter notebook to make the data
science model more engaging and understandable.
Because it is an open-source project, there are many
integrations available from the community.
How to Use a Jupyter Notebook
To be aware of Jupyter, you should have sound knowledge
about Python and Pandas. To install Jupyter in your machine,
you can use the pip package manager.

Program code:
pip3 install Jupyter

Once installed, you can open it and create your first Jupyter.
The software will welcome you with an interface that
provides details about your notebooks. Installing Anaconda
will also help you to change and modify these notebooks
easily.
To access your Jupyter notebook, you need to go to a
browser and enter the software's URL address. When the
URL is opened, Jupyter will start a Python server, and you
will now be ready to interact with it as you wish.
The software will save all the Jupyter notebooks in .ipynb
format. Many tools will help you to convert these files into
traditional docs or pdf formats automatically.
Understanding Cells in Jupyter Notebook
The body of the notebook in Jupyter will usually consist of
cells. The most important, however, is the code cell and
markdown cell.
1. Code cell
This contains all the Python code that needs to run
applications. This code can be converted using the kernel,
and an output will be displayed on the screen itself.
2. Markdown cell
This usually contains information about the code in
markdown format. Markdown cell usually will facilitate a
code cell. Also, remember that you can never create a
markdown cell first.
You can edit or write commands on a Jupyter notebook.
Understanding Markdown
Markdown is a special markup language that is created to
make formatting the text easy. Programmers can use it to
write both programs and normal text material.
Every markdown element has its own set of rules. For
example, # will create an H1 heading, whereas ## will
create an H2 heading.

UNIT TESTING

Whenever programmers write code, they need to ensure that

the code quality is on par with Python’s guidelines. Even if it
works, complex and messy code can create bugs down the
road and may cause bottleneck situations. Usually, when a
programmer completes software, he needs to conduct test
case execution. During this phase,
programmers should analyze all log tests and reports to be
aware of all potential warnings that may occur.
Normally, programmers need to write manual testing code
to verify the authenticity and maintainability of their code.
However, manual testing is a humongous task and can
sometimes even take more time than the development
phase. Python provides a unit test framework known as
“unittest” to test the code automatically to make
programmers' lives easier.
How Unit Tests Take Place
To conduct a unit test of your code, you must first decide
how to address your testing procedure. For example, you
can test an entire module at once, or you can conduct
testing exclusively on a single function. However, it is
recommended to start testing with small code and expand
further.
What functions does the unit test offer?

1. A Python programmer can automatically test various

parts of a software.
2. You can share test code easily with other developers.
Python interpreter will also share all the build and
runtime errors.
3. You can organize a group of tests and can call them
collections. This strategy can help programmers to
maintain the software for a long time effectively.
4. Programmers and testers can easily manage testing
with independent frameworks.

Unit test modules provide assert() methods to perform

various tests. For example, assertcountequal() will check
whether or not elements are in order.
To write efficient programs that can work well even in
difficult instances, you need to know complex unit testing
methods.

GITHUB FOR PYTHON PROGRAM M E RS

GitHub is a GIT-based resource allocation. It is a peer-to-

peer website that programmers can use to coordinate with
projects effectively. GitHub offers both free and professional
versions for its users. All your repositories will
be public as a basic user, and your code instantly becomes
an open-source code. On the other hand, if you choose a
professional version, you can work with your team using
private repositories protected using high encryption
algorithms.
Why is GitHub essential for beginners?
GitHub can be a great way for beginners to read more
efficient open-source code created by experienced
programmers. There are also many projects that beginners
can use to improve their programming and logical reasoning
skills. Many Python libraries are hosted in GitHub, and
hence exploring it is a mandatory prerequisite for beginners.
You can use several third-party web or mobile clients to
import git projects to your local system instantly.

Git supports version control and is hence an easy to update

your project dependencies. You can either commit or
change the code using git code with an instant click.
To create a new repo, you need first to enter your git
console using the below command.

console code:
$ git config —global root “Project name”

Once you enter a git console, enter the below command to

create a new directory.

console code:
$mkdir. (“Name of the Repository”)

You can also find additional information about a git

repository using the below command.
 console code:
$ git status

You are now all set to experiment with your Python code
and create open-source projects.

DIFFERENT PYTHON LIB RARIE S

The enormous number of Python libraries is one of the main

reasons for the popularity of Python as a programming
language. Libraries make work easy for developers to create
real-world applications. Knowing about some of the popular
Python libraries that can create efficient Python software is
essential for any programmer.
1. Requests
Requests is a Python library that is developed to create easy
HTTP requests to a specified URL. As Python is a popular
programming language to create websites and develop
scrappers, programmers must use a reliable library to create
both requests and responses in a simple yet effective way.

Requests also help programmers to interact with the data

that APIs provide. While all the data is usually provided in
JSON format, the requests library can easily read and
update this data.
You can install the requests library from the Python
package index using the pip package manager.

Program code:
pip install requests

2. Scrapy
Web scraping is a popular way to extract data from websites
consistently and automatically. Scrappers also sometimes
can interact with APIS and act as a crawler. Scrapy is a
Python library that provides the ability to scrape the web
data for a Python web developer quickly.
Usually, web scrapers use ‘spiders’ to extract the data, and
as a Python library, Scrapy extends the ability to scrape
using advanced spiders. Scrapy also was inspired by
Django; it doesn’t repeat any code already present in the
library. All Python developers can use Scrapy shell to
provide assumptions about the behavior and performance of
a site.
3. SQLAlchemy
The internet is filled with relational databases that save the
data and provide different mapping technologies to interact
effectively. All websites and applications use SQL databases
more due to their data mapper technology.
SQLAlchemy is a Python library developed to act as an
object-relational mapper for software developed using
Python. SQLachemy also operates an active record pattern
to detect data mappers present in a database. Python
programmers can also install additional plugins to automate
the constant maintainability that comes with relational
databases.
4. NLTK
Natural language processing (NLP) is an artificial
intelligence technology that implements cognitive ideas in a
programmatic sense. NLTK (Natural Language Toolkit) is a
set of Python libraries that specialize in NLP technology.
They are primarily written in the English language and
provide various graphical demonstrations according to the
data provided.
At first, programmers developed this Python library to use
it as a teaching resource. However, its adaptability to
domains apart from NLP such as artificial intelligence and
machine learning had made it popular among data
scientists. It provides features such as lexical analysis and
named entity recognition.
5. Twisted
To write any internet-related software in Python, a
programmer should be aware of different networking
concepts and should find a way to support them so that
software can interact with them. A Python framework called
Twisted was developed to give programmers an alternative
to having to create networking protocols from scratch every
time.
It supports different network protocols such as TCP, UDP,
HTTP, and IMAP. It uses an event-driven programming
paradigm to create callbacks whenever the framework is
used. It provides advanced functions such as foreign loop
support, threading and deferreds. Twisted is the primary
networking library for many famous websites such as cloud
ki, Twitch, and Twilio.
6. NumPy
Python was created to develop desktop and web
applications, but not for numerical or scientific computing.
However, in 1995 many scientists found that Python’s
simplicity can help it effectively correlate with mathematical
equations. Once the implementation of arrays has been
announced, Python has started to get adopted to various
scientific and numerical libraries. NumPy supports the usage
of high multidimensional arrays, thus making it one of the
important python libraries for performing high- level
mathematical functions.
NumPy provides high debugging and binding features for
several other libraries, and hence it is often used with
other popular scientific and machine learning libraries
while writing Python software.
7. SciPy
In the last decade, Python has become the most used
programming language in scientific and technical
computing. Due to its open-source nature, many computer
scientists believe that using Python as the default language
while creating scientific and technical applications can make
them interact better as a community. SciPy provides
modules for different scientific domains such as
optimization, interpolation, and image processing.
SciPy also correlates with NumPy while working with high
multidimensional arrays that use mathematical functions.
SciPy’s impact on digital imaging and signal processing
also made it a favorable choice for technical computing.
8. Matplotlib
Matplotlib is used as a companion library for SciPy to plot
all the mathematical equations and high-level
mathematical functions using charts. While looking at the
equations and functions can develop your scientific and
technical skills, a chart can make you interact with data
more clearly. Python programmers use Matplotlib in their
software so that the end-user will understand the purpose
of the software more efficiently. Many also use Matplotlib
as a reference tool for unit testing different frameworks
more easily.
Matplotlib uses GUI toolkits such as Tkinter to represent
plots beautifully. Additional functions such as GTK tools,
Excel tools, Basemap, and cartopy had made it a critical
Python library for programmers involved with technical
and scientific computing.
9. Pillow
Pillow is a Python library that programmers can use to
manipulate images. Pillow provides different modules that
can add additional image-enhancing capabilities to the
software. Pillow is an updated library for the already famous
Python Image Library (PIL). PIL is a legacy project and has
been discontinued from further development. To utilize the
functions that PIL comes with, enthusiastic developers have
forked down in Pillow's name to work with Python3. Forking
down refers to copying an old library into a new library with
added functionalities.
Pillow supports various image files such as jpeg, png, tiff,
and gif. With a pillow, you can crop, rotate, manipulate, or
edit images. Several hundreds of filters are also available
for Python programmers with a few clicks.
10. Beautiful Soup
Beautiful Soup is a Python scraping library that
programmers can use to customize how to parse both HTML
and XML pages. Beautiful Soup creates a detailed parse tree
after scraping and extracting content from these web pages.
It also uses a markup language to perform its parsing
operations. It is also known as a beautiful parser due to its
ability to scrape data without being messy while validating
and conforming information.
Beautiful Soup also works with all of the latest web
frameworks and technologies along with HTML 5 elements.
If you are a web developer who needs to create software
that interacts with web elements, there is no better Python
library than Beautiful Soup.
11. WxPython
WxPython is a Python wrapper to the cross-platform popular
GUI library wxWidgets. wxWidgets is written in C++ and
provides many tools that can help programmers create
beautiful desktop applications. Enthusiastic Python
developers have created a wrapper to utilize the universal
functionalities provided by wxWidgets to build desktop and
mobile applications.
It has different modules for widget development. For
example, a button module can help you create buttons of
various kinds with a small code.
12. PyQT
PyQT is a Python extensible library that supports the
popular cross-platform GUI library Qt. It can be installed in
Python using a simple plugin. It provides modules that
programmers can use to develop Windows, Linux and
macOS applications. PyQT is also portable and can be used
instantaneously in any operating system.
It has a substantial set of various high-level GUI widgets,
along with an XML and SVG parser. It also provides
different modules for regular expressions, Unicode
modelling, along with DOM interfaces.
13. Pygame
Python also has high adaptability with mid-range gaming
technology. Pygame is a popular Python library that provides
various computer graphics and multimedia libraries that
programmers can use to write video games. It offers
multiple modules to manipulate the gaming experience with
the help of sound, keyboard, mouse, and accelerometer.

Python programmers can also use Pygame to create games

that work with Android smartphones or tablets. It supports
the SDL library that helps programmers to create real-time
interactive games with few lines of code.
14. Pyglet
Pyglet is a Python library that programmers can use to
create advanced games and multimedia software. Pyglet is
highly portable and can help programs to run in all
operating systems without any lag. It extends multimedia
software capabilities by providing full-screen control,
multiple monitors, and different format types.
Pyglet also comes with an additional Avbin plugin that
supports various audio and video formats with perfection.
15. Nose2
Nose2 is a Python framework that can automatically detect
unit tests and execute them with a mouse click. While there
are many testing frameworks, Nose2 provides rich plugins
that can make the process swifter. Nose2 also provides
better API facilities that can be interlinked with selenium
website testing.
Using Nose2, you can also run different unit testing
processes simultaneously, making it a possible option for
projects with large code. Using Nose2, you can capture log
messages, cover test reports, and organize information with
different layers.
16. Bokeh
Bokeh is one of the popular Python libraries extensively used
by data analysts to create visualisation data with several
effects. This Python library is exclusively developed for
building visualizations for modern web browsers such as
Safari and Opera. Bokeh not only supports high-level
interactive graphics but also can be used for creating
complex plotting graphs.
Many programmers use Bokeh and streaming datasets to
generate high-level graphic visualizations that make them
more attractive and intuitively beautiful. Bokeh has a
high- level relatability with Javascript technology.
17. Pandas
Pandas is a Python library that is primarily used for data
manipulation and can perform various analysis techniques.
It helps data scientists to import data sets from different
high-level formats such as JSON, SQL, and Excel so that
these analysts can perform operations such as merging,
data cleaning, and other high-level analysis features.
Pandas is also excellent in terms of aligning data to a
handler and performing hierarchical regeneration
techniques. Many programmers compare Pandas to C
language libraries due to their method implementation.
18. Scikit learn
Machine learning is one of the popular computer
technologies that is expanding its horizon to different Python
libraries. Sci-kit learn is one of the popular machine learning
libraries in Python that programmers can use to create
machine learning models. It also supports neural network
algorithms in dense situations.
Sci-kit learn has a remarkable correlation with numerical
and scientific libraries such as NumPy and Scipy. Random
forests, clustering, and K-tree are some of the famous
algorithms that Sci-kit learn consists of.
19. Keras
Neural networking is a computer science domain that
utilizes cognitive concepts in a programmatic sense. Keras is
an open-source Python library that uses Python to create
artificial neural networks, making complex real-world
applications.
It also supports linking to back-end software such as
TensorFlow and Microsoft cognitive toolkit. You need to be
aware of different GPU and TPU units to create software
using Keras as your primary framework carefully. Keras can
also be used as a preliminary framework for deep learning
projects.
20. Tensorflow
Tensorflow is a popular machine learning library that is used
to create deep neural networks. Tensor flow uses techniques
of differentiable programming to create code that can co-
relate with data flow structures that exist on the Internet.
Tensorflow was first developed by Google and later was
adapted to be open source due to its popularity among
Google developers.
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 CONCLUSION

Congratulations on completing the book. You now have

acquired skills that can make you work with mid-level
Python projects. To become proficient in Python from now
on, you must write quality code consistently. To improve
your programming skills, challenge yourself by working on
advanced projects.
To be an efficient programmer, you need to be aware of
certain habits and tips that experienced programmers use
and have referenced as having helped them become better
programmers. Any beginner starting with computer
programming can use them to improve their efficiency in the
subject.
1. Build a strong foundation with fundamentals
While learning syntax basics within a couple of hours and
working immediately with projects may seem exciting and
challenging, it is not a recommended learning technique.
For a programmer, fundamentals are essential. For a
Python programmer, it is more critical because Python
relies on simplicity. If you want straightforward
readability, you need to be aware of all the fundamentals
it provides for the end-user.
2. Break problems into smaller ones
Every program solves a problem. Any problem can be solved
using different approaches. To write better programs, you
need to find the best approach that reduces execution and
run time. To find the best approaches, you need to take a
large problem and divide it into a set of
more minor problems. Approaching solutions using this
technique can help programmers create software with fewer
bugs and less unit testing. Always use pseudo-code instead
of programming code while trying to find approaches or
solutions to a problem. Once you find a working solution,
you can start implementing it using your favorite
programming language, Python.
3. Find your niche
Programming is overwhelming if you can’t find out what
niche you love the most. It is not practical to learn a little bit
of everything as there are many domains out there in
computer science. If you like designing and developing
websites more than extracting data and analyzing it, then
you should focus more on website development instead of
data analysis. Python has the adaptability to any niche, so
you can use it anywhere without any problem.
4. Get addicted to errors
Errors are a great way to improve your expertise in a
programming language. Whenever you encounter an error,
try to Google it using the traceback error given by the
interpreter. Googling an error can provide you with
information about why the error has occurred and different
ways to get rid of the error without messing up the program
code already written. Programming is fun if you constantly
face hurdles and jump them with a little bit of tinkering.

5. Learn algorithms and be aware of problem-solving

techniques
While programmers can solve simple problems with a basic
traditional approach or by using open-source code, you
need to be aware of different algorithms and problem-
solving techniques to solve new complex problems while
developing software. Make sure to refer to different
algorithmic approaches using advanced Python books and
resources. As a programmer, to improve your logical
programming skills, we recommend you read a lot of code.
Reading a lot of code will not only help you to find out
solutions subconsciously but can also help you develop a
consistent programming style.
Learning Python is fun and exciting. With the information
and knowledge provided in this book, you are now ready
to start exploring the world of programming. We hope you
develop a lot of software that moves the world forward in
a better way. All the best!
 REFERENCES

Shruthitv. (2018, August 10). Python variables .

GeeksforGeeks. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/python-
variables/

Sharma, Rohit. (2019, December 16). Top 7 data types of

Python | Python data types . UpGrad Blog.
https://www.upgrad.com/blog/top-7-data-types-of-python-
python-data-types/
Python conditional statements: IF... Else, ELIF, Nested IF &
Switch Case . (2019, October 23). Guru99.com.
https://www.guru99.com/if-loop-python-conditional-
structures.html
Loops in Python . (2017, June 7). GeeksforGeeks.
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/loops-in-python
File handling in Python . (2017, October 10).
GeeksforGeeks. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/file-
handling-python/
All images sourced from Unsplash. (2000).
https://unsplash.com/