Unit III – Metal Forming Processes

METAL FORMING
 Metal forming can be defined as a process in which the desired size and shape are
obtained through the deformation of metals plastically under the action of externally
applied forces.
 Metal forming processes like rolling, forging, drawing etc. are gaining ground
lately.
 It is due to the fact that metal forming is the waste less process which is highly
economical.
 They give high dimensional accuracy, easy formability for complex shapes and
good surface finish with desired metallurgical properties.
 The metal forming is based upon the plastic deformation of metals.
Elastic and plastic deformations
 Deformation is the change in dimensions or form under the action of applied load.
 Deformation is caused either by mechanical action of external load or by various physical
and physicochemical processes.
 The process of deformation comprises the following consecutive stages:
(a) Elastic deformation
(b) Plastic deformation
(c) Fracture
 Elastic deformation of a material is its power of coming back to its original position after
deformation when the stress or load is removed i.e., deformation completely disappears
after removal of load.
 The plastic deformation means that the material undergoes some degree of permanent
deformation without failure on application of load.
 Plastic deformation will take place only after the elastic range has been exceeded.
 Plastic deformation is important in case of forming, shaping, extruding and many other
hot and cold working processes.
Slip and Twinning
Advantages of Metal forming
Hot working and Cold working
Hot Working:
Properties
 Hot working is done at a temperature above recrystallization but below its melting point. It can
therefore be regarded as a simultaneous process of deformation and recovery.
 Hardening due to plastic deformation is completely eliminated by recovery and
recrystallization.
 Improvement of mechanical properties such as elongation, reduction of area and impact values.
 No effect on ultimate tensile strength, yield point, fatigue strength and hardness.
 Poor surface finish due to oxidation and scaling.
 Refinement of crystals occurs.
 Due to hot working cracks and blowholes are welded up.
 No internal or residual stress developed.
 Force required for deformation is less.
 Light equipment is used in hot working.
 Difficult to handle a hot worked metal.
 Hot working processes are - hot forging, hot rolling, hot spinning, hot extrusion, hot drawing,
and hot piercing, pipe welding.
Hot Working
Advantages:
 Porosity in the metal is largely eliminated. Most ingots contain many small blow
holes. These are pressed together and eliminated.
 Impurities in the form of inclusions are broken up and distributed throughout the
metal.
 Coarse or columnar grains are refined. Since this hot work is in the recrystalline
temperature range, it should be continued until the low limit is reached to provide a
fine grain structure.
 Physical properties are generally improved owing principally to grain refinement.
Ductility and resistance to impact are improved, strength is increased, and greater
homogeneity is developed in the metal. The greatest strength of rolled steel exists in
the direction of metal flow.
 The amount of energy necessary to change the shape of steel in the plastic state is far
less than that required when the steel is cold.
Hot Working
Disadvantages:
 Because of the high temperature of the metal, there is rapid oxidation or scaling of
the surface with accompanying poor surface finish.
 Difficult to achieve close tolerances due to scaling.
 Some metals cannot be hot worked because of their brittleness at high temperatures.
 Hot working equipment and maintenance costs are high.
Cold Working
Properties:
 Cold working is done at temperature below recrystallization temperature. So, no
appreciable recovery can take place during deformation.
 Hardening is not eliminated since working is done below recrystallization temperature.
 Decreases elongation, reduction of area etc.
 Increase in ultimate tensile strength, yield point and hardness.
 Good surface finish is obtained.
 Crystallization does not occur. Grains are only elongated.
 Possibility of crack formation and propagation is great.
 Internal and residual stresses are developed in the metal.
 Force required for deformation is high.
 Heavy and powerful equipment is used for cold working.
 Easier to handle cold parts.
 Cold working processes are: cold rolling, cold extrusion, press work (drawing,
squeezing, bending, and shearing).
Cold Working
Advantages:
 Cold working increases the strength and hardness of the material due to the strain
hardening which would be beneficial in some situations. Further, there is no possibility of
decarburization of the surface.
 Since the working is done in cold state, hence no oxide formation on the surface and
consequently, good surface finish is obtained.
 Greater dimensional accuracy is achieved.
 Easier to handle cold parts and also economical for small sizes.
 Better mechanical properties are achieved.
Disadvantages:
 Only small sized components can be easily worked as greater forces are required for large
sections. Due to large deforming forces, heavy and expensive capital equipment is required.
 The grain structure is not refined and residual stresses have harmful effects on certain
properties of metals.
 Many of the metals have less ductility e.g., carbon steel and certain alloy steels, cannot be
cold worked at room temperature.
 Tooling costs are high and as such it is used when large quantities of similar components
are required.
FORGING
 Forging can be defined as a method of shaping, heated metal by compression. The
forging process evolved from the manual art of simple blacksmithing.
 The special tools that a blacksmith use are various kinds of dies, swages and fullers.
Forging Operations
 Forging is the oldest metal working process.
Because it just requires heating and
hammering of metals, man found it easy.
Forging Operations
 The following forging operations are performed.
 Drawing down or swaging: The process of increasing length and decreasing cross
sectional area of the metal is known as drawing. The compressive force (hammering
or pressing) are applied perpendicular to the length axis of the metal piece.
 Upsetting: It is just reverse of drawing. The cross-sectional area of the work piece is
increased and length decreases. For it, the compressive forces are applied along the
length axis of the metal piece.
Forging Operations
Fullering:
 It a similar to material cross-section is decreased and length increased. To do this; the
bottom fuller is kept in angle hole with the heated stock over the fuller. The top fuller is
then kept above the stock and then with the sledge hammer, and the force is applied on
the top fuller.
Edging:
 It is a process in which the metal piece is displaced to the desired shape by striking
between two dies edging is frequently as primary drop forging operation.
http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_2_P6uqc8P3w/TN0VjvQV6MI/AAAAAAAAAGU/r5QXlThweGo/s320/fullering.bmp
Forging Operations
Bending:
 Bending is very common forging operation. It is an operation to give a turn to metal
rod or plate. This is required for those which have bends shapes.
Punching:
 It is a process of producing holes in motel plate is placed over the hollow cylindrical
die. By pressing the punch over the plate the hole is made.
http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_2_P6uqc8P3w/TN0bixHo8CI/AAAAAAAAAGc/G82Cgc0uMWg/s320/bending.bmp

http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_2_P6uqc8P3w/TN0esiM_DTI/AAAAAAAAAGg/polq0Cv20DI/s320/punching.bmp
Forging Operations
Forged welding:
 It is a process of joining two metal pieces to increase the length. By the pressing or
hammering then when they are at forging temperature. It is performed in forging
shop and hence is called forged welding.
Flating and setting down:
 Fullering leaves a corrugated surface on the job. Even after a job is forged into
shape with a hammer, the marks of the hammer remains on the upper surface of the
job. To remove hammer marks and corrugation and in order to obtain a smooth
surface on the job, a flatter or set hammer is used. http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_2_P6uqc8P3w/TN0f-hbUiRI/AAAAAAAAAGk/R2xeEx4jdaA/s320/flatting.bmp
Forging Operations
Swaging:
 Swaging is done to reduce and finish work for desire size and shape, usually either
round or hexagonal. For small jobs top and bottom swage pair is employed, where
as for large work swage block can be used.
Forging processes
Forging is classified into three categories:
 Open-die Forging (Hand Forging, Power Forging)
 Impression-die Forging
 Closed-die Forging.
Open-Die forging
 Open-die forging which is also called ‘Hammer forging’ or ‘Flat-die forging’.
 Open-die forging is a hot forging process in which metal is shaped by hammering or
pressing between flat or simple contoured dies.
 In open die forging the dies do not completely cover the workpiece. Instead, there are
open spaces that allow various aspects of the workpiece to move from direct hot die
contact, and to cooler open areas.
 In this type of forging, metals are worked above their recrystallization temperatures.
Because the process requires repeated changes in workpiece positioning.
 The workpiece cools during open die forging below its hot-working or recrystallization
temperature. It must be reheated before forging can continue.
 Open-die forging is further classified as:
➢ Hand forging.
➢ Power forging.
Impression-die forging
 It is also known as ‘precision forging’.
 As the name implies, two or more dies containing impressions of the part shape are
brought together, the workpiece undergoes plastic deformation until its enlarged sides
touch the die side walls.
 During the process, flash is formed, as some of the molten metal from the workpiece
flows outside the die impression.
 As the flash cools, it imparts deformation resistance to the workpiece, strengthening the
final product. This builds pressure inside the bulk of the workpiece, aiding material
flow into unfilled impressions.
 The finished part closely resembles the die impression.
 Because metal flow is restricted by the die contours, this process can yield more
complex shapes and closer tolerances than open-die forging processes.
Impression-die forging
 Impression die forging is further classified as drop, press and machine forging.
Closed-die forging
 In closed-Die Forging, no flash is formed and the workpiece is completely
surrounded by the dies.
 In this process, a billet with carefully controlled volume is deformed (hot or cold)
by a punch in order to fill a die cavity without any loss of material.
 Therefore, proper control of the volume of material is essential to obtain a forging
of desired dimensions.
 Undersized blanks in closed-die forging prevent the complete filling of the die,
while oversized blanks may cause premature die failure or jamming of the dies.
 Press used for closed-die forging is of two types:
 (i) Hydraulic and
 (ii) Mechanical.
Forging Machines
 Gravity Drop hammer
 Power Drop hammers:
➢Helve hammer
➢Lever spring hammer
➢Pneumatic hammer
➢Air and Steam hammer
Gravity Drop hammer
Board Drop Hammer
➢In a board drop hammer, a hardwood
board is attached to the ram.
➢Rollers grip the board and can raise
the board and ram due to friction
forces between the board and rollers.
➢Once the ram is raised to the height
needed, the rollers can be pulled apart
and the apparatus will be released.
Gravity Drop hammer
A typical power hammer consists of a frame, an
anvil, and a reciprocating ram holding a hammer
head or die. The workpiece is placed on the
lower anvil or die and the head or upper die
strikes the workpiece. Power hammers are rated
by weight of moving parts that act directly on
the work piece.
Power Drop Hammer
 Power drop hammers use the force of pressurized air or steam to raise the
ram, and to accelerate it downward to strike a work piece.
 Power drop hammers can accelerate the ram downward to a higher speed
than conventional gravity hammers, they can also accommodate a more
massive ram.
 Power drop hammers can deliver much more energy per blow than other
drop hammers.
 Pressurized air or steam is used to lift the hammer to the right height.
 The pressure holding up the ram is then released and simultaneously pressure
is applied to the top of the apparatus.
 A release in pressure lets the hammer drop and a simultaneous application of
pressure to its top sends it accelerating downward at a high rate of speed.
Forging press
 Presses are different from hammers in
that instead of delivering energy to a
work piece through a collision, presses
deliver energy through a force that acts
over a distance or stroke.
 Presses are machines that may by used
for many different applications. One
important application is in forging
manufacture.
 The energy of the press is used to close
the mold forming the part within.
 The work is forged over a single long
stroke instead of a series of blows as
with a forging hammer.
Crank Press
 The crank press uses a crank link attached to a
drive shaft.
 The crank link rotates with the drive shaft and is
attached to a connecting rod by a rotational joint.
 The connecting rod rocks back and forth during the
motion of the crank.
 The connecting rod is in turn attached to a ram by a
rotational joint.
 The ram operates in a slider joint and travels a one
dimensional path in both directions.
 It is through this path that the crank press delivers
it energy.
 The crank press does allow for a stoke of a
relatively long distance.
Eccentric Press
 The eccentric press uses a motor to drive an
eccentric shaft, rotating in a connecting rod.
 The connecting rod moves a ram in a slider joint one
dimensionally.
 The eccentric shaft itself is round, therefore it may
completely rotate within the connecting rod.
 The center of the drive is not the center of the
overall shaft.
 As the motor rotates, the center of the drive remains
stable but the overall center of the shaft changes.
 This causes the shaft to change position, providing
motion.
 The actual principle of an eccentric press is very
similar to a crank press.
Knuckle Press
 The knuckle joint press translates the energy
of a motor through a powerful linkage
design, and is capable of delivering a
tremendous amount of force.
 The drive shaft crank rotates completely.
 The links are well grounded to support such
pressure.
Hydraulic Press
 Hydraulic presses derive the energy they deliver through hydraulic
pressure.
 Fluid pressure, in a particular chamber, can be increased or decreased by
the use of pumps, and valves.
 Sometimes devices and systems may be used to increase the capacity of
the pumps in more powerful presses.
 These presses can operate over a long distance and at a constant speed.
 Hydraulic presses are generally slower relative to other press machine
types.
 This involves longer contact with the work, therefore the cooling of the
work can be an issue when hot forming a part with hydraulic force.
 Hydraulic presses are capable of being the most powerful class of presses.
Hydraulic Press
Hydraulic Press
 The basic working principles of the hydraulic press are simple, and rely on
differences in fluid pressure.
 Fluid is pumped into the cylinder below the piston, this causes the fluid
pressure under the piston to increase.
 Simultaneously fluid is pumped out of the top channel, causing the fluid
pressure above the piston to decrease.
 A higher pressure of the fluid below the piston than the fluid above it causes
the piston to rise.
 In the next step, fluid is pumped out from below the piston, causing the
pressure under the piston to decrease.
 Simultaneously fluid is pumped into the cylinder from the top, this increases
the fluid pressure above the piston.
 A higher pressure of the fluid above the piston, than the fluid below it, moves
the piston downward.
Screw Press
 Forging screw presses use the rotational energy of a
motor to turn a large screw.
 Typically a friction disk is used to translate the
force from the drive shaft to the screw's head.
 The screw pushes a ram with great mechanical
advantage.
 Screw presses are similar to hydraulic presses in
that they are relatively slow and require a longer
contact with the work.
 Screw presses are also similar to hydraulic presses
in that they can produce a constant amount of force
over a long stroke. Some screw press machines in
modern industry can produce 31,000 tons of force.
➢ Toggle presses only produce their rated force at the
end of the stroke, the bottom dead centre (BDC).
➢ In doing so, the high working pressure of the press is
achieved using the toggle mechanism with a
relatively low effort (approximately 150 N) from the
user.
➢ Toggle presses are therefore used where the full force
of the press is only required over a short distance at
the end of the working stroke, e.g. in assembling,
punching, rivetting, stamping, gluing etc.
Forging presses
 Hydraulic press : 0.06 – 0.30 m/s, capacity : 100 tonnes
 Mechanical press : 0.06 – 1.5 m/s, capacity : 300 – 12,000 tonnes
 Screw press : 06 - 1.2 m/s, capacity : 160 – 31,500 tonnes
 Crank press : 06 - 1.2 m/s, capacity : 50 – 8,000 tonnes
Advantages of press forging over drop forging:
 Press forging is considerably quieter operation than drop forging.
 Normally faster than drop forging since only one squeeze is needed at each die
impression.
 Structural quality of the product is superior to drop forging.
 Simple handling enables high output even with unskilled operators.
 Mechanism of workpiece transfer further increases productivity.
Principle of Extrusion
 Extrusion is the process that forces metal to flow through a shape-forming die.
 The metal is plastically deformed under compression in the die cavity.
 Extrusion produces only compressive and shear forces in the stock without any
tensile force, which makes high deformation possible without tearing the metal.
 It is a hot-working process which, like forging, rolling, etc., uses the good
deformability of heated metallic materials for shaping them.
Extrusion
Principle of Extrusion
 A metal billet heated to the appropriate temperature is fed into the cylindrical container
of the extrusion press and is forced by the action of a ram through a steel die whose
orifice has the desired shape to produce the solid or hollow section.
 The metal emerges from the die as a continuous bar, which is cut to the required lengths.
 Extrusion products are therefore essentially linear in character, in the sense that shaping
is confined to the cross-section only.
 The process is therefore eminently suitable for the production of bar-like and tubular
objects.
 The cross-section that can be produced vary from solid round, rectangular to L shapes, T
shapes, tubes and many other different types.
 Extrusions, often minimize the need for secondary machining, but are not of the same
dimensional accuracy or surface finish as machined parts.
 However, this process can produce a wide variety of cross-sections that are hard to
produce cost-effectively using other methods.
Cold extrusion
 Cold extrusion is the process done at room temperature or slightly elevated
temperatures.
 This process can be used for most materials subject to designing robust enough
tooling that can withstand the stresses created by extrusion.
 Cold extrusion can be used with any material that possesses adequate cold
workability – e.g., lead, tin, aluminum alloys, copper, titanium, molybdenum,
vanadium, steel.
 Typical parts which are cold extruded are aluminum cans, cylinders, gear blanks.
 The advantages of cold extrusion are:
1. No oxidation takes place.
2.Good mechanical properties due to severe cold working as long as the
temperature created are below the recrystallization temperature.
3. Good surface finish with the use of proper lubricants.
Hot extrusion
 Hot extrusion is basically a hot working process. It is done at fairly high
temperatures, approximately 50 to 75% of the melting point of the metal.
 The pressures can range from 35-700 MPa. Due to the high temperatures and
pressures and its detrimental effect on the die life as well as other components,
good lubrication is necessary.
 The principal variables, which influence the force required to cause extrusion, are:
(1) The type of extrusion
(2) The extrusion ratio (R = Ao/Af)
(3) The working temperature
(4) The speed of deformation, and
(5) The frictional conditions at the die and container wall.
 Typical parts produced by hot extrusion are trim parts used in automotive and
construction applications, window frame members, railings, aircraft structural
parts.
Types of Extrusion
 Extrusion processes can be classified as followed:
1.Hot Extrusion
 Forward or Direct extrusion.
 Backward or Indirect extrusion.
2.Cold Extrusion
 Forward
➢Hydrostatic extrusion.
 Backward
➢Impact extrusion.
➢Cold extrusion forging.
Forward or direct extrusion process
 In this process, the material to be extruded is in the form of a block.
 It is heated to requisite temperature and then it is transferred inside a chamber.
 In the front portion of the chamber, a die with an opening in the shape of the cross-
section of the extruded product, is fitted.
 The block of material is pressed from behind by means of a ram and a follower pad.
 Since the chamber is closed on all sides, the heated material is forced to squeeze through
the die-opening in the form of a long strip of the required cross-section.
Forward or direct extrusion process
 The process looks simple but the friction between the material and the chamber walls
must be overcome by suitable lubrication.
 When extruding steel products, the high temperature to which the steel has to be heated
makes it difficult to find a suitable lubricant.
 The problem is solved by using molten glass as a lubricant. When lower temperatures
are used, a mixture of oil and graphite is used as a lubricant.
 At the end of the extrusion process, a small piece of metal is left behind in the chamber
which cannot be extruded. This piece is called butt—end scrap and is thrown away.
 To manufacture a tubular rod, a mandrel of diameter equal to that of tube—bore is
attached to the ram.
 This mandrel passes centrally through the die when the material is extruded.
 The outside diameter of the tube produced will be determined by the hole in the die and
the bore of tube will be equal to mandrel diameter.
 The extrusion process will then called “tubular extrusion”.
Backward or indirect extrusion:
 The block of heated metal is inserted into the
container/chamber.
 It is confined on all sides by the container walls
except in front; where a ram with the die presses
upon the material.
 As the ram presses backwards, the material has to
flow forwards through the opening in the die.
 The ram is made hollow so that the bar of extruded
metal may pass through it.
 This process is called backward extrusion process as
the flow of material is in a direction opposite to the
movement of the ram.
 The limitation of backward extrusion are that the
surface defects of the billet would end up in the final
product unlike direct extrusion where these are
discarded in the extrusion container.
Hydrostatic extrusion
 In this process, the chamber is filled with a fluid that transmits the pressure to the billet,
which is then extruded through the die.
 There is no friction along the walls of the container. Because the billet is subjected to
uniform hydrostatic pressure, it does not upset to fill the bore of the container as it
would in conventional extrusion.
 This means that the billet may have a large length to diameter ratio (even coils of wires
can be extruded) or it may have an irregular cross section.
Hydrostatic extrusion
 Because of the pressurized fluid, lubrication is very effective, and the extruded product
has good surface finish and dimensional accuracy.
 Since friction is nearly absent, it is possible to use dies with very low semicone angle
which greatly minimizes the redundant deformation.
 The only limitation with this process is the practical limit of fluid pressure that may be
used because of the constraint involving the strength of the container and the requirement
that the fluid does not solidify at high pressure.
Impact extrusion
 It is a form of indirect extrusion and is particularly suitable for hollow shapes.
 It is usually performed on a high-speed mechanical press.
 The punch descends at a high speed and strikes the blank, extruding it upwards.
 The thickness of the extruded tubular section is a function of the clearance between the
punch and the die cavity.
 Although the process is performed cold, considerable heating results from the high-
speed deformation.
 Impact extrusion is restricted to softer metals such as lead, tin, aluminum and copper.
Cold extrusion forging
 This process is the combination of forging and extrusion.
 This is generally similar to the impact extrusion process; but there are two
differences:
 1. In this process the punch descends slowly, and
 2. The height of extruded product is short and the side walls are much thicker than
the thin walled products produced by the impact extrusion process.
 The component is ejected by means of the ejector pin provided in the die.
 In essence, this process is one of backward extrusion.
Metal Extrusion Die
 Metal extrusion die, used in manufacturing extruded sections, must have
certain mechanical characteristics.
 Extrusion die must be strong and hard, capable of holding their dimensional
accuracy throughout the high stresses created during the manufacturing
process.
 They must also be resistant to wear, which is always an issue when extruding
metal in large quantities.
 Dies for hot extrusion must have high thermal resistance and be able to
maintain strength and hardness at elevated temperatures.
 Tool steels are a common type of material for metal extrusion molds.
Extruding dies may be coated to increase wear resistance.
 Carbides are sometimes used for a mold material, carbides do not wear easy
and can provide accurate part dimensions.
Metal Extrusion Die
 Extrusion die angle is an important factor in the manufacturing process, as it
is a large determinant in the flow of material.
 The amount of force necessary to form a certain cross section will vary with
different die angles.
 A lower angle will create more friction at the work-die interface.
 Friction is a factor that increases the force necessary to extrude a part.
 High die angles create more material movement, particularly in the outer
regions away from the center.
 The greater metal displacement gives a greater turbulence in the metal flow.
 Increased turbulence in the flow also increases the amount of force necessary
for the operation.
 All factors must be calculated in the design of a metal extrusion process.
Effect of Die angle
• The optimum die angle will balance out the more extreme friction of lower die
angles with the more extreme turbulence of higher die angles, and be somewhere
between the two extremes.
• The exact optimum die angle is difficult to determine for any metal extrusion
process due to the influence of other operational factors, such as temperature and
lubrication.
• The manufacturing engineer must try to provide the best angle based on all the
considerations of a given operation.
 Rolling
 Rolling is the process of reducing the thickness or changing the cross section of a long
workpiece by compressive forces applied through a set of rolls.
 It is the plastic deformation of materials caused by compressive force.
 Mostly, rolling is done at high temperature, called hot rolling because of requirement of
large deformations. Hot rolling results in residual stress-free product. However, scaling is
a major problem, due to which dimensional accuracy is not maintained.
 Cold rolling of sheets, foils etc., is gaining importance, due to high accuracy and lack of
oxide scaling. Cold rolling also strengthens the product due to work hardening.
Cold Rolling
Hot Rolling
Rolling
 Rolling is one of the most important industrial metal forming operations. Hot
Rolling is employed for breaking the ingots down into wrought products such as into
blooms and billets, which are subsequently rolled to other products like plates,
sheets etc.
 Steel ingot is the cast metal with porosity and blowholes. The ingot is soaked at the
hot rolling temperature of 1200oC and then rolled into blooms or billets or slabs.
 Bloom has a square cross section, with area more than 230 cm2. A slab, also from
ingot, has rectangular cross-section, with area of at least 100 cm2 and width at least
three times the thickness. A billet is rolled out of bloom, has at least 40 mm X 40
mm cross-section.
 Blooms are used for rolling structural products such as I-sections, channels, rails etc.
Billets are rolled into bars, rods. Bars and rods are raw materials for extrusion,
drawing, forging, machining etc. Slabs are meant for rolling sheets, strips, plates etc.
Types of Rolling Mills
 Two high rolling mill
 Three- high rolling mills or triple roll
 Four- high rolling mills or 4 high rolling mill
 Cluster mills
 Planetary rolling mill
 Tandem mills
 Universal rolling mill.
Two high rolling mill
 It consists of two heavy horizontal rolls and which is mounted one over the other.
Both the rolls are supported with bearing housed in sturdy upright side frame
called stands.
 The rollers rotate in opposite direction for desire movement of work piece. Work
piece is feed between the rollers which apply a compressive force and tends to
plastically deform work piece and convert it into desire shape.
 Two high rolling mill
 This machine can further classified into two types.
 The first one is two high non reversible machine in
which the rollers can rotate in only one direction (Either
clockwise or anticlockwise) and thus work piece can
feed only in one direction (Either left to right or right to
left).
 One big problem arises in this machine is that every time
the work piece carried back over the front side of mill to
feed again for reduction in thickness.
 The other one is two high reversible machine in which
both the rollers can be rotate in both directions.
 In this machine no need to carry work piece at front side.
We have to just change the direction of rotation of rollers
to again pass the work piece through rollers for decrease
thickness.
Three high rolling mills
 This type of rolling mill consist three rollers arrange parallel to each other. In this
machine the middle roller rotate in opposite direction of other two rollers. This
machine is used to reduce two times thickness in one pass. In this machine, the
work piece is feed between bottom and middle roller in one direction and top and
middle rollers in opposite direction. This machine can handle two work pieces in
single run.
Four high rolling mills
 These machine consist of four rollers (two small and two big). These rollers are
arranged as shown in figure. Small rollers are in direct contact with work piece
and rotate in opposite direction. Big rollers works as backup rolls and they also
rotates in opposite direction with each other and also with contact roller. This
machine is used for cold rolling where high rigidity required.
 The larger diameters of rolls are called back- up rolls and prevents the deflection
of smaller rolls. Which give thickening of roll plates or sheet at center due to
deflection of rods.
Cluster mill (or) Sendzimir mill
 The cluster mills consist of two working rolls with small diameter and four
or more backup roll with larger diameter.
 By using cluster mill, very thin sheets can be rolled to very close on a mill
with small diameter work rolls.
 Foil is always rolled on cluster mills since the small thickness requires small-
diameter rolls.
Cluster mill (or) Sendzimir mill
 The sendzimir mill is a modification of the cluster mill with 20 rolls. which
is very well adapted to rolling thin sheets or foil from high-strength alloys.
 Hard materials, including stainless steels, titanium alloys and nickel alloys
may be rolled in these mills.
Tandem rolling mill or continuous rolling mill
 It is a modern rolling mills and the rolling is done by one pass. The rolling is
done in several passes for traditional several stands and reduction that take
place successive roll.
 The tandem mills consist of number of non- reverse roll mill arranged in one
after other as shown in figure.
Tandem rolling mill
 The work metals are passed through the roll. Successfully the stands are
rotated very fast than that of preceding rolls in order to accommodate. The
length of metal would be increased during rolled. That is rapid production
because of the metal pass one stand to another stand for continuously until it
reaches the final passes.
Planetary rolling mill
 Here the large roll has very small rolls located along the circumference.
 The arrangement looks like planets on the rolls. Hence, the name planetary
mill.
 In fact the small rolls come in contact with the work piece and the big roll act
as back up roll.
 Higher reduction of the order 25:1 is possible in one pass.
Planetary rolling mill
 Each planetary roll gives constant reduction. It is used to reduce large thickness
in single pass of steel strip. Its rolling capacity is more than cluster machine but
less than tandem rolling machine.
 The materials commonly hot rolled are aluminium, copper, magnesium, their
alloys and many grades of steel.
 The typical parts produced by hot rolling are automobile rear axles, gear shift
levers, connecting rods, leaf springs and blanks for eyebolts and aluminium
propellers.
Universal rolling mill
 The universal rolling mill consists of two vertical rolls and two horizontal
rolls. The vertical rolls are idle and are arranged between the bearing chocks
of the horizontal rolls in the vertical plane. Universal rolling mills are used
for producing blooms from ingots and for rolling wide-flange H-section
beams.
Flat rolling and its analysis
 Flat rolling is illustrated in Fig. It involves the rolling of slabs, strips, sheets, and
plates workparts of rectangular cross section in which the width is greater than the
thickness.
 In flat rolling, the work is squeezed between two rolls so that its thickness is
reduced by an amount called the draft.

 Where d = draft, mm (in); ho= starting thickness, mm (in); and hf= final thickness,
mm (in). R = roll radius in mm and (α) = bite angle in degree.
 Draft is sometimes expressed as a fraction of the starting stock thickness, called
the reduction.
 Reduction, r = d/ ho
Flat rolling
 Vo and Vf are the entering and exiting velocities of the work.
 The surface speed of the rolls is Vr the velocity of the strip increases from its entry value
of VO as it moves through the roll gap; the velocity of the strip is highest at the exit from
the roll gap and is denoted as Vf.
 Because the surface speed of the rigid roll is constant, there is relative sliding between the
roll and the strip along the arc of contact in the roll gap, L.
 At one point along the contact length (called the neutral point or no-slip point) the
velocity of the strip is the same as that of the roll. To the left of this point, the roll moves
faster than the strip; to the right of this point, the strip moves faster than the roll.
Flat rolling
 To the left of neutral point, the roll moves faster than the strip; to the right of this
point, the strip moves faster than the roll.
 Consequently, the frictional forces-which oppose motion between two sliding
bodies-act on the strip as shown above.
 On either side of this point, slipping and friction occur between roll and work.
 The amount of slip between the rolls and the work can be measured by means of
the forward slip, a term used in rolling that is defined:
 S = (Vf - Vr ) / Vr
 Where S = forward slip; Vf = final (exiting) work velocity, m/s (ft/sec); and Vr =
roll speed, m/s (ft/sec).
 The maximum possible draft is defined as in equation below; it can be shown that
this quantity is a function of the roll radius, R, and the coefficient of friction, μ,
between the strip and the roll by the following relationship: dmax = μ2R
Flat rolling
 Thus, as expected, the higher the friction and the larger the roll radius, the greater
the maximum possible draft becomes.
 Note that this situation is similar to the use of large tyres (high R) and rough
treads (high, μ.) on farm tractors and off-road earthmoving equipment, thus
permitting the vehicles to travel over rough terrain without skidding.
 Coefficient of friction in rolling depends on lubrication, work material, and
working temperature.
 In cold rolling, the value is around 0.1; in warm working, a typical value is
around 0.2; and in hot rolling, is around 0.4.
 Hot rolling is often characterized by a condition called sticking, in which the hot
work surface adheres to the rolls over the contact arc. This condition often occurs
in the rolling of steels and high-temperature alloys. When sticking occurs, the
coefficient of friction can be as high as 0.7.
Shape rolling
Shape rolling Operations
Ring Rolling
Ring Rolling
Ring Rolling
Thread rolling
Thread rolling
Thread rolling