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Address Space
An address space is the total number of addresses used by the protocol. If a protocol uses N
bits to
define an address, the address space is
2N because each bit can have two different values and N bits can have 2N values.
IPv4 uses 32-bit address , which means that the address space is 2^32

Differentiate between IPv4 and IPv6 on the basis of length and security
IPV4 IPV6

IPv4 has a 32-bit address length, which includes

IPv6 addresses are 128 bits long i.e. It consists of
4 octets (i.e., 4 fields, each containing 1 octet of
8 fields, and each field contains 2 octets.
8 bits).

IPv4 is a numeric address that consists of 4 fields IPv6 is an alphanumeric address that consists of
which are separated by dot (.). 8 fields, which are separated by colon.

IPv4 has 5 different classes of IP address that

includes Class A, Class B, Class C, Class D, and IPv6 does not contain classes of IP addresses.
Class E.

IPv4 does not provide any mandatory security IPv6 provides, integrated Internet Protocol
measures, and it depends on the application Security {IPSec} over different levels of the
being used. network architecture.

IPv4 has a limited number of IP addresses. IPv6 has a large number of IP addresses.

It generates 4 billion unique addresses It generates 340 undecillion unique addresses.

IPv4 headers range from 20 to 60 bytes IPv6 headers are fixed at 40 bytes.

IPv6 supports auto-configuration (SLAAC) and

IPv4 supports manual configuration and DHCP DHCPv6.

Fragmentation is handled by both sender and Fragmentation is handled only by the sender in
forwarding routers in IPv4. IPv6.

State the four advantages of IPv6.

Larger Address Space: Provides an almost unlimited number of IP addresses.

Improved Security: Includes built-in features to keep data secure.

Simplified Header Format: Makes data processing faster and more efficient.

Autoconfiguration: Automatically assigns IP addresses without extra setup.

No Need for NAT: Reduces complexity by not requiring address translation.

Improved Mobile Device Support: IPv6 connects mobile devices more smoothly.

Enhanced QoS(Quality of Service) Support: IPv6 better prioritizes important internet

traffic.

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 Better Multicast and Anycast: More efficiently handles data for multiple destinations.

State the concept of fragmentation in IPv4./ What is fragmentation(2M)

Fragmentation in IPv4 is the process of breaking down a large packet into smaller pieces to fit
the MTU(Maximum Transition Unit) of a network link.
Each fragment contains enough information to be reassembled into the original packet by the
receiving system.

Draw and label sketch of IPv4 packet format.

Explain Classful Addressing Mechanism.(4m)

Classful IP addressing was the original method used to allocate IP addresses in IPv4
networks.

It divides the address space into five classes (A, B, C, D, and E) based on the leading bits of
the address.

This system was used before the introduction of CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing)
and is now largely obsolete(outdated), but it remains important for understanding the
evolution of IP addressing.

Structure of IPv4 Addresses

IPv4 addresses are 32-bit numbers, typically represented in dotted decimal notation (e.g.,
192.168.1.1).

In classful addressing, the address space is divided into fixed-length blocks, each block
assigned to a specific class.

IPV4 address Network

Address Range Leading Bits Host Portion Use Case
classes Portion

Class A 0-127 0 First 8 bits Last 24 bits Large networks

with many

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 IPV4 address Network
Address Range Leading Bits Host Portion Use Case
classes Portion
hosts

Medium-sized
Class B 128-191 10 First 16 bits Last 16 bits
networks

Small networks
Class C 191-223 110 First 24 bits Last 8 bits with fewer
hosts

Multicast
Class D 224-239 1110 N/A N/A
groups

Experimental or
Class E 240-255 1111 N/A N/A Future
purposes

Explain Network Address Translation(4M)

NAT translates local IP addresses into global IP addresses and vice versa to provide
Internet access.

It also changes port numbers in packets to manage and route traffic.

This process is typically handled by a router or firewall.

NAT maintains a table to keep track of IP address and port number translations.

It helps conserve public IP addresses and enhances security by hiding internal IP

addresses.

For external access to internal services, NAT requires additional configuration like port
forwarding.

NAT can complicate certain protocols and applications (e.g., VoIP) that embed IP
information in data payloads.

NAT is less common with IPv6 due to its larger address space but may still be used in
specific scenarios.

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 Explain ICMP protocol. Describe the header format of ICMP
The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) supports the unreliable and connectionless
Internet Protocol (IP). ICMP messages are encapsulated in IP datagrams.

There are two categories of ICMP messages: error-reporting and query messages.
The error-reporting messages report problems that a router or a host (destination) may
encounter when it processes an IP packet.

The query messages, which occur in pairs, help a host or a network manager get specific
information from a router or another host.
The checksum for ICMP is calculated using both the header and the data fields of the ICMP
message.

There are several tools that can be used in the Internet for debugging. We can find if a host or
router is alive and running. Two of these tools are ping and traceroute.

Header Format:

An ICMP message has an 8-byte header and a variable-size data section. Although the general
format of the header is different for each message type, the first 4 bytes are common to all.

As Figure shows,
The first field, ICMP type, defines the type of the message.

The code field specifies the reason for the particular message type.

The last common field is the checksum field for checking errors.

The rest of the header is specific for each message type.

The data section in error messages carries information for finding the original packet that
had the error.

In query messages, the data section carries extra information based on the type of the
query

List types of ICMPv4 messages.

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 Error Reporting Message Query Messages

03 Destination Unreachable 00 Echo Reply

04 Source Quench 08 Echo Request

05 Redirection 13 Timestamp Request

11 Time Exceeded 14 Timestamp Reply

12 Parameter Problem

etc

Information Request (Type 15)

Information Reply (Type 16)

Address Mask Request (Type 17)

Address Mask Reply (Type 18)

What is Mobile IP? List and explain components of Mobile IP.

Mobile IP is a communication protocol that extends the Internet Protocol (IP) to support
seamless mobility. It allows users
to move between different networks while retaining the same IP address. This ensures that
ongoing communication
sessions and connections are maintained without interruption, even as the user’s device
changes its network location.

Components of mobile IP :

Mobile Node (MN):

It is a device such as a laptop, PDA, or cell phone.

It moves between different networks and maintains its network connection with the help of
Mobile IP software.

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 Home Agent (HA):

It is a router located on the network where the mobile node originally connects (its home
network)
It manages the mobile node's IP address and updates its location (current network).
Sends data packets to the mobile node even if it's not on its home network.

Foreign Agent (FA):

It is a router on the network where the mobile node is temporarily connected (visited network).
it uses the mobile node’s current care-of address to receive and forward packets from the
home agent to the mobile node.
It can act as the default gateway and offer additional services, like security, on the visited
network.

Correspondent Node (CN):

It is any device or server that communicates with the mobile node.
It sends and receives data from the mobile node, whether it’s a stationary server or another
mobile device.(e.g., web server).

State any three phases of mobile IP.

Agent Discovery:

The mobile node broadcasts or multicasts to discover available Home and Foreign Agents.

Foreign Agents (and optionally Home Agents) respond with advertisements containing their
addresses.

Selection: The mobile node selects a Foreign Agent or directly configures its care-of
address.

2. Registration:

The mobile node sends a registration request to the Home Agent, possibly via the Foreign
Agent, including its care-of address.

The Home Agent authenticates the registration request to ensure it's from the legitimate
mobile node.

The Home Agent updates its records and replies to the mobile node with the status of the
registration.

3. Tunneling:

The Home Agent encapsulates packets destined for the mobile node in a tunnel.

Encapsulated packets are forwarded to the mobile node’s care-of address through the
tunnel.

At the care-of address, the packet is decapsulated and delivered to the mobile node.

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 For the address 24.46.8.95 identify the type of network and find the
network address

For the IP addresses given below

1. Identify the classes to which the following IP address belongs to

2. Identify network address sections

3. Identify host address section

4. Calculate number of hosts that can be assigned with each

network
i. 22.34.45.133
ii. 12.12.12.12
iii. 192.0.233.26
iv. 126.123.16.87

Describe the sub-network address if the destination address is

200.45.34.56 and the subnet mask is 255.255.240.0

For the IP address given below :

(i) 132.34.45.133
(ii) 14.142.20.20
(iii) 191.0.200.45

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 (iv) 129.16.123.85
(A) Identify the classes to which the following IP numbers belong to ?
(B) Identify network address section.
(C) Identify host address section.

For the IP addresses given below :

(1) Identify the classes to which the IP address belongs to
(2) Identify network address section
(3) Identify host address section
(4) Calculate number of hosts that can be assigned with each network
(i) 122.34.45.133
(ii) 12.12.12.12
(iii) 192.10.233.26

For the IPV4 addresses given below, calculate subnet mask, broadcast
address
and number of hosts possible.
(i) 10.0.199.237/22
(ii) 192.168.14.87/26

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