Viscosity

The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of

its resistance to deformation at a given
rate. For liquids, it corresponds to the
informal concept of "thickness": for
example, syrup has a higher viscosity
than water.[1]
 Viscosity

A simulation of liquids with different

viscosities. The liquid on the right has
higher viscosity than the liquid on the left

Common symbols η, μ
Derivations from μ = G·t
other quantities

Viscosity can be conceptualized as

quantifying the internal frictional force
that arises between adjacent layers of
fluid that are in relative motion. For
instance, when a viscous fluid is forced
through a tube, it flows more quickly near
the tube's axis than near its walls. In such
a case, experiments show that some
stress (such as a pressure difference
between the two ends of the tube) is
needed to sustain the flow through the
tube. This is because a force is required
to overcome the friction between the
layers of the fluid which are in relative
motion. So for a tube with a constant
rate of flow, the strength of the
compensating force is proportional to
the fluid's viscosity.
A fluid that has no resistance to shear
stress is known as an ideal or inviscid
fluid. Zero viscosity is observed only at
very low temperatures in superfluids.
Otherwise, the second law of
thermodynamics requires all fluids to
have positive viscosity;[2][3] such fluids
are technically said to be viscous or
viscid. A fluid with a high viscosity, such
as pitch, may appear to be a solid.

Etymology
The word "viscosity" is derived from the
Latin viscum ("mistletoe"). Viscum also
referred to a viscous glue derived from
mistletoe berries.[4]
Definition

Simple definition …

Illustration of a planar Couette flow. Since the

shearing flow is opposed by friction between
adjacent layers of fluid (which are in relative
motion), a force is required to sustain the motion of
the upper plate. The relative strength of this force is
a measure of the fluid's viscosity.
In a general parallel flow, the shear stress is
proportional to the gradient of the velocity.

In materials science and engineering, one

is often interested in understanding the
forces or stresses involved in the
deformation of a material. For instance, if
the material were a simple spring, the
answer would be given by Hooke's law,
which says that the force experienced by
a spring is proportional to the distance
displaced from equilibrium. Stresses
which can be attributed to the
deformation of a material from some
rest state are called elastic stresses. In
other materials, stresses are present
which can be attributed to the rate of
change of the deformation over time.
These are called viscous stresses. For
instance, in a fluid such as water the
stresses which arise from shearing the
fluid do not depend on the distance the
fluid has been sheared; rather, they
depend on how quickly the shearing
occurs.

Viscosity is the material property which

relates the viscous stresses in a material
to the rate of change of a deformation
(the strain rate). Although it applies to
general flows, it is easy to visualize and
define in a simple shearing flow, such as
a planar Couette flow.

In the Couette flow, a fluid is trapped

between two infinitely large plates, one
fixed and one in parallel motion at
constant speed (see illustration to the
right). If the speed of the top plate is low
enough (to avoid turbulence), then in
steady state the fluid particles move
parallel to it, and their speed varies from
at the bottom to at the top.[5] Each
layer of fluid moves faster than the one
just below it, and friction between them
gives rise to a force resisting their
relative motion. In particular, the fluid
applies on the top plate a force in the
direction opposite to its motion, and an
equal but opposite force on the bottom
plate. An external force is therefore
required in order to keep the top plate
moving at constant speed.

In many fluids, the flow velocity is

observed to vary linearly from zero at the
bottom to at the top. Moreover, the
magnitude of the force acting on the
top plate is found to be proportional to
the speed and the area of each
plate, and inversely proportional to their
separation :
The proportionality factor is the
dynamic viscosity of the fluid, with units
of (pascal-second), often simply
referred to as the viscosity. The ratio
is called the rate of shear deformation or
shear velocity, and is the derivative of the
fluid speed in the direction perpendicular
to the plates (see illustrations to the
right). If the velocity does not vary
linearly with , then the appropriate
generalization is:

where , and is the

local shear velocity. This expression is
referred to as Newton's law of viscosity.
In shearing flows with planar symmetry, it
is what defines . It is a special case of
the general definition of viscosity (see
below), which can be expressed in
coordinate-free form.

Use of the Greek letter mu ( ) for the

dynamic viscosity (sometimes also
called the absolute viscosity) is common
among mechanical and chemical
engineers, as well as mathematicians
and physicists.[6][7][8] However, the Greek
letter eta ( ) is also used by chemists,
physicists, and the IUPAC.[9] The
viscosity is sometimes also called the
shear viscosity. However, at least one
author discourages the use of this
terminology, noting that can appear in
nonshearing flows in addition to shearing
flows.[10]

General definition …

In very general terms, the viscous

stresses in a fluid are defined as those
resulting from the relative velocity of
different fluid particles. As such, the
viscous stresses must depend on spatial
gradients of the flow velocity. If the
velocity gradients are small, then to a
first approximation the viscous stresses
depend only on the first derivatives of the
velocity.[11] (For Newtonian fluids, this is
also a linear dependence.) In Cartesian
coordinates, the general relationship can
then be written as

where is a viscosity tensor that

maps the velocity gradient tensor
onto the viscous stress tensor
.[12] Since the indices in this
expression can vary from 1 to 3, there are
81 "viscosity coefficients" in total.
However, assuming that the viscosity
rank-4 tensor is isotropic reduces these
81 coefficients to three independent
parameters , , :
and furthermore, it is assumed that no
viscous forces may arise when the fluid
is undergoing simple rigid-body rotation,
thus , leaving only two
independent parameters.[11] The most
usual decomposition is in terms of the
standard (scalar) viscosity and the
bulk viscosity such that
and . In vector notation this
appears as:

where is the unit tensor, and the dagger

denotes the transpose.[10][13] This
equation can be thought of as a
generalized form of Newton's law of
viscosity.

The bulk viscosity (also called volume

viscosity) expresses a type of internal
friction that resists the shearless
compression or expansion of a fluid.
Knowledge of is frequently not
necessary in fluid dynamics problems.
For example, an incompressible fluid
satisfies and so the term
containing drops out. Moreover, is
often assumed to be negligible for gases
since it is in a monatomic ideal gas.[10]
One situation in which can be
important is the calculation of energy
loss in sound and shock waves,
described by Stokes' law of sound
attenuation, since these phenomena
involve rapid expansions and
compressions.

It is worth emphasizing that the above

expressions are not fundamental laws of
nature, but rather definitions of viscosity.
As such, their utility for any given
material, as well as means for measuring
or calculating the viscosity, must be
established using separate means.

Kinematic viscosity …

In fluid dynamics, it is sometimes more

convenient to work in terms of the
kinematic viscosity (sometimes also
called the momentum diffusivity), defined
as the ratio of the viscosity μ to the
density of the fluid ρ. It is usually
denoted by the Greek letter nu (ν) and
has dimension :

in order to distinguish it from the

dynamic viscosity , which has
dimension .

Momentum transport
Transport theory provides an alternative
interpretation of viscosity in terms of
momentum transport: viscosity is the
material property which characterizes
momentum transport within a fluid, just
as thermal conductivity characterizes
heat transport, and (mass) diffusivity
characterizes mass transport.[14] To see
this, note that in Newton's law of
viscosity, , the shear
stress has units equivalent to a
momentum flux, i.e. momentum per unit
time per unit area. Thus, can be
interpreted as specifying the flow of
momentum in the direction from one
fluid layer to the next. Per Newton's law
of viscosity, this momentum flow occurs
across a velocity gradient, and the
magnitude of the corresponding
momentum flux is determined by the
viscosity.

The analogy with heat and mass transfer

can be made explicit. Just as heat flows
from high temperature to low
temperature and mass flows from high
density to low density, momentum flows
from high velocity to low velocity. These
behaviors are all described by compact
expressions, called constitutive relations,
whose one-dimensional forms are given
here:
where is the density, and are the
mass and heat fluxes, and and are
the mass diffusivity and thermal
conductivity.[15] The fact that mass,
momentum, and energy (heat) transport
are among the most relevant processes
in continuum mechanics is not a
coincidence: these are among the few
physical quantities that are conserved at
the microscopic level in interparticle
collisions. Thus, rather than being
dictated by the fast and complex
microscopic interaction timescale, their
dynamics occurs on macroscopic
timescales, as described by the various
equations of transport theory and
hydrodynamics.

Newtonian and non-

Newtonian fluids

Viscosity, the slope of each line, varies among

materials
materials.

Newton's law of viscosity is not a

fundamental law of nature, but rather a
constitutive equation (like Hooke's law,
Fick's law, and Ohm's law) which serves
to define the viscosity . Its form is
motivated by experiments which show
that for a wide range of fluids, is
independent of strain rate. Such fluids
are called Newtonian. Gases, water, and
many common liquids can be considered
Newtonian in ordinary conditions and
contexts. However, there are many non-
Newtonian fluids that significantly
deviate from this behavior. For example:
Shear-thickening liquids, whose
viscosity increases with the rate of
shear strain.
Shear-thinning liquids, whose viscosity
decreases with the rate of shear strain.
Thixotropic liquids, that become less
viscous over time when shaken,
agitated, or otherwise stressed.
Rheopectic (dilatant) liquids, that
become more viscous over time when
shaken, agitated, or otherwise
stressed.
Bingham plastics that behave as a
solid at low stresses but flow as a
viscous fluid at high stresses.
Trouton's ratio is the ratio of extensional
viscosity to shear viscosity. For a
Newtonian fluid, the Trouton ratio is
3.[16][17] Shear-thinning liquids are very
commonly, but misleadingly, described
as thixotropic.[18]

Even for a Newtonian fluid, the viscosity

usually depends on its composition and
temperature. For gases and other
compressible fluids, it depends on
temperature and varies very slowly with
pressure. The viscosity of some fluids
may depend on other factors. A
magnetorheological fluid, for example,
becomes thicker when subjected to a
magnetic field, possibly to the point of
behaving like a solid.

In solids
The viscous forces that arise during fluid
flow must not be confused with the
elastic forces that arise in a solid in
response to shear, compression or
extension stresses. While in the latter the
stress is proportional to the amount of
shear deformation, in a fluid it is
proportional to the rate of deformation
over time. For this reason, Maxwell used
the term fugitive elasticity for fluid
viscosity.
However, many liquids (including water)
will briefly react like elastic solids when
subjected to sudden stress. Conversely,
many "solids" (even granite) will flow like
liquids, albeit very slowly, even under
arbitrarily small stress.[19] Such materials
are therefore best described as
possessing both elasticity (reaction to
deformation) and viscosity (reaction to
rate of deformation); that is, being
viscoelastic.

Viscoelastic solids may exhibit both

shear viscosity and bulk viscosity. The
extensional viscosity is a linear
combination of the shear and bulk
viscosities that describes the reaction of
a solid elastic material to elongation. It is
widely used for characterizing polymers.

In geology, earth materials that exhibit

viscous deformation at least three orders
of magnitude greater than their elastic
deformation are sometimes called
rheids.[20]

Measurement
Viscosity is measured with various types
of viscometers and rheometers. A
rheometer is used for fluids that cannot
be defined by a single value of viscosity
and therefore require more parameters to
be set and measured than is the case for
a viscometer. Close temperature control
of the fluid is essential to obtain accurate
measurements, particularly in materials
like lubricants, whose viscosity can
double with a change of only 5 °C.[21]

For some fluids, the viscosity is constant

over a wide range of shear rates
(Newtonian fluids). The fluids without a
constant viscosity (non-Newtonian
fluids) cannot be described by a single
number. Non-Newtonian fluids exhibit a
variety of different correlations between
shear stress and shear rate.

One of the most common instruments

for measuring kinematic viscosity is the
glass capillary viscometer.
In coating industries, viscosity may be
measured with a cup in which the efflux
time is measured. There are several sorts
of cup – such as the Zahn cup and the
Ford viscosity cup – with the usage of
each type varying mainly according to
the industry. The efflux time can also be
converted to kinematic viscosities
(centistokes, cSt) through the conversion
equations.

Also used in coatings, a Stormer

viscometer uses load-based rotation in
order to determine viscosity. The
viscosity is reported in Krebs units (KU),
which are unique to Stormer
viscometers.
Vibrating viscometers can also be used
to measure viscosity. Resonant, or
vibrational viscometers work by creating
shear waves within the liquid. In this
method, the sensor is submerged in the
fluid and is made to resonate at a
specific frequency. As the surface of the
sensor shears through the liquid, energy
is lost due to its viscosity. This
dissipated energy is then measured and
converted into a viscosity reading. A
higher viscosity causes a greater loss of
energy.

Extensional viscosity can be measured

with various rheometers that apply
extensional stress.
Volume viscosity can be measured with
an acoustic rheometer.

Apparent viscosity is a calculation

derived from tests performed on drilling
fluid used in oil or gas well development.
These calculations and tests help
engineers develop and maintain the
properties of the drilling fluid to the
specifications required.

Nanoviscosity (viscosity sensed by

nanoprobes) can be measured by
Fluorescence correlation
spectroscopy.[22]

Units
The SI unit of dynamic viscosity is the
newton-second per square meter
(N·s/m2), also frequently expressed in
the equivalent forms pascal-second
(Pa·s) and kilogram per meter per
second (kg·m−1·s−1). The CGS unit is the
poise (P, or g·cm−1·s−1 = 0.1 Pa·s),[23]
named after Jean Léonard Marie
Poiseuille. It is commonly expressed,
particularly in ASTM standards, as
centipoise (cP), because it is more
convenient (for instance the viscosity of
water at 20 °C is about 1 cP), and one
centipoise is equal to the SI millipascal
second (mPa·s).
The SI unit of kinematic viscosity is
square meter per second (m2/s),
whereas the CGS unit for kinematic
viscosity is the stokes (St, or cm2·s−1 =
0.0001 m2·s−1), named after Sir George
Gabriel Stokes.[24] In U.S. usage, stoke is
sometimes used as the singular form.
The submultiple centistokes (cSt) is often
used instead, 1 cSt = 1 mm2·s−1 =
10−6 m2·s−1. The kinematic viscosity of
water at 20 °C is about 1 cSt.

The most frequently used systems of US

customary, or Imperial, units are the
British Gravitational (BG) and English
Engineering (EE). In the BG system,
dynamic viscosity has units of pound-
seconds per square foot (lb·s/ft2), and in
the EE system it has units of pound-force-
seconds per square foot (lbf·s/ft2). Note
that the pound and pound-force are
equivalent; the two systems differ only in
how force and mass are defined. In the
BG system the pound is a basic unit from
which the unit of mass (the slug) is
defined by Newton's Second Law,
whereas in the EE system the units of
force and mass (the pound-force and
pound-mass respectively) are defined
independently through the Second Law
using the proportionality constant gc.

Kinematic viscosity has units of square

feet per second (ft2/s) in both the BG and
EE systems.

Nonstandard units include the reyn, a

British unit of dynamic viscosity. In the
automotive industry the viscosity index is
used to describe the change of viscosity
with temperature.

The reciprocal of viscosity is fluidity,

usually symbolized by or
, depending on the convention
used, measured in reciprocal poise (P−1,
or cm·s·g−1), sometimes called the rhe.
Fluidity is seldom used in engineering
practice.

At one time the petroleum industry relied

on measuring kinematic viscosity by
means of the Saybolt viscometer, and
expressing kinematic viscosity in units of
Saybolt universal seconds (SUS).[25]
Other abbreviations such as SSU (Saybolt
seconds universal) or SUV (Saybolt
universal viscosity) are sometimes used.
Kinematic viscosity in centistokes can be
converted from SUS according to the
arithmetic and the reference table
provided in ASTM D 2161.

Molecular origins
In general, the viscosity of a system
depends in detail on how the molecules
constituting the system interact. There
are no simple but correct expressions for
the viscosity of a fluid. The simplest
exact expressions are the Green–Kubo
relations for the linear shear viscosity or
the transient time correlation function
expressions derived by Evans and
Morriss in 1988.[26] Although these
expressions are each exact, calculating
the viscosity of a dense fluid using these
relations currently requires the use of
molecular dynamics computer
simulations. On the other hand, much
more progress can be made for a dilute
gas. Even elementary assumptions about
how gas molecules move and interact
lead to a basic understanding of the
molecular origins of viscosity. More
sophisticated treatments can be
constructed by systematically coarse-
graining the equations of motion of the
gas molecules. An example of such a
treatment is Chapman–Enskog theory,
which derives expressions for the
viscosity of a dilute gas from the
Boltzmann equation.[27]

Momentum transport in gases is

generally mediated by discrete molecular
collisions, and in liquids by attractive
forces which bind molecules close
together.[14] Because of this, the dynamic
viscosities of liquids are typically much
larger than those of gases.

Pure gases …
Elementary calculation of viscosity for
a dilute gas

Consider a dilute gas moving parallel

to the -axis with velocity that
depends only on the coordinate. To
simplify the discussion, the gas is
assumed to have uniform temperature
and density.

Under these assumptions, the

velocity of a molecule passing through
is equal to whatever velocity
that molecule had when its mean free
path began. Because is typically
small compared with macroscopic
scales, the average velocity of such
a molecule has the form
where is a numerical constant on
the order of . (Some authors estimate
;[14][28] on the other hand, a
more careful calculation for rigid
elastic spheres gives .)
Now, because half the molecules on
either side are moving towards ,
and doing so on average with half the
average molecular speed
, the momentum flux
from either side is
 The net momentum flux at is
the difference of the two:

According to the definition of viscosity,

this momentum flux should be equal

to , which leads to

Viscosity in gases arises principally from

the molecular diffusion that transports
momentum between layers of flow. An
elementary calculation for a dilute gas at
temperature and density gives
where is the Boltzmann constant,
the molecular mass, and a numerical
constant on the order of . The quantity
, the mean free path, measures the
average distance a molecule travels
between collisions. Even without a priori
knowledge of , this expression has
interesting implications. In particular,
since is typically inversely proportional
to density and increases with
temperature, itself should increase
with temperature and be independent of
density at fixed temperature. In fact, both
of these predictions persist in more
sophisticated treatments, and accurately
describe experimental observations.
Note that this behavior runs counter to
common intuition regarding liquids, for
which viscosity typically decreases with
temperature.[14][28]

For rigid elastic spheres of diameter ,

can be computed, giving

In this case is independent of

temperature, so . For more
complicated molecular models, however,
depends on temperature in a non-trivial
way, and simple kinetic arguments as
used here are inadequate. More
fundamentally, the notion of a mean free
path becomes imprecise for particles
that interact over a finite range, which
limits the usefulness of the concept for
describing real-world gases.[29]

Chapman–Enskog theory …

A technique developed by Sydney

Chapman and David Enskog in the early
1900s allows a more refined calculation
of .[27] It is based on the Boltzmann
equation, which provides a systematic
statistical description of a dilute gas in
terms of intermolecular interactions.[30]
As such, their technique allows accurate
calculation of for more realistic
molecular models, such as those
incorporating intermolecular attraction
rather than just hard-core repulsion.

It turns out that a more realistic modeling

of interactions is essential for accurate
prediction of the temperature
dependence of , which experiments
show increases more rapidly than the
trend predicted for rigid elastic
spheres.[14] Indeed, the Chapman–
Enskog analysis shows that the
predicted temperature dependence can
be tuned by varying the parameters in
various molecular models. A simple
example is the Sutherland model,[a]
which describes rigid elastic spheres
with weak mutual attraction. In such a
case, the attractive force can be treated
perturbatively, which leads to a
particularly simple expression for :

where is independent of temperature,

being determined only by the parameters
of the intermolecular attraction. To
connect with experiment, it is convenient
to rewrite as

where is the viscosity at temperature

.[31] If is known from experiments at
and at least one other
temperature, then can be calculated. It
turns out that expressions for obtained
in this way are accurate for a number of
gases over a sizable range of
temperatures. On the other hand,
Chapman & Cowling 1970 argue that this
success does not imply that molecules
actually interact according to the
Sutherland model. Rather, they interpret
the prediction for as a simple
interpolation which is valid for some
gases over fixed ranges of temperature,
but otherwise does not provide a picture
of intermolecular interactions which is
fundamentally correct and general.
Slightly more sophisticated models, such
as the Lennard-Jones potential, may
provide a better picture, but only at the
cost of a more opaque dependence on
temperature. In some systems the
assumption of spherical symmetry must
be abandoned as well, as is the case for
vapors with highly polar molecules like
H2O.[32][33]

Bulk viscosity …

In the kinetic-molecular picture, a non-

zero bulk viscosity arises in gases
whenever there are non-negligible
relaxational timescales governing the
exchange of energy between the
translational energy of molecules and
their internal energy, e.g. rotational and
vibrational. As such, the bulk viscosity is
 for a monatomic ideal gas, in which the
internal energy of molecules in negligible,
but is nonzero for a gas like carbon
dioxide, whose molecules possess both
rotational and vibrational energy.[34][35]

Pure liquids …

Play media
Video showing three liquids with different
viscosities
Play media
Experiment showing the behavior of a viscous fluid
with blue dye for visibility

In contrast with gases, there is no simple

yet accurate picture for the molecular
origins of viscosity in liquids.

At the simplest level of description, the

relative motion of adjacent layers in a
liquid is opposed primarily by attractive
molecular forces acting across the layer
boundary. In this picture, one (correctly)
expects viscosity to decrease with
increasing temperature. This is because
increasing temperature increases the
random thermal motion of the molecules,
which makes it easier for them to
overcome their attractive interactions.[36]

Building on this visualization, a simple

theory can be constructed in analogy
with the discrete structure of a solid:
groups of molecules in a liquid are
visualized as forming "cages" which
surround and enclose single
molecules.[37] These cages can be
occupied or unoccupied, and stronger
molecular attraction corresponds to
stronger cages. Due to random thermal
motion, a molecule "hops" between
cages at a rate which varies inversely
with the strength of molecular
attractions. In equilibrium these "hops"
are not biased in any direction. On the
other hand, in order for two adjacent
layers to move relative to each other, the
"hops" must be biased in the direction of
the relative motion. The force required to
sustain this directed motion can be
estimated for a given shear rate, leading
to

(1)

where is the Avogadro constant, is

the Planck constant, is the volume of a
mole of liquid, and is the normal
boiling point. This result has the same
form as the widespread and accurate
empirical relation

(2)

where and are constants fit from

data.[37][38] On the other hand, several
authors express caution with respect to
this model. Errors as large as 30% can be
encountered using equation (1),
compared with fitting equation (2) to
experimental data.[37] More
fundamentally, the physical assumptions
underlying equation (1) have been
criticized.[39] It has also been argued that
the exponential dependence in equation
(1) does not necessarily describe
experimental observations more
accurately than simpler, non-exponential
expressions.[40][41]

In light of these shortcomings, the

development of a less ad hoc model is a
matter of practical interest. Foregoing
simplicity in favor of precision, it is
possible to write rigorous expressions for
viscosity starting from the fundamental
equations of motion for molecules. A
classic example of this approach is
Irving–Kirkwood theory.[42] On the other
hand, such expressions are given as
averages over multiparticle correlation
functions and are therefore difficult to
apply in practice.
In general, empirically derived
expressions (based on existing viscosity
measurements) appear to be the only
consistently reliable means of
calculating viscosity in liquids.[43]

Mixtures and blends …

Gaseous mixtures …

The same molecular-kinetic picture of a

single component gas can also be
applied to a gaseous mixture. For
instance, in the Chapman–Enskog
approach the viscosity of a binary
mixture of gases can be written in terms
of the individual component viscosities
 , their respective volume fractions,
and the intermolecular interactions.[27]
As for the single-component gas, the
dependence of on the parameters
of the intermolecular interactions enters
through various collisional integrals
which may not be expressible in terms of
elementary functions. To obtain usable
expressions for which reasonably
match experimental data, the collisional
integrals typically must be evaluated
using some combination of analytic
calculation and empirical fitting. An
example of such a procedure is the
Sutherland approach for the single-
component gas, discussed above.
Blends of liquids …

As for pure liquids, the viscosity of a

blend of liquids is difficult to predict from
molecular principles. One method is to
extend the molecular "cage" theory
presented above for a pure liquid. This
can be done with varying levels of
sophistication. One useful expression
resulting from such an analysis is the
Lederer–Roegiers equation for a binary
mixture:

where is an empirical parameter, and

and are the respective mole
fractions and viscosities of the
component liquids.[44]

Since blending is an important process in

the lubricating and oil industries, a variety
of empirical and propriety equations
exist for predicting the viscosity of a
blend, besides those stemming directly
from molecular theory.[44]

Solutions and suspensions …

Aqeuous solutions …

Depending on the solute and range of

concentration, an aqueous electrolyte
solution can have either a larger or
smaller viscosity compared with pure
water at the same temperature and
pressure. For instance, a 20% saline
(sodium chloride) solution has viscosity
over 1.5 times that of pure water,
whereas a 20% potassium iodide
solution has viscosity about 0.91 times
that of pure water.

An idealized model of dilute electrolytic

solutions leads to the following
prediction for the viscosity of a
solution:[45]

where is the viscosity of the solvent,

is the concentration, and is a positive
constant which depends on both solvent
and solute properties. However, this
expression is only valid for very dilute
solutions, having less than
0.1 mol/L.[46] For higher concentrations,
additional terms are necessary which
account for higher-order molecular
correlations:

where and are fit from data. In

particular, a negative value of is able
to account for the decrease in viscosity
observed in some solutions. Estimated
values of these constants are shown
below for sodium chloride and
potassium iodide at temperature 25 °C
(mol = mole, L = liter).[45]

Solute (mol−1/2 L1/2) (mol−1 L) (mol−2 L2)

Sodium chloride (NaCl) 0.0062 0.0793 0.0080

Potassium iodide (KI) 0.0047 −0.0755 0.0000

Suspensions …

In a suspension of solid particles (e.g.

micron-size spheres suspended in oil), an
effective viscosity can be defined in
terms of stress and strain components
which are averaged over a volume large
compared with the distance between the
suspended particles, but small with
respect to macroscopic dimensions.[47]
Such suspensions generally exhibit non-
Newtonian behavior. However, for dilute
systems in steady flows, the behavior is
Newtonian and expressions for can
be derived directly from the particle
dynamics. In a very dilute system, with
volume fraction , interactions
between the suspended particles can be
ignored. In such a case one can explicitly
calculate the flow field around each
particle independently, and combine the
results to obtain . For spheres, this
results in the Einstein equation:

where is the viscosity of the

suspending liquid. The linear
dependence on is a direct
consequence of neglecting interparticle
interactions; in general, one will have

where the coefficient may depend on

the particle shape (e.g. spheres, rods,
disks).[48] Experimental determination of
the precise value of is difficult,
however: even the prediction
for spheres has not been conclusively
validated, with various experiments
finding values in the range
. This deficiency has been attributed to
difficulty in controlling experimental
conditions.[49]
In denser suspensions, acquires a
nonlinear dependence on , which
indicates the importance of interparticle
interactions. Various analytical and semi-
empirical schemes exist for capturing
this regime. At the most basic level, a
term quadratic in is added to :

and the coefficient is fit from

experimental data or approximated from
the microscopic theory. In general,
however, one should be cautious in
applying such simple formulas since
non-Newtonian behavior appears in
dense suspensions ( for
spheres),[49] or in suspensions of
elongated or flexible particles.[47]

There is a distinction between a

suspension of solid particles, described
above, and an emulsion. The latter is a
suspension of tiny droplets, which
themselves may exhibit internal
circulation. The presence of internal
circulation can noticeably decrease the
observed effective viscosity, and
different theoretical or semi-empirical
models must be used.[50]

Amorphous materials …
Common glass viscosity curves[51]

In the high and low temperature limits,

viscous flow in amorphous materials
(e.g. in glasses and melts)[52][53][54] has
the Arrhenius form:

where Q is a relevant activation energy,

given in terms of molecular parameters;
T is temperature; R is the molar gas
constant; and A is approximately a
constant. The activation energy Q takes
a different value depending on whether
the high or low temperature limit is being
considered: it changes from a high value
QH at low temperatures (in the glassy
state) to a low value QL at high
temperatures (in the liquid state).

Common logarithm of viscosity against temperature

for B2O3, showing two regimes

For intermediate temperatures, varies

nontrivially with temperature and the
simple Arrhenius form fails. On the other
hand, the two-exponential equation

where , , , are all constants,

provides a good fit to experimental data
over the entire range of temperatures,
while at the same time reducing to the
correct Arrhenius form in the low and
high temperature limits. Besides being a
convenient fit to data, the expression can
also be derived from various theoretical
models of amorphous materials at the
atomic level.[53]
A two-exponential equation for the
viscosity can be derived within the Dyre
shoving model of supercooled liquids,
where the Arrhenius energy barrier is
identified with the high-frequency shear
modulus times a characteristic shoving
volume.[55] Upon specifying the
temperature dependence of the shear
modulus via thermal expansion and via
the repulsive part of the intermolecular
potential, another two-exponential
equation is retrieved:[56]

where denotes the high-frequency

shear modulus of the material evaluated
at a temperature equal to the glass
transition temperature , is the so-
called shoving volume, i.e. it is the
characteristic volume of the group of
atoms involved in the shoving event by
which an atom/molecule escapes from
the cage of nearest-neighbours, typically
on the order of the volume occupied by
few atoms. Furthermore, is the
thermal expansion coefficient of the
material, is a parameter which
measures the steepness of the power-
law rise of the ascending flank of the first
peak of the radial distribution function,
and is quantitatively related to the
repulsive part of the interatomic
potential.[56] Finally, denotes the
Boltzmann constant.

Eddy viscosity …

In the study of turbulence in fluids, a

common practical strategy is to ignore
the small-scale vortices (or eddies) in the
motion and to calculate a large-scale
motion with an effective viscosity, called
the "eddy viscosity", which characterizes
the transport and dissipation of energy in
the smaller-scale flow (see large eddy
simulation).[57][58] In contrast to the
viscosity of the fluid itself, which must be
positive by the second law of
thermodynamics, the eddy viscosity can
be negative.[59][60]

Selected substances

In the University of Queensland pitch drop

experiment, pitch has been dripping slowly through
a funnel since 1927, at a rate of one drop roughly
every decade. In this way the viscosity of pitch has
been determined to be approximately 230 billion
(2.3 × 1011) times that of water.[61]
Observed values of viscosity vary over
several orders of magnitude, even for
common substances (see the order of
magnitude table below). For instance, a
70% sucrose (sugar) solution has a
viscosity over 400 times that of water,
and 26000 times that of air.[62] More
dramatically, pitch has been estimated to
have a viscosity 230 billion times that of
water.[61]

Water …

The dynamic viscosity of water is

about 0.89 mPa·s at room temperature
(25 °C). As a function of temperature in
kelvins, the viscosity can be estimated
using the semi-empirical Vogel-Fulcher-
Tammann equation:

where A = 0.02939 mPa·s, B = 507.88 K,

and C = 149.3 K.[63] Experimentally
determined values of the viscosity are
also given in the table below. Note that at
20 °C the dynamic viscosity is about 1 cP
and the kinematic viscosity is about
1 cSt.
Viscosity of water
at various temperatures[62]
Temperature (°C) Viscosity (mPa·s or cP)

10 1.3059

20 1.0016

30 0.79722

50 0.54652

70 0.40355

90 0.31417

Air …

Under standard atmospheric conditions

(25 °C and pressure of 1 bar), the
dynamic viscosity of air is 18.5 μPa·s,
roughly 50 times smaller than the
viscosity of water at the same
temperature. Except at very high
pressure, the viscosity of air depends
mostly on the temperature. Among the
many possible approximate formulas for
the temperature dependence (see
Temperature dependence of viscosity),
one is:[64]

which is accurate in the range -20 °C to

400 °C. For this formula to be valid, the
temperature must be given in kelvins;
then corresponds to the viscosity in
Pa·s.

Honey being drizzled

Other common substances …

Substance Viscosity (mPa·s) Temperature (°C) Ref.

Benzene 0.604 25

Water 1.0016 20 [62]

Mercury 1.526 25

Whole milk 2.12 20 [65]

[66]
Dark beer 2.53 20

Olive oil 56.2 26 [65]

Honey 2000–10000 20 [67]

Ketchup[b] 5000–20000 25 [68]

Peanut butter[b] 104–106 [69]

Pitch 2.3 × 1011 10–30 (variable) [61]

Order of magnitude estimates …

The following table illustrates the range

of viscosity values observed in common
substances. Unless otherwise noted, a
temperature of 25 °C and a pressure of 1
atmosphere are assumed. Certain
substances of variable composition or
with non-Newtonian behavior are not
assigned precise values, since in these
cases viscosity depends on additional
factors besides temperature and
pressure.
Factor (Pa·s) Description Examples Values (Pa·s) Ref.

Butane 7.49 × 10−6 [70]

10−6 Lower range of gaseous viscosity
Hydrogen 8.8 × 10−6 [71]

Krypton 2.538 × 10−5

−5 [72]
10 Upper range of gaseous viscosity
Neon 3.175 × 10−5

Pentane 2.24 × 10−4 [62]

10−4 Lower range of liquid viscosity Gasoline 6 × 10−4

Water 8.90 × 10−4

Ethanol 1.074 × 10−3 [62]

Typical range for small-molecule Mercury 1.526 × 10−3

−3
10
Newtonian liquids Whole milk (20 °C) 2.12 × 10−3 [65]

Blood 4 × 10−3

Linseed oil 0.028

Olive oil 0.084 [65]

SAE 10 Motor oil 0.085 to 0.14

Castor oil 0.1

10−2 – 100 Oils and long-chain hydrocarbons SAE 20 Motor oil 0.14 to 0.42

SAE 30 Motor oil 0.42 to 0.65

SAE 40 Motor oil 0.65 to 0.90

Glycerine 1.5

Pancake syrup 2.5

Ketchup [68]
≈ 101
Mustard
Pastes, gels, and other semisolids
101 – 103 Sour cream
(generally non-Newtonian) ≈ 102
Peanut butter [69]

Lard ≈ 103

≈108 Viscoelastic polymers Pitch 2.3 × 108 [61]

Certain solids under a viscoelastic

≈1021 Mantle (geology) ≈ 1019 to 1024 [73]
description
See also
Dashpot
Deborah number
Dilatant
Herschel–Bulkley fluid
Hyperviscosity syndrome
Intrinsic viscosity
Inviscid flow
Joback method (estimation of liquid
viscosity from molecular structure)
Kaye effect
Microviscosity
Morton number
Oil pressure
 Quasi-solid
Rheology
Stokes flow
Superfluid helium-4
Viscoplasticity
Viscosity models for mixtures

References

Footnotes …

a. The discussion which follows draws from

Chapman & Cowling 1970, pp. 232–237
b. These materials are highly non-
Newtonian.

Citations …

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