HISTORY OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN

(Hist. 1012)

WEL-COME TO LEARN THIS INTERESTING

COURSE
 UNIT ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1. The Nature and Uses/values of History
A. The Nature of History
The term history derived from a Greek word Istoria, meaning “inquiry” or
“an account of one’s inquiries.”
The first use of the term history is attributed to one of the ancient Greek
historians called Herodotus (c. 484–425 B.C.E.) who was also called “ the
Father of history”.
It is the study of human experiences and events happened in the past,
either recorded or not recorded by historians.
More specifically, the distinction in history is between what actually
happened in the past or part which exists independently of the historian
and still awaits to be recorded, and the accounts of the past provided by
historians,
The purpose of historical study is not simply to produce a mere list of
chronological events about the deeds of the dead/past but to find patterns and
establish meaning through the rigorous study and interpretation of surviving
records.
It is the cumulative life experiences of a society, a period and a country’s past.
The major concern of history is the study of human society and its interaction
with the natural environment, which is also the subject of study by many other
disciplines.
There is difference b/n history from other disciplines;
Other disciplines study the interaction between humans and their environment
in their present state, while
History studies the interaction between humans and their immediate
environment in the past within the framework of the continuous process of
change and continuity taking place in time. Therefore, historians have no
direct relation with past events, except connecting them through sources by
using it as a bridge.
History can be defined as;
All things or events that have been happened in the past.
Academically, it is an organized and systematic study of the
past events or facts.
As a discipline, it is the study of past events that involves the
discovery, collection, evaluation, organization, and presentation
of information about past events. Because, Historians apply
their expertise to surviving records and artifacts to write history
in the form of accounts of the past.
 A branch of social sciences, a science and an art.
A discipline that helps us to learn from past mistakes and from
other human past experiences.
Because of the longevity of time in human history, historians organize and
divide the human past into distinct periods called periodization, after
identifying significant developments in politics, society, economy, culture,
environment etc through the rigorous study of documents and artifacts left
behind by peoples of other times and other places..
In the study of history, for the sake of its systematic organization or
arrangements, historians involve/use periodization which is one of the key
characteristics of the discipline.
In Periodization, history is conventionally divided into Pre-historic period and
the Period of history. The dividing line b/n them is the exploration of the
Technique of writing around 6000 B.P.
Further more, the period of Pre-history is divided in to Stone age, Bronze age,
and Iron age. Where as, the Period of History is divided in to the ancient,
medieval and modern periods history.
When historians talk about continuities or persisting patterns, they are not
implying that a particular pattern applied to everyone in the world or even in
a particular country or region.
 Continuity and changes are very important ideas in history.
With regard to changes all aspects of human life that is, social, cultural, economic, and
political in the past have been changing from time to time; and none of them were
practiced in exactly the same way in the lifetime of our ancestors. Nevertheless, some
things stay more or less the same for long periods, since few things ever change
completely.
Continuity: When we are talking about continuity, it is about the continuation of the past
in the present. For example, we continue to speak the languages of our ancestors; follow
their beliefs and religious practices; wear the costumes they were wearing; continue to
practice their agricultural or pastoral ways of life; maintain the fundamental components
or structures of their social organizations and cultural values.

B. The Uses/values of History:

The study of History is essential to individuals and the society. The following are the
uses of history in the context of the relationship between the past and the present
i. It Helps us Better Understand the the Present:
•Knowledge of relevant historical background is essential for a balanced and in-depth
understanding of many past and current world situations in order to be rational.
•It is also difficult to understand problems that face humanity and society today without
tracing their origins in the past.
ii. It Provides us a Sense of Identity:
• Knowledge of history helps us to understand who we are and where we fit in
the world.
• It is only through sense of history that communities define their identity,
orient themselves, and understand their relationships with the past and with
other societies.
iii. It Provides us the Basic Background for Other Disciplines: Historical
knowledge is extremely valuable in the pursuit of other disciplines such as
literature, art, philosophy, religion, sociology, political science, anthropology,
economics, archaeology, architecture etc.
iv. It Teaches us Critical Skills:
• Studying history helps students to develop key research skills. These
include how to find and evaluate sources; how to make coherent arguments
based on various kinds of evidences and present clearly in writing.
• Gaining analytical and communication skills is usable in sorting through
diverse interpretations that is also
essential to make informed decisions in our day-to-day life.
v. It Helps us to Develop Tolerance and Open-Mindedness: By
studying the valuable past history, students of history acquire broad
perspectives that give them the wider range mental setup and
flexibility required in many life situations.

vi. It Supplies us with Endless Source of Fascination/attraction:

Exploring the ways people in distant ages constructed their lives
offers a sense of beauty, enthusiasm and excitement, and ultimately
positive perspective on human life and society.

vii. It also that helps us to learn from past mistakes and from many
other human past experiences.
1.2. Sources and Methods of Historical Study
History should be studied, because it is essential to individuals and the society to
understand their own past, including others’.
Aesthetic and humanistic goals also inspire people to study the past, which are far
removed from present-day utility.
That is, the past is described and interpreted to justify the present.
While personal biases are not always avoidable, a historian is different from a
propagandist who use it for his own/group’s advantages or for political
consumption.
Nevertheless, just as history can be useful, it can also be abused. Such abuses
come mainly from deliberate manipulation of the past to fit the current political
agenda. That is, the past is described and interpreted to justify the present.
Historians study and interpret the past and the changes that took place in periods
during which they did not live only by using reliable sources of evidences.
The Sources of History

Sources are instruments/bridges that bring past events to life, and connect us with what
have been happened, or to past events and facts.
Historians are not creative/fiction writers like poetries and novelists. Therefore, the work of
historians must be supported by evidences arising from sources.
Historical sources are broadly classified in to two types:
i. Primary sources
Primary sources are surviving traces of the past available to us in the present.
They are original or first hand oral, written or physically existing sources.
Their originality can be seen in terms of their proximity to the event under investigation
both in terms of time and space/place.
They are more reliable and authentic sources than secondary sources.
Examples of primary sources are manuscripts (handwritten materials), diaries, letters,
minutes, court records and administrative files, travel documents, photographs, maps,
video and audiovisual materials, and artifacts such as coins, fossils, weapons, utensils, and
buildings etc.
ii. Secondary sources.
They are second-hand or none-original sources such as published and
unpublished written accounts prepared based on primary or secondary
sources, none eye witness oral sources about past events etc.
They are written long after the event has been occurred, providing an
interpretation of what happened, why it happened/, and how it
happened?, often based on primary sources.
Examples of secondary sources are articles in Journals, history books,
textbooks, biographies, and published stories or movies about
historical events produced by none- contemporary individuals/none-
participants by using data from primary sources.
Secondary sources have to be examined for the reliability of their
reconstructions. Nevertheless, no history work can be taken as final, as
new sources keep coming to light. New sources make possible new
historical interpretations or entirely new historical reconstructions.
Oral Data / sources ( also called Oral tradition):
It Can be used as either Primary source ( if it is eye witness data) or Secondary source (if it
is none-eye witness data).
They are valuable especially to study and document the history of non-literate or illiterate
societies.
They can also be used to fill missing gaps and corroborate or verify written words.
In many societies, people transmit information from one generation to another orally, for
example, through story telling, legends, folk songs and folk sayings. This type of oral data is
called oral tradition.
Oral data may lose its originality and authenticity due to distortion through time,
misconception and deliberate exaggerations. Therefore, it should be crosschecked with
other sources such as written documents to determine its veracity or authenticity.
To sum up, historians (unlike novelists) must find and use evidences from reliable sources
about the past, ask questions of that evidence, and come up with explanations that make
sense of what the evidence says about the people, events, places and time periods they
study about.
1.3. Historiography of Ethiopia and the Horn
Historiography: Historiography can be defined as the history of historical writing or the history of history,
means studying how knowledge of the past, either recent or distant time, is obtained and transmitted in
written form.
It explores changes in historical interpretations and writings through time.
1.3.1. The Evolution of historiography
An organized study and narration of the past events was first introduced by ancient Greek historians
notably by Herodotus (c. 484–425 B.C.) and Thucydides (c.455-400 B.C.)
The other major tradition of thinking and writing about the past is the Chinese. The most important early
figure in Chinese historical thought and writing was the Han dynasty figure Sima Qian (145–86 B.C.).
Despite such early historiographical traditions, history emerged as an academic discipline in the second half
of the nineteenth century first in Europe specially in Germany and subsequently in other parts of the world
including in the US.
The German historian, Leopold Von Ranke (1795–1886), and his colleagues established history as an
independent discipline in Berlin with its own set of methods and concepts by which historians collect
evidence of past events, evaluate that evidence, and present a meaningful discussion or explanation of the
subject.
Ranke’s greatest contribution to the scientific study of the past gave him a chance to be considered as the
“father of modern historiography.”
1.3.2. Historiography of Ethiopia and the Horn
Historiography of Ethiopia and the Horn has been changed enormously during the past hundred and thousands of
years. This is about its evolution.
i) The Earliest Written References by foreign sailors
The earliest known reference that we have on the history of Ethiopia and the Horn is the Periplus of the Erythrean
Sea, written in the first century A.D by an anonymous/unknown visitor author. It tells us about the early period of
Aksumite state.
Another written document was The Inscription of Adulis written in Greek language about unknown king which
was translated and published in Cosmas Indicopleustes’ book called the Christian Topography
That Inscription describing Aksum’s trade and the then Aksumite king’s campaigns on both sides of the Red sea to
the Arabian land and its neighbors . Later on translated and published in Cosmas book is called the Christian
Topography composed by Cosmas Indicopleustes, a Greek sailor visited northern Ethiopia, in the sixth century A.D.
ii. Inscriptions (የተቀረጸ ጹፍ በድንጋይ ወይም በሌላ ቁስ ላይ) are engraved written sources on rocks’ surfaces or tablets. The earliest
written Ethiopian material dates from the seventh century A.D. The document was found in Abba Gerima monastery
in Yeha ( south east of outside Aksum).
iii. Manuscripts: (ጥንታዊ ያልታተመ የእጅ ጹፍ መረጃ) There are large number of manuscripts discovered in Ethiopia. This was
followed by a manuscript ( hand written document) discovered in Haiq Istifanos monastery of present day Wollo near
Lake Haiq in the thirteenth century A.D.
The value of manuscripts is essentially about religious related issues.
For historians, they have the benefit of providing insights into the country’s past. For example, the manuscript cited
above contains the list of medieval kings and their history in brief.
iv. Hagiographies(ገድለ
ቅዱሳን )
•The largest groups of sources available for medieval Ethiopian history are hagiographies
originating from Ethiopian Orthodox Church. Invariably written in Ge’ez.
•An important function of hagiographies is enhancing the prestige and religious life and
sacrifices of saints.
•A parallel hagiographical tradition existed among Muslim communities of the country. One
such account offers tremendous insight into the life of a Muslim saint, Shaykh Ja’far Bukko of
Gattira, in present day Wollo in the late nineteenth century.

v. Chronicles (ዜና መዋዕል /

የንጉሶች ገድል) Ethiopia had
also an indigenous tradition of history writing called chronicles. Chronicles in the ancient
Ethiopian Ge’ez tongue first appeared in the fourteenth century and continued (sometimes in
Amharic) into the early twentieth century.
•Kings or their successors entrusted/deligated the writing of chronicles to court scribers or
clergymen who had recognized clerical training and calligraphic skills. The earliest and the last
of such surviving documents are the Glorious Victories of Amde-Tsion and the Chronicle of
Abeto Iyasu and Empress Zewditu respectively.
•Chronicles incorporate both legends and facts past and contemporary about the monarch’s
genealogy, upbringing, military exploits, piety/devotion and statesmanship.
•Furthermore, chronicles explain historical events mainly in religious terms; they offer little by
way of social and economic developments even in the environs of the
vi. Written accounts of Arabic-speaking visitors
• Written accounts of Arabic-speaking visitors to the coast of the Ethiopian states
also provided us useful information on various aspects of the region’s history. For
example, al-Masudi and Ibn Battuta described the culture, language and import-
export trade in the main central region of the east African coast in the tenth and
in the fourteenth centuries respectively.
• For the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, we have two documents composed
by Yemeni writers who were eyewitnesses to the events they described. The first
document entitled, Futuh al Habesha was composed by Shihab ad-Din, who
recorded the conflict between the Christian kingdom and the Muslim principalities
under Imam Ahmed Ibn Ibrahim al Ghazi, or Gragn Ahmed in the sixteenth century.
The document describes major towns and their inhabitants in the southeastern
part of Ethiopia, although the discussion abruptly ends in 1535.
• The other Arabic first-hand account was left to us by a person called Al-Haymi
who led a Yemeni’s delegation in 1647 to the court of Fasiledes (r. 1632-67).
 vii. Geez Script of the Medieval period:
Abba Bahrey’s Geez script: Other materials that appeared in the sixteenth century include Abba
Bahrey’s Geez script on the Oromo’s movement and expansion written in 1593. Notwithstanding
its limitations, the document provides us with first-hand information about the Oromo population
movement including the Gadaa System.
viii. The contribution of European missionaries and travelers:
 European missionaries and travelers left behind many written accounts from the 16 to the late
th

19 century were very important to the development of Ethiopian historiography and had
th

significant contribution.

Examples of such accounts are:

A) The Prester John of the Indies, composed by a Portuguese priest, Francisco Alvarez who
accompanied the Portuguese mission to the court of Lebne-Dengel in 1520.
B) James Bruce’s Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile. Travel documents had important
contribution to the development of Ethiopian historiography. One example of travel documents is
James Bruce’s Travels to
Discover the Source of the Nile of the 19 century.
th

However, like many other sources, both the missionaries and travelers’ materials can only be used
with considerable reservations and with special care for they are socially and politically biased.
ix. Foreign writers who developed interest in Ethiopian studies.
The best examples are:
a) Hiob Ludolf ( 1624-1704): A German citizen who was the founder of
Ethiopian studies in Europe in the 17 century.
th

• He wrote Historia Aethiopica (translated into English as A New History of Ethiopia).

• Ludolf never visited Ethiopia, but he wrote the country’s history largely based on
information he collected from an Ethiopian priest named Abba Gorgorios (Abba
Gregory) who was in Europe at that time.

b) Augustin Dillman: In the nineteenth century, he published two studies on ancient

Ethiopian history.
• As compared to Ludolf, the writer called Dillman demonstrated all markers/
indicators of objectivity in his historical research endeavors.

x. The emergence of traditional (or none-professional) Ethiopian writers

(From the early 20 to 1936)
th

They made conscious efforts to departure /separate themselves from chroniclers

whom they criticized for adulatory/praising tone when writing about monarchs.
Unlike chroniclers, these writers dealt with a range of topics from social justice,
administrative reforms and economic analysis to history.
The earliest group of these writers include Aleqa Taye Gebre-Mariam, and Debtera Fisseha-
Giorgis Abyezgi, Aleqa Asme Giorgis etc.
Later on, Negadrases Afework Gebre-Iyesus and Gebre-Hiwot Baykedagn joined them.
Aleqa Taye Gebre-Mariam and Debtera Fisseha-Giorgis wrote books on the history of
Ethiopia while Aleqa Asme Giorgis produced a similar work on the Oromo people.

 Aside his other works, Negaderas Afework Gebra-Iyesus wrote the first Amharic novel,
Tobiya, in Ethiopian history while Gebre-Hiwot wrote Atse Menilekna Ityopia (Emperor
Menilek and Ethiopia) and Mengistna Yehizb Astedader (Government and Public
Administration) to his name.
The most prolific and fruitful writer of the early twentieth century Ethiopia was, Blatten
Geta Hiruy Wolde-Selassie who published four major works namely Ethiopiana Metema
(Ethiopia and Metema), Wazema (Eve), Yehiwot Tarik (A Biographical Dictionary) and
Yeityopia Tarik (A History of Ethiopia). In contrast to their predecessors, Gebre-Hiwot and
Hiruy exhibited relative objectivity and methodological sophistication in their works.
Unfortunately, the 1936 to 1941 Italian occupation of Ethiopia interrupted the early
experiment and development in modern history writing and publications.
xi. The Post- Liberation Period Developments: After the liberation of 1941, many
Ethiopian writers produced and put their contributions
Tekle-Tsadik Mekuria: Tekle-Tsadik Mekuria formed a bridge between writers
in the pre-1935 and the Ethiopian professional historians who came after him.
Tekle-Tsadik has published about eight historical works. He made better
evaluation of his sources than his predecessors.
Yilma Deressa: Another work of importance in this period is Yilma Deressa’s
Ye Ityopiya Tarik Be’asra Sidistegnaw Kifle Zemen(A History of Ethiopia in the
Sixteenth Century). The book addresses the Oromo population movement and
the wars between the Christian kingdom and the Muslim sultanates as its
main subjects.
Blatten Geta Mahteme-Selassie Wolde-Meskel also contributed his share.
Among others, he wrote Zikre Neger which is a comprehensive account of
Ethiopia’s pre-war land tenure systems.
Gebre-Wold Engidawork: Another work dealing specifically with aspects of
land tenure is left to us by him.
Dejazmach Kebede Tesema: Another writer of the same category wrote his
memoir of the imperial period, published as Yetarik Mastawesha in 1962 E.C.
xii. The Development of Professional History Writing/historiography in
Ethiopia since 1960s:
The 1960s was a crucial decade in the development of Ethiopian
historiography for it was in this time History emerged as an academic
discipline in this period.
Historical studies as a full-time occupation began with the opening of the
Department of History in 1963 at the then Haile Selassie I University (HSIU),
or the current AAU.
The production of BA theses began towards the end of the decade. The
Department launched its MA and PhD programs in 1979 and 1990
respectively.
Mainly as a research organization, the launching of Institute of Ethiopian
Studies (IES) in the 1960s is the other institutional home of professional
historiography of Ethiopia.
The IES was founded in 1963. Since then the Institute housed a
number of historians. Of whom the late Richard Pankhurst, the
first Director and founding member of the Institute is worthy of
note here. Pankhurst’s prolific publication record remains
unmatched.

Since its foundation, the IES has been publishing the Journal of
Ethiopian Studies for the dissemination of historical research
knowledges.
The Institute’s library contains literary works of diverse disciplines
and has its fair share in the evolution of professional
historiography of Ethiopia.
1.4. The Geographical Context
The term “Ethiopia and the Horn” refers to the part of Northeast Africa, which
now contains the countries of Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia. It is also
not worthy ignoring the places of Kenya and Sudan in the over all historical
development of this region.
The region is also consists different types of land escapes starting from the
lowest altitude Dalol depression, plainy arid lands to highest mountains,
chiefly of mountains uplifted through the formation of the Great Rift Valley.
The existence of cross boundaries and inland different kinds of water bodies
such as big and small rivers, Seas, lakes etc has its own significant
contribution for the development of interdependent political, social and
economic history.
Peoples across the region are remarkably diverse who speak a vast number of
different languages, believers of many distinct traditional and monotheist
religions, live in various types of dwellings, and engaged in a wide range of
economic activities such as agriculture, trade, pastoralism etc.
The history of Ethiopia and the Horn has been shaped by un interruptible
constant contacts undertaken with each others through commerce,
migrations, expansion, wars, slavery, colonialism, and the waxing and
waning of state systems.
Spatial location in relationship to other spaces and locations in the world
is one geographical factor that has significant bearing on the ways in
which history unfolds. It was clearly happened to the region.
The role of geography in the region’s human history is very significant. In
this regard, it shows that despite the region’s diverse environments,
peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn were never isolated but they interacted
throughout history.
As a result, the social, economic, cultural and political history of Ethiopia
and the Horn is highly intertwined.
Ethiopia and the Horn lies between the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden and Indian
Ocean on the one hand, and the present-day eastern frontiers of Sudan and
northern and eastern Kenya on the other hand.
Since early times, the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden linked Northeast
Africa to the Eastern Mediterranean, the Near and Middle East, India, and
the Far East region in various aspects. Likewise, the Indian Ocean has
linked East Africa to the Near and Middle East, India and the Far East.
Another element of geographical factor that had profound impact on
human history is drainage system.
Thus, Ethiopia and the Horn has five principal drainage systems. These are
i.the Nile River,
ii.Gibe/Omo-Gojeb,
iii. Genale/Jubba-Shebele,
iv. the Awash River, and
v. the Ethiopian Rift Valley Lake systems.
Despite the varied physical environments, the countries of the Horn of
Africa are, for the most part, linguistically and ethnically linked together
through various means in the past hundreds and thousands of years.
Population movements had also caused a continuous process of
interactions creating a very complex picture of settlement patterns, social,
cultural and blood intermixtures.
The high degree of social, economic, political and cultural interactions
undertaken and the long periods’ common history developed by much of
the population had weakened ethnic dividing lines in large parts of the
region. Linguistic and cultural affinities are, therefore, as important as
ethnic origin in the grouping of the population.
For instance, besides their ethnic, social and cultural affinities, there are
large number of Afar language speakers in Eritrea, Ethiopia and Djibouti;
similarly there are large number of Somali language speakers in the
Ogaden/Jigjiga region of Ethiopia and in Somalia, including partially in
Kenya and Djibouti; There are large number of Oromo language speakers in
Ethiopia and Kenya; there are Tigrigna language speakers in Tigray Ethiopia
and Eritrea etc.
 UNIT TWO

PEOPLES AND CULTURES IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN

2.1. Human Evolution
Ethiopia and the Horn Region is referred to as the cradle of humankind. It is also a region
where early civilizations including food production, making tools and religious practices were
initiated..
These developments contributed to the social evolutions, economic formations, and socio-
cultural and political settings.
The earliest life on earth came into being between 3 and 1 billion years B. P.
Blue green algae, small plants, fishes, birds and other small beings emerged at c. 800 million
years B. P.
Primates branched of placental mammal stream as of 200-170 million years B. P. and then
some primates developed into Pongidae (such as gorilla, chimpanzee, orangutan, gibbon etc)
while others evolved into Hominidae (human ancestors).

Hominid is a member of the scientific family made up of human beings and prehistoric
human like creatures.
As opposed to the creationist theory which believes in “God created
human being”, According to the Scientific Evolutionary Theory the two
African apes like creatures such as gorillas and chimpanzees are the
closest living relatives of humans. These species are classified as
members of a different zoological family, often called Pongidae.
They believed that human beings, chimpanzees and gorillas all
developed from a common ancestor that lived between 8 and 5
million years ago.
Biochemical studies of the fossil evidences have told us a great deal
about the relationship between humans and apes.
About 98.5 percent of the genes/genetic factors in people and
chimpanzees are identical, making chimps the closest living
biological relatives of humans. This does not mean that humans
evolved from chimpanzees,
 • The First Humans known as Australopithecines. Such type of human ancestors
appeared around 6 million years ago in Africa, an ape like species had evolved
with two important traits that distinguished it from apes. Specifically,
(1) small canine teeth and
(2) bipedalism- that is walking on two legs as the primary form of locomotion.
Scientists refer to these earliest human species as australopithecines or
Australopithecus for short.
Archeological evidences suggested that East African Rift Valley, mainly Ethiopia
is referred to as the cradle of humanity/human beings.
Evidences of human fossils confirmed it: Evidences related to both biological
and cultural evolution have been discovered in the Lower Omo and Middle
Awash River valleys both by Ethiopians and foreign scholars. For instance,
i. Chororapithecus dated 10 million B. P. was unearthed in Anchar (in West
Hararghe) in 2007.
ii. Ardipithicus ramidus kadabba (dated 5.8-5.2 million years BP) was discovered
in Middle Awash.
iii. Ardipithicus ramidus (dated 4. 2 million B.P.) was discovered at Aramis in
Afar in 1994 A.D.
iv. Other Australopithecines were uncovered at Belohdelie (dated back 3.6
million years B. P.) in Middle Awash.
v. A three years old child’s fossil named as Australopithecus afarensis, Selam,
dated to 3.3 million years B.P was also discovered at Dikika, Mille, Afar in 2000
A.D.
vi. Another Australopithecus afarnesis (Lucy/Dinkinesh, dated c. 3.18 million
years B. P.) with 40% complete body parts, weight 30kg, height 1.07 meters
with a pelvis looks like bipedal female was discovered at Hadar in Afar in 1974
A. D.
vii. Australopithecus anamensis was with big jaws discovered around Lake
Turkana.
viii. An eco-fact named as Australopithecus garhi (means surprise in Afar
language) dated to 2.5 million years B.P was discovered at Bouri, Middle
Awash, between 1996 and 1999.
The development of human brain was the main feature of the next stage of human
evolution, which produced the genus Homo, believed to have emerged from 2 to 2.5
million years B.P.
Fossils of the genus homo have been discovered in different parts of Ethiopia and the
Horn. For instance,
A partial skull of a fossil named Homo habilis, which is derived from Latin terms "
Homo" (human being) and "Habilis" (skillful use of hands), dated 1.9 million years B. P.
has been found in the Lower Omo.
A fossil named Homo erectus (walking in upright position, dated 1. 6 million years B. P.
) was discovered at Melka Kunture, Konso Gardula and Gadeb with 900-1100 cc brain
size were discovered. Homo erectus seems to have originated in Africa and then
spread out to the rest of the world. .
Skeleton of Archaic Homo sapiens (knowledgeable human being, dated 400, 000 years
B.P.) named Bodo with brain size of 1300-1400cc was discovered in Middle Awash.
Fossils of Homo sapiens (100, 000 years B.P.) were discovered at Porc Epic near Dire
Dawa, and Kibish around Lower Omo (in 1967). In 2004, Kibish fossils were re-dated to
195, 000 B. P, the oldest date in the world for modern Homo sapiens.
Homo sapiens idaltu, found in Middle Awash in 1997, lived about 160, 000 years B.P.
Cultural evolution is related to technological changes that brought socio-
economic transformation on human life. It can be conventionally grouped in to three
periods/eras;
i.Stone Age, ( Still it is divided in to three such as Paleolithic or old stone age,
Mesolithic or Middle stone age, and Neolithic or New stone age)
ii.Bronze Age, and
iii.Iron Age.

Stone tools had been the first technologies to be manufactured and developed by
human beings.
By taking their features, ways and period of production, stone tools can be
grouped in to three. Namely:
Mode I (Olduwan, named based on the first report made at Olduvai Gorge,
Tanzania), mainly characterized by crude and mono-facial styes, and were produced
by the direct percussion.
Mode II (Acheulean, named after the first report at St. Acheul, France) and these
tools were produced by indirect percussion, by using hand-ax or hammer, and mainly
characterized by bifacial, pointed and convex features.
Mode III (Sangoon). These stone tools are characterized by flexible and fine form
of production by the use of obsidian.
Examples of the above types of stone tools have been explored and
found in Ethiopia and the Horn. Of them,
Fossilized animal bones (3. 4 million years B. P.) were found with
stone-tool-inflicted marks on them (the oldest evidence of stone tool
in the world) at Dikika in 2010.
Artifact findings suggest that Olduwan tools made and used by
Homo habilis were discovered near Gona (dated 2.52 million years B.P.
in 1992) and at Shungura in Afar.
Homo erectus produced Acheulean tools dated back to 1.7.million
years B.P, invented fire and started burial practice.
Acheulian tools (over a million years old) were found at Kella, Middle
Awash in 1963.
Homo sapiens produced Sangoon tools that trace back up to 300,
000 years B. P. Gademotta site in central Ethiopian Rift Valley has been
dated back to 200, 000 B. P.
Other sites such as Gorgora, Ki’one and Yabello in Ethiopia and
 The period of production system and usage of stone tools is divided into
three sub-periods.
1 . Paleolithic (Old Stone Age, from 3.4 million to 11, 000 years B. P.)
st

•During this period human being sheltered in caves, developed language, and
used stone , bone, wood, furs, and skin materials to prepare food and clothing.
•There was sex-age labor division with able-bodied males as hunters, and
children and females as gatherers.
2 Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age /11, 000-10,000 B. P.)
nd.

•It was transition b/n Paleolithic and Neolithic Age.

3 . Neolithic (New Stone Age 10, 000-6, 000 B.P).
rd

•In this period human beings transformed from mobile to sedentary life.
•Human being changed from hunting and gathering to the domestication of
plants and animals.
•The process of domestication took place independently in the various parts of
the world. In Ethiopia and the Horn chiefly in the more elevated and wetter-
parts, people cultivated plants including Teff (Eragrotis teff), dagussa
(Eleusine coracana), nug (Guzotia abyssinica), enset (Ensete ventricosum) etc.
• The discovery of polished axes, ceramics, grinding stones, beads,
stone figures and animal remains in sites like Emba-Fakeda around
Adigrat in Tigray as well as Aqordat and Barentu in Eritrea evinces the
existence of Neolithic material culture.
• The Gobodara rock shelter near Aksum has provided us neolitic
agricultural stone tools.
• Remains associated with domesticated cattle, chickpeas and
vegetables have been excavated from Lalibela Cave on the
southeastern shoreof Lake Tana.
• Stone tools used for cutting grass and grass like plants as well as
rock paintings of domesticated animals have been found at Laga Oda
rock shelter near Charchar.
• Evidence for domesticated cattle also comes from around Lake
Basaqa near Matahara.
2.3. The Peopling of the Region
2.3.1. Languages and Linguistic Processes
Linguists have classified languages of Africa. According to this classification
more than one thousand languages are spoken in Africa. Some of these
languages have large number of speakers, while others are spoken by relatively
few people.
African languages are generally belong to four superfamilies or proto-languages.
They are called,
i. Afro-Asiatic
ii. Nilo- Saharan
iii. Niger-Congo and
iv. Khoisan super- families.

Among the four super-families, Afro-Asiatic and Nilo-Saharan are spoken in the
Ethiopian region and the Horn of Africa. Afro-Asiatic is the most important in
terms of geographical distribution and speakers size.
African. Afro-Asiatic language family is spoken in northern, central,
northeastern and the Horn of Africa. This super-family has six families.
They are Berber, Chadic, ancient Egyptian, Cushitic, Omotic and Semitic.

While the first three are spoken in northern, central and northeastern
Africa, the remaining three are spoken in Ethiopia and the Horn. These
are Cushitic, Omotic and Semitic.

The languages of Nilo-Saharan super-family are also spoken in Ethiopia.

The majority of the speakers of this languages live in the present
Regional States of Beni-Shangul Gumuz and Gambella, and some in the
southern-western pastoralist communities. Most of them are living in
the hot lowlands and valleys between Ethiopia and the Sudan from
north to south. Therefore, the ethnic and linguistic diversity of the Horn
of Africa is very complex.
 A. Afro-Asiatic: this super family is sub-divided into the following families:
Cushitic: linguists divided this language family into four branches:
i. Northern: is represented by Beja, spoken in northwestern Eritrea bordering the
Sudan.
Ii.Central: Agaw includes Awign, Kunfel, Qimant; Hamtanga and Bilen.
iii. Eastern: this includes diversified linguistic groups like Afar, Ale, Arbore, Baiso,
Burji, Darashe, Dasanech, Gedeo, Hadiya, Halaba, Kambata, Konso, Libido,
Mosiye, Oromo, Saho, Sidama, Somali, Tambaro, Tsemai, etc.
iv. Southern: represented by Dhalo in Kenya and Nbugua in Tanzania.

Semitic: is divided into two:

i. North: Ge'ez, Rashaida (spoken around Eritrea-Sudanese border); Tigre
(spoken
in Eritrean Lowland); Tigrigna (spoken in highland Eritrea and Tigray).
Ii.South: is further divided into two
Transverse semitic: Amharic, Argoba, Harari, Silte, Wolane and Zay.
Outer Semitic: Gafat (extinct), Gurage and Mesmes (endangered)
Omotic: Anfillo, Ari, Banna, Basketo, Bench, Boro-Shinasha, Chara,
Dawuro, Dime, Dizi, Gamo, Gofa, Hamer, Karo, Keficho, Konta, Korete,
Male, Melo, Oyda, Sezo, Shekkacho, Sheko, Wolayta, Yem, Zayse etc.

B. Nilo-Saharan: Anywa, Berta, Gumuz, Kacipo-Balesi, Komo, Kunama,

Kwama, Kwegu, Majang, Mi'en, Murle, Mursi, Nara, Nu’er, Nyangatom,
Opo, Shabo, Suri and Uduk.

Languages classification did not remain static. Factors like

population movements, warfare, trade, religious and territorial
expansion, urbanization etc. have resulted in intense linguistic
processes that forced languages to be affected. In this process,
some languages died out or have been in danger of extinction while
others thrived over time .
2.3.2. Settlement Patterns and Economic Formation
i.Settlement Patterns
Based on historical linguistic and history of inter-peoples relations,
studies indicate that environmental, socio-economic, and political
processes significantly shaped and reshaped the spatial distribution
of peoples in the region.
Since early times, the Cushitic and Semitic peoples had inhabited
the area between the Red Sea in the east and Blue Nile in the west
from where they dispersed to different directions. In due course, the
Cushites have evolved to be the largest linguistic group in Ethiopia
and the Horn and have also spread over wide areas from Sudan to
Tanzania. Similarly, the Semitic peoples spread over large area and
eventually settled the northern, north central, northeastern, south
central and eastern parts of Ethiopia and the Horn. The Semites are
the second majority people next to the Cushite.
Except the Shinasha, who live in Benishangul-Gumuz and the South
 In the west, the Nilotes are largely settled along the Ethiopia-Sudanese border
although some of the Chari-Nile family inhabited as far as southern Omo. The latter
are identified as the Karamojo cluster living around Turkana Lake along Ethio-Kenyan
border.

ii. Economic Formations

The domestication of plants and animals gave humanity two interdependent

modes of life: agriculture and pastoralism.
Topographic features and climatic conditions largely influenced economic activities
in Ethiopia and the Horn.
Pastoral economy namely the production of camel, goat, and cattle has been the
most common economic practice among the Afar, Saho and Somali as well as
Karayu and Borana Oromo. While the Afar and Karrayu have depended on the Awash
River, the Somali have owed a great deal to Wabi Shebelle and Genale (Jubba) Rivers.
sedentary agriculture had been started and advanced at least since 10, 000 years B.
P. by the Cushites, Semites and Omotic groups. The major economic activity of the
Omotic has been
mixed farming and trade in northern Omo while southern Omo have predominantly
practiced pastoralism and fishing. Many of the Omotic groups have also been
In the sparsely populated western lowland region, the dominant economic
formations were pastoralism, shifting agriculture, fishing, apiculture and hunting.
For instance, sorghum, millet, cotton and other crops have been largely
cultivated in the lowlands along Ethio-Sudanese border since antiquity.
The Nilotes along the Blue Nile and Baro-Akobo Rivers have been shifting
cultivators where sorghum has been a staple food. Among majority Nilotic
communities, cattle have high economic and social values.

2.4. Religion and Religious Processes

2.4.1. Indigenous Religion

They are native to the region and have been followed by the local people since
ancient times.
The distinctive feature of indigenous religion is belief in Supreme Being, which
have Spiritual functionaries officiate over rituals, propitiate divinities, and are
held in a lot of respect as intermediaries between the society and spirits.
 The following are some examples of indigenous religions among the region's
population :
i. Waqeffanna of the Oromo is based on the existence of one Supreme Being called
Waqa. Waqa's power is manifested through the spirits called Ayyana.
There is also a belief that the dead exist in the form of a ghost called Ekera in the
surrounding of his/her abode after death, or his/her cemetery (Hujuba). In the
autumn and spring seasons every year at the edge of ever-flowing river and top of
mountain respectively, there is thanks giving festival called Irrecha besides New Year
(Birbo) rite.
Revered experts known as Qallu (male) and Qallitti (female) have maintained link
between the Ayyana and the believers. Qallu's ritual house called galma is located
on hilltop or in the groves of large trees. On Wednesday and Friday nights, there is
Dalaga/ecstasy at which Qallu or Qallitti is possessed by Ayyana so that s/he can
interpret mysteries.

The Jila/Makkala (delegated messengers) used to make pilgrimage to get

consecration of senior Qallu (Abba Muda or
anointment father) until about 1900.
ii. Hadiya the Supreme Being is known as Waa, who is believed to exist before
everything (hundam issancho) or create world (qoccancho) and whose eyes are
represented by elincho (sun) and agana (moon).
Spirits like Jara (male’s protector), Idota (female’s guard), Hausula, Qedane and
Warriqa attracted prayers and sacrifices at Shonkolla and Kallalamo mountains
chosen by Anjancho and Jaramanjcho.
One of Hadiya's clans, Worqimene, is believed to have the power to send rain in
drought. Fandanano (sing. Fandancho) practice is believed to be introduced by either
spiritual leaders, Itto and Albaja from Bimado clan, or Boyamo, father of five Hadiya
clans, and was largely followed by inhabitants of Boshana, Misha etc.

iii. The Kambata have Negita or Aricho Magano/Sky God and religious officials known
as Magnancho.
iv.The Gedeo called the Supreme Being, Mageno and had thanks giving ceremony
called Deraro.
v.The Konso religion is centered on worship of Waaq/Wakh.
vi.The Gojjam Agaw used to call the Supreme Being Diban (Sky God).
vii.Among sections of the Gurage, there have been Waq/Goita (Supreme Being), Bozha
(thunder deity) and Damwamwit (health goddess).
Viii. Yem worshipped Ha’o (Sky God).
ix. The Wolayta called God Tosa and spirit Ayyana including Tawa-Awa /
Moytiliya (father’s spirit), Sawuna (justice spirit), Wombo (rain spirit),
Micho (goat spirit), Nago (sheep spirit), Kuchuruwa (emergency spirit),
Gomashera (war spirit), Talahiya (Beta Talaye or talheya, Omo spirit) etc.

x. The Keficho called Supreme Being as Yero; spirit as Eqo and a person
who hosts Eqo is known as Alamo or eke-nayo. Father of all spirits is dochi
or dehe-tateno and its host is called dochi-nayo or Ibedechino/Ibede-
gudeno (including Arito and Wudia Riti), with residence at Adio. Harvest
spirit is called Kollo and sacrifice to it is dejo.

Xi. The Boro-Shinasha people believe in super natural power called Iqa,
which created everything and presides over the universe. The indigenous
religion elements prescribe praying for the prevention of drought, flooding,
erosion, disease and starvation within the community and their
surrounding environment.
xii. The Nuer believe in Kuoth Nhial (God in Heaven), but believe in the
coming of God through rain, lightning and thunder, and rainbow is necklace
of God. Sun and moon as well as other entities are also manifestation or
sign of God. There are also spirits associated with clan spears names such
as WiW (spirit of war) associated with thunder.
2.4.2. Judaism
Judaism is considered as the expression of the covenant that Yahweh/
Jehovah (God) established with the ancient Hebrew community. Sources
indicate that Judaism has been followed in Ethiopia and the Horn by
peoples before Christianity reached the region. . The Bete-Israel practiced
Haymanot (religious practices, which are generally recognized as Israelite
religion that differs from Rabbinic Judaism).
Some scholars such as Tadese Tamirat and Kay Shelmay argue that the
Bete-Israel are remenants of old testament followers of orthodox
Christianity rather than Jews who migrated from abroad.Whatever the
case, the Jews appear to have been isolated from mainstream Judiac
practice for at least a millennium. The Jews developed and lived for
centuries in northern and northwestern Ethiopia.
2.4.3. Christianity
Orthodox Christianity, as the first monotheist religion was introduced in Ethiopia/
Aksum and became state religion in 334 A.D mainlly during the reign of King Ezana (r.
320-360), who dropped pre-Christian gods like Ares (Hariman/Maharram/war god),
Arwe (serpentpython god), Bahir (sea god) and Midir (earth god), and embraced
Christianity.
Peoples who were Instrumental and responsible for the introduction of Christianity
in Ethiopia and for the conversion of king Ezana first were the Syrian brothers
called Frumentius (Fremnatos) and Aedesius.
Then, when Fremnatos (the later Kasate Birhan or Abba Salama) went to and
visited the Coptic Church of Alexandria in Egypt, Patriarch Atnatewos (328-373) of
the Coptic Church appointed him as the first Bishop of Ethiopian Orthodox Church
(EOC).
From then onwards, Consecration/appointment of bishops to Ethiopia from Coptic
Church in Egypt continued until 1959 until Abune Baslios became the first Ethiopian
Patriarch.
Christianity was further expanded to the mass of the society in the later part of the
fifth century A.D, during the reign of Ella Amida II (478-86) by the Nine Saints arrived
from abroad the Middle East region who translated the Bible and other religious
books
  Here under the names of the Nine Saints are shown in the table below:

Name Origin Church/Monastery Location of the Church

Abuna Aregawwi
Constantinopole Debre Damo Eastern Tigray
(Abba Za Mika’el)
Abuna Isaq (Abba
Constantinopole Debre Gerima Medera (East of Adwa )
Gerima)
Asbo (North East of
Abba Pentelwon Constantinopole Debre Pentelwon
Aksum)
Yeha (Northeast of
Abba Afse Ladocia Debre Afse
Aksum)
Biheza (Northeast of
Abba Alef Qa’esare’a Debre Haleluya
Aksum)
Abba Gubba Cilicia Debre Gubba West of Medera
Abba Liqanos Constantinople Debre Qonasel North of Aksum
Abba Sehama Antioch Tsedania Southeast of Adwa
Abba Yima’ata Qosa’iti Debre Yima’ata Ger’alta
In the 5th century, the arrival of the nine Saints from the eastern
Mediterranean countries of Syria, Lebanon and Cyprus to Aksum had
bought about the following developments:
the translation of Bible from Greek to Geez language,
 the expansion of monasteries and monastic life,
construction of large number of churches,
the development of religious education and literatures, and for its
expansion to the rest of the empire.
Thus, Geez continued to serve as a literary language of Ethiopia
until the second half of the 19th century and
it was also during the Aksumite period Ethiopic numeral system
written in figures were developed.
The expansion of Christianity continued in the Zagwe period
(1150-1270 A.D) and chiefly gained fresh progress during the early
Solomonic state Medieval Period (1270-1527), when many churches
and monasteries were constructed.
Beyond their religious services, they were served as repositories of
ancient manuscripts and precious objects of art. These include:
Rock-hewn churches of Lalibela,
Debra-Bizan of Hamasen in Eritrea;
Debra-Hayiq in Wollo,
Debre-Dima and Debre-Werq in Gojjam;
Debra-Libanos in Shewa,
Birbir Mariam in Gamo and
Debre-Asabot on the way to Harar.
Catholic Christianity: From mid-sixteenth to the early seventeenth
centuries, the Jesuit missionaries tried to convert Monophysite EOC to
Dyophysite Catholic. Yet, this led to bloody conflicts that in turn led to
expulsion of the Jesuits. However, the Jesuits intervention triggered
religious controversies within the EOC.

 Protestant missionaries: In the 19 century, as of 1804, missionaries’

religious expansion also resulted in the conclusion of treaties between
European diplomats and Ethiopian authorities. The Catholic Giuseppe
Sapeto (Lazarist mission founder), Giustino De Jacobis (Capuchin order
founder), Cardinal Massaja, Antoine and Arnauld d'Abbadie were active.
Anglican Church Missionary Society (ACMS), Church Missionary Society
of London (CMSL) and Wesleyan Methodist Society led Protestant
missionaries under such leaders as Samuel Gobat, C.W. Isenberg and J. L.
Krapf. Systematic approach of trained Protestants enabled them to win
confidence of local people.
They translated spiritual books into vernaculars or local languages. They
adopted old names for Supreme Being like Waqayyo, Tosa etc and used
2.4.4. Islam
When Prophet Mohammed had preached Islam in Mecca since 610 AD,
he faced opposition from the Quraysh rulers. Under this circumstance,
the Prophet sent some of his early followers to Aksum including his
daughter Rukiya and her husband Uthman as well as the Prophet's future
wives Umm Habiba and Umm Salma to Aksum .The first group of
refugees was led by Jafar Abu Talib.
In his advice to his followers, the Prophet Mohamed said about
Ethiopia, "…a king under whom none are persecuted. It is a land of
righteousness, where God will give relief from what you are suffering."
Thus, the then Aksumite king, Armah Ella Seham (Ashama b. Abjar or
Ahmed al-Nejash in Arabic sources), gave them asylum from 615-28.
Subsequently, Islam spread to the Horn of Africa largely through
peaceful ways including Islamic traders and teachers. First at Daklak
(Alalay) Islands on the Red Sea at the beginning of 8 century that
developed to Muslim sultanate in the early tenth century/. To the south,
the port of Zeila on western coast of the Gulf of Aden served as an
important gateway for the introduction of Islam to central, southern, and
In this regard, it should be noted that Sheikh Hussein of Bale, a
Muslim saint (Waliy) of medieval period, played very important role
in the expansion of Islam into Bale, Arsi and other southeastern
parts of Ethiopia and the Horn. Thus, another Islamic center in this
region is Sof Umar cave.
Islam was introduced into Somali territories in the 8th century A. D.
through Benadir coasts of Moqadishu, Brava and Merca. Abu Bakr
Ibn Fukura al Din Sahil set up Moqadishu Minirate in c.1269.
The mosques, Islamic learning and pilgrimage centers have been
served as the depositories of cultures, traditions and literatures of
local Muslims.
 UNIT THREE

POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY IN ETHIOPIA AND THE

HORN TO THE END OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY
3.1. Emergence of States
State refers to an autonomous political unit having population, defined territory, sovereignty and
government with the power to decree and enforce laws.
States in Ethiopia and the Horn arose independently in different places and at different times/
periods.
Important factors for the emergence of states were:
the beginning and development of sedentary agriculture and trade that gave rise to class
differentiation and the need for state formation under strong leadership.
the evolution and regular cultural progress. Favorable environmental conditions helped to hasten
the rate of cultural transformation in some regions.
 Religious leaders such as shamans ( spiritualists) played prominent role in maintaining the social
and religious affairs of their people during the initial formation of the states.
As production became market oriented, religious elites were gradually replaced by chiefs, who
began collecting regular and compulsory tributes which amounted to protection payments with
which they maintained themselves, their supporters chiefly the army, the bureaucracy and other
followers
Ethiopia and the Horn is one of the regions in Africa where early state formation
took place, such states gradually developed into powerful kingdoms and even
empires with a well-demarcated social structure.
3.2. Ancient States
3.2.1. North and Northeast
A. Punt
Punt was the earliest recorded state in Ethiopia and the Horn.
The evidence on Punt comes from Egyptian hieroglyphic writings, accompanied
by vivid paintings that describes a series of naval expeditions, which the
Egyptian Pharaohs sent to Punt.
Scholars have not reached agreement on the exact location of Punt. For this
reason, The varieties of incense and myrrh mentioned in the writings of some
scholars have suggested northern or northeastern Somalia while others are
inclined more towards Northern Ethiopia because of the reference to gold, ebony
and monkeys as its export items.
According to the available sources in the Egyptians’ archives and written
documents, Punt had close commercial contacts with ancient Egypt. For
Instance,
Pharaoh Sahure (r. 2743-2731 B.C.) sent expedition to collect myrrh, ebony
and electrum (gold and silver alloy/compound).
During Pharaoh Asosi, treasurer of God Bawardede took dancing dwarf “dink
in Amharic" to Egypt from Punt.
During Queen Hatshepsut (1490-1468 B.C.).The best described and illustrated
expedition was the one undertaken by the order of the famous Egyptian Queen
Hatshepsut expedition is documented at her tomb in Dier El Bahri. She sent
five ships under the leadership of Black Nubian Captain Nehasi via Wadi-
Tumilat. The expedition was warmly welcomed by the Puntites King Perehu,
his wife Ati, their sons, daughters and followers. The expedition was able to
return collecting frank incense, cinnamon, sweet smelling woods (sandal),
spices, ivory, rhinoceros horn, leopard and leopard skins, ostrich’s feathers and
eggs, live monkeys, giraffes, slave people etc. Hatshepsut presented some
parts of the items to her god called Amun.
Iron, bronze, asses, foxes, cattle, animals’ fur, and medicinal plants were
also exported from Punt to Egypt. In return, axes, daggers, swords, knives,
sickles, clothes, bracelets, necklaces, beads and other trinkets were
imported from Egypt to Punt.

B. Da’amat and Other Cultural Centers in Northern Ethiopia and Eritrea

Da’amat had a center little to the south of Aksum.
It was the earlies ancient state in Ethiopia.
Inscription of the king of Da’amat tentatively dated to the fifth century B.C
shows that he used politico-religious title known as Mukarib.
Various gods and goddesses like Almouqah (principal god), Astarr (Venus
god), Na’uran (light god), Shamsi (sun god), and Sin (moon god) were
worshipped in the domain of the Da’amat state and other northern
Ethiopian pre-Aksumite cultural centers.
There were a number of other cultural centers in northern Ethiopia.
The major ones are:
Yeha which was probably emerged around 1, 000 BC while the
climax of its prosperity (zenith) was from about 750 to 500 B.C.
Remains of walls of some of its buildings and stone masonry as well
as still standing temple and inscriptions indicate Yeha’s glory.
Hawulti Melazo: is situated to southeast of Aksum, where stone
tablets that are inscribed in rectangular temple surrounded by a wall
decorated with paintings.
Addi-Seglemeni: is located at 10kms southwest of Aksum, from
where a stone slab/lump is found and the oldest Ethiopian
monumental inscription was discovered there.
Addi Gelemo, Addi Grameten, Addi Kewih, Atsbi Dera, Feqiya, Hinzat, Sefra, Senafe,
Tekonda etc were also other ancient cultural centers of the northern Ethiopian
region.
C. The Aksumite State
The Aksumite state was formed around 200-100 B.C.
It was emerged and developed in the northern part of Ethiopia, at the center of
present-day Aksum.
Initially, its power was limited to a relatively small area comprising the town of
Aksum and its environs. Gradually, however, it expanded to include large territories
in all directions. It includes to the:
 North as far as the Bejas’ territories.
 West to Kunama and Tekeze river.
 Southeast as far as Babel Mandeb and controlled the oldest port on Read Sea
coast called Adulis.
 In Northeastern Sudan Meroe was destroyed and occupied by a military
campaign of one of the powerful Aksumite kings in the mid-4 century
th

called king Ezana.

We have two written sources about ancient Aksum such as:
i) the Periplus of Erithrean Sea, written by anonymous/unknown
writer, and
ii) The Adulis inscription written in Greek about unknown king which
was translated and published in Cosmas Indicopleustes’ book called
the Christian Topography,

According to the Periplus of Erithrean Sea,

Adulis on the western coast of the Red Sea was the major port of
Aksum.
The long-distance trade routes from Adulis and other posts on the
Red Sea coast passed inland through centers such as Kaskasse,
Coloe, Matara and even further west across Takaze River.
The major items of export of the Aksumite state consisted mainly of
the natural products such as ivory, myrrh or carbee in Amharic ,
emerald or precious metallic rocks, frank incense and some spices
(like ginger, cassia and cinnamon), gold, rhinoceros horns,
hippopotamus hides, tortoise shells and some curiosity animals like
apes.
In turn, a number of manufactured products imported like garments
and textiles from Egypt, India, the Roman Empire, and Persia;
glassware and jewelry from Egypt and other places; metallic sheets,
tools and utensils of various kinds, oil and wine from the regions of
Roman Empire and Syria were imported.
King Zoscales (c. 76-89 A.D), the then king of Aksum, used to speak
the Greek language, the Lingua Franca of Greco-Roman world.
Aksum also had relations with Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and Laodicea (Asia
Minor).
According to Cosmas Indicopleustes’ s work the Christian Topography,
describes the following;
Aksumite kings had strong commercial activities across the Red Sea areas.
the internal long distance trade between Aksum and a distant region called
Sasu, most probably in Beni Shangul and the adjoining lands beyond the Blue
Nile was very active.
Aksumite kings had extensive contacts with the outside world notably with the
South Arabian region, leading to exchange of ideas, material and spiritual
culture. Sometimes such contacts involved conflicts between the two regions.
Accordingly, peoples in Southern Arabian Peninsula, in present day Yemen, had
difficulties in defending themselves against the army of the Aksumite king
called Gadarat.
From the third to the seventh centuries, Aksumite kings like Aphilas, Endybis,
Wazeba, Ezana, Ousanas II etc had minted and issued different kinds of coins
in gold, silver and bronze for both overseas/international and local trade or
transactions.
At that time Aksum was one of the four great powers of the world (i. e.
Roman Empire, Persia, China and Aksum).
It was a major naval and trading power from the first to the seventh centuries
A.D. Aksumite ships were the main means of transporting goods. Aksum had
a large fleet of ships, which was used not only for trade but also for its wars
across the Red Sea.
One of the powerful Aksumite King called Kaleb (r. 500-535 A.D) expanded
overseas territories of Aksum beyond Himyar and Saba, but the local prince
Dhu-Nuwas was converted to Judaism, marched to Zafar and Nagran, and
killed many Christians. To avenge them, the Byzantine Vasaliev Justinian (r.
527-65) with sanctification/blessing of Patriarch Timit III (518-538) provided
Kaleb with a number of ships to transport armies led by Julianos and
Nonossus against Dhu Nuwas. Dhu Nuwas was defeated and Kaleb
appointed Abraha as governor of Arabia that continued until 570 A. D.
Kaleb was succeeded by his son king Gabra Masqal (535-48) who built a
church at Zur Amba in Gayint. It was during king Gabra Masqal that St. Yared
developed Ethiopian Orthodox Church liturgical songs and hymns.
The Aksumite state begun to decline since the late seventh century and finally
ended in 1150 A.D because of the following internal and external factors/
challenges:
 decline in agricultural productivity and possibly plague infestation started to
weaken it.
 the destruction of the port of Adulis by the expanding Persian Arabs around
702 A.D, the international lifeline of the state was cut down. The whole
network of Aksumite international trade came under the control of the rising
and expanding Arab Muslims, isolating the Aksumite state from its old
commercial and diplomatic partners that caused strong economic and
military decline. That led to the decline of its political and military power not
only on the Red Sea coast but also in its interior provinces,
 Aksumite hegemony was challenged by local peoples rebellions of Beja, the
Agaw and Queen Bani al Hamwiyah (Yodit)
 The succession problem within the Aksumite dynasty/ruling families was
another factor too.
The following are some of the Aksumite state’s achievements:
 The only Sub-Saharan Africa’s to develop surviving indigenous script in Geez
language and calendar system.
 The introduction and expansion of Christianity, E.O.C’s hymns and chants,
paintings etc;
 Developed Diversified ceramic and lithic tools, ivory curving, and
urbanization and sophisticated architectural building traditions (palaces,
stelea, rock-hewn churches, monasteries etc).
 Developed complex administrative and governance system, and agricultural
system including irrigation canals.
 Aksum had a profound impact upon the peoples of the Horn of Africa and
beyond, and on its successors i.e. the Zagwe, ‘Solomonic Dynasty’, the
Gondarine period etc.
D. The Zagwe Kingdom ( 1150-1270 A.D)
The Zagwe dynasty came from the local Agaw ruling class in Lasta,
formerly part of the Aksumite Empire.
The Zagwe dynasty was established around 1150A.D by a person
from Agaw’s princes called Mera Teklehaymnot.
The Zagwe Dynasty made its center in Bugna District within Wag
and Lasta, more exactly at Adafa near Roha (Lalibela) in Lasta.
Merra-Teklehaimanot's successors included Yimirahana Kirstos,
Harbe, Lalibela (1160-1211), Ne'akuto La'ab, and Yetbarek were its
notable rulers.
Generally, the Zagwe Dynasty is believed to have ruled from c.
1150 to 1270.
The territory of the Zagwe kingdom extended from most of the
highland provinces of the ancient Aksumite kingdom in the north down
to northern Shewa in the south, the Lake Tana region and the northern
part of what is today Gojjam in the west were parts of the Kingdom.
Zagwe rulers renewed cultural and trade contact with local and foreign
Islamic states and eastern Mediterranean region.
Its most important export items included slaves, ivory and rare spices
while cotton cloths, linen textiles, silver and copper vessels, various
types of drags and newly minted coins were imported.
Therefore, The major economy of the Zagwe dynasty was based on
agriculture while trade brought additional income to the state.
The Zeila port in the southeast was the main outlet during the Zagwe
time. The Dahlak Islands on the Red Sea coast sometimes served as
additional outlet.
The Zagwe dynasty is known in Ethiopian history for its remarkable
architectural achievements. This was the indigenous technology of
building the monolithic rock-hewn Churches at Roha.

 Later on, the capital Roha was renamed Lalibela, named after King
Lalibela.
The most magnificent surviving pieces of evidences are the eleven
rock-hewn churches constructed during the reign of Emperor
Lalibela (1160-1211), in the first half of the thirteenth century.

The presence of these beautiful Churches made the town of Lalibela

one of the most important centers of trade, learning/education and
Christian culture in Ethiopia.
• The major achievements of the Zagwe period were:
 It was a golden age in Ethiopia's paintings and the translation of some
religious works from Arabic into Ge'ez.
 It was best known for the construction of Rock-hewn churches with
magnificent decoration inside, semi-hewn and monolithic churches
that have become UNESCO world heritage are unique in constructions.

 Semi-hewn churches are not totally separated from the surrounding

rock are very beautiful with detailed interior decoration and partial
decoration outside. Their roofs or walls are still attached to the rock,
eg. Bete Denagil, Bete Debresina/Mikael, Bete Golgota, Bete
Merqoriwos, Bete Gabri’el, Bete Rufa’el and Bete Abba Libanos are
important.
Monolithic churches are completely separated (carved out) from
surrounding rock and made with detailed decoration in the interior and
exterior parts. eg. Bete Amanuel, Bete Giyorgis, Bete Mariyam and Bete
Medhanialem.
Among the eleven churches of Lalibela, Bete Medhanelem is the largest
of all ,and Bete Giyorgis is said to be the most finely built in the shape of
holy Cross.
King Lalibela constructed those churches based on the model of Holy
Lands in Israel in order to establish the second Jerusalem in his empire
Ethiopia, and mitigate or even avoid difficulties which Ethiopian Christians
pilgrimages encountered in their journey to the Holy Lands.
Finally, the Zagwe kingdom was came to an end in 1270 A.D due to
various factors: for instance,
 Internal royal succession problems, to the Imperial's throne among the
Zagwe dynasty princes and royal families. Most of the time, they settled
this issue by force of arms.
External oppositions came from external groups who claiming
descent from the ancient rulers of Aksumite dynasty. They
considered the Zagwe rulers “illegitimate rulers” and “power
usurpers”, based on the legend of the Queen of Sheba and King
Solomon of Israel’s son Menilik I.
There had been strong opposition to the Zagwe kings throughout
their rule. This opposition was came from the regions of Tigray
and Amhara. Particularly in Tigray, the leading clergy members of
the Churches of Aksum and Debre Damo spread anti-Zagwe
propaganda as they were not legitimate rulers related to the
legend of the Queen of Sheba and King Solomon of Israel.
The legend was in turn based on a book known as Kebra-Negest
(Glory of Kings) that was translated from Coptic to Arabic and
then into Ge’ez.
 Finally, the initiative to overthrow the Zagwe came from the Amhara
region located to the south of Lasta, around southern Wollo and northern
Showa. An Amhara chief Yekuno Amlak organized a movement against
the last Zagwe ruler called King Yetbarek.
Yekuno-Amlak (r. 1270-1285) had claimed a decent from the last
Aksumite king Dilnaod, and organized his warrior forces with the
assistance of the ecclesiastical hierarchy and fought the last king of
Zagwe called Yetbarek and killed him at the battle field of Gaynt.
 Thus, Yekuno-Amlak took the state power, declared himself an Emperor
proclaiming the “Restoration of Solomonic” Dynasty in 1270 A.D.
Yekuno Amlak (r. 1270-1285) declared himself an Emperor and, at the
same time, became the restorer of the so-called "Solomonic dynasty".
From then onwards Yekuno Amlak and his successors used this legend as
an ideological arm to legitimize their political power that continued in the
history of Ethiopia up to the downfall of Emperor Haile Selasie I in 1974 A.
D.
3.2.2. East, Central, Southern, and Western States
3.2.2.1. Bizamo, Damot, Enarya and Gafat
A. Bizamo Kingdom: It was founded in the eighth century and had
early connections with Damot.
• It was located on the southern bend of Abay River just opposite to
the present districts of Gojjam and around the current Wambara area.
B. Damot kingdom : Motalami was a prominent king of Damot in the
thirteenth century.
• Its territories cover into most of the lands south of Abay River and
north of Lake Turkana as well as west of Awash and east of Didessa
River.
C. Enarya: Even though its actual time is not clearly known, it was
established and Survived in the Gibe region in southwestern Ethiopia.
• The founder royal clan was called Hinnare Bushasho (Hinnario
Busaso). The kings had residences in Yadare and Gowi.
• The king (HinnareTato) was secluded and considered as sacred. He
communicated with visitors through an intermediary, AfeBusho. The
real power rested with Mikretcho (council) including Awa-rasha
(king's spokesperson) and Atche-rasha (royal treasurer).
• In the nineth century, Aksumite king Digna-Jan is said to have led a
campaign into Enarya, accompanied by Orthodox Christian priests
carrying arks of covenant (tabots).
D. Gafat: its territory lies south of Abay (Blue Nile) River adjoining Damot on the
south western periphery of the Christian Kingdom.
• It was inhabited by Semitic speaking population related to Harari and the Gurage.
The state was governed by rulers bearing the title of Awalamo.
• Despite efforts made by Christian evangelists, the Gafat largely remained
practitioners of
their own indigenous religion. As of early medieval period, Gafat was paying tribute
to the
Christian Kingdom mainly in cattle, which came from six districts, among which
Gambo and
Shat are Gafat clan names.
3.2.2.2. Muslim Sultanates:
• Muslim merchants, teachers and traders were responsible for the emergence and
expansion of various Muslim states in the region.
• Beginning of the eighth century, viable Muslim communities and states had been
established at many locations especially along the main trade routes from Zeila to
the central Ethiopia region. They include;
A. Shewa: Makhzumi Khalid ibn al-Walid, who claimed decent from Meca, set up the
Makhzumite Sultanate of Shewa in 896 A. D (283 A.H.) on northeastern foothill of
Shewa.
B. Fatagar: was founded around Minjar, Shenkora and Ada’a in the eleventh century.
C. Dawaro: located south of Fatagar between upper waters of Awash and
WabiShebelle extending to Charchar in Northeast and Gindhir in Southeast. Dawaro
had a currency
called hakuna for transaction .
D. Bali: occupying high plateau, separating basins of Shebelle and Rift valley Lakes.
• It was separated from Dawaro by the Wabi-Shebelle River and extended
southwards to the Gannale Dirre River.
• Bali was one of the largest of Ethiopia’s Muslim provinces. Trade was mainly
based on barter exchanging cattle, sheep, cloth etc. It had strong army composed
of cavalry and infantry.
E. Ifat: was a state located adjacent to Shewan Sultanate. Its territory ran from
northeast-southwesterly in the Afar plain eastward to the Awash.

• It was established by a person called Umar Walasma in 1285AD, who claimed

descent from Hashamite clan and said to have come from Arabia between
1271 and 1285. it is also called the wolasma dynasy. He intervened between
quarrelsome Makzumite princes Dil-Marrah and Dil-Gamis, weakened and
annexed the sultanate of Shewa.

• Its inhabitants earned their living from cultivation of wheat, sorghum, millet
and teff, and animal husbandry. Sugar cane, banana, variety of fruits, beans,
squashes, cucumbers, and cabbagecompleted the diet. Chat was described for
the first time as being consumed as a stimulant.
F. The Sultanate of Adal
• One of the strong Muslim sultanates that emerged along trade routes
and became a center of resistance against the Christian Kingdom until
the second half of the sixteenth century was the Sultanate of Adal.
• After the Ifat Muslim state was controlled by the Christian highland
king dome division was created. Thus, one branch of the Walasma
family, which realized that Ifat was becoming an easy target to the
Christian Kingdom due to its location, moved further to the
southeastern lowlands and established new and vigorous Muslim
Sultanate of Adal at Dakar, in the highland districts around Harar in
1367.
• The center of Adal in 1520 changed to the city of Harar and after the
defeat of Imam Ahmed; a growing threat from a new force-the Oromo
forced the sultanate to change its capital to Awsa in 1576/7, to the
present Afar region.
G. Others: the Muslim states/sultanates like Adal, Hadya, Arababani
(between Hadiya and Dawwaro), Biqulzar, Dera (between Dawaro and
Bali), Fadise, Gidaya, Hargaya, Harla, Kwilgora, Qadise, Sharkah (West
of Dawaro and North of Bali in Arsi) and Sim were established and
flourished.
3.3. External Contacts of Ethiopia
Ethiopia and the Horn had long time commercial nnd religious contacts
with Egypt since at least 3,000 B. C. These relations may be the region’s
earliest contacts with the Mediterranean world or the Greco-Roman World.
Similarly, It had very close relations with all commercially active South
Arabian Kingdoms starting sometimes before 1,000 B.C.
The introduction of Christianity to Aksum established a new pattern of
relation between the region and Egypt, including with the East Roman or
Byzantine Empire with which it shared common commercial interest in
the Red Sea area against their rival force Persians.
 . The rapid expansion of the Muslim Arabs through the Near and Middle
East, North Africa and the Nile valley led to the decline of Aksumite land
routes and shipping lines.
Successive Egyptian Muslim rulers began to use the consecration and sending of a
bishop as an instrument to further their own foreign policy objectives and to squeeze
concessions from Ethiopian Christian rulers, who reacted by threatening to divert the
Nile. The coming to power of the Mamluk was followed by the reciprocal persecution of
religious minorities. Moreover, the Mamluk presented a barrier to the contacts between
Christian Ethiopia and European states.
The tradition to visit Jerusalem and other holy places in the Middle East had begun at the
end of the first millennium AD. In order to reach the places, Ethiopian Christian pilgrims
used the land route to Egypt. From Cairo, again they used the land route to the Holy land.
Consequently, there were considerable numbers of Ethiopian Christian communities
found in different regions, in Egyptian monasteries, in the holy places of Palestine and
Armenia, and in Italian city-states in subsequent centuries.
The communities living in different parts of the world served as an important link or
bridge between Ethiopian Christian Kingdom and Europe.
When pilgrims met their fellow Christians of Europe in the holy places, they transmitted
information about the EOC and its exceptional liturgical practices. They also explained
about the territorial extent of the Christian Kingdom.
From the information, the Europeans began to consider Ethiopian
Christian Kingdom as a very powerful and wealthy state existing in the
Horn of Africa. Consequently, they wanted to use this imaginary strong
Christian power in their struggle against the Muslim powers in the Holy
land. Around the middle of the 12th century, a myth about a very rich and
powerful Christian ruler known as Prester John began to circulate in
Europe.
The legend was developed when the balance of the crusade war fought
over Jerusalem between the Christians of Europe and the Muslims of the
Middle East was in favor of the latter.
However, the Europeans began to regard Ethiopian Christian Kingdom as
the land of Prester John since the only Christian kingdom between the Red
Sea and the Indian sub-continent was the Ethiopian Christian Kingdom.
Then, they began to search for the location of the Kingdom and to make an
alliance with it. This new relation was finally commenced with the arrival of
the first delegates from Portugal in 1520 A.D at the palace of king Libna
Dingel under priest Alvarez.
3.4. Economic Formations
A. Agriculture and Land Tenure System
Land has always been one of the most precious possessions of human society
throughout history.
In the history of Ethiopia, land has been served as the sources of livelihoods,
social status, economic power, political power etc.
The rules according to which members of the society hold, share and use land
constitute what is known as the land tenure system.
The most ancient system of land holding which survived in many parts of Ethiopia
and the Horn is the communal land tenure system. Communal right to land is a
group right. Here group refers to the family, the clan and the other lineage groups
to which the individual belonged.
Peasants in the north had rist land rights in their respective areas. Rist is a kind of
communal birthright/lineage right to land by members of the families and clans
whose ancestors had settled and lived in the area over long periods. It is inherited
from generation to generation in accordance to customary law. Most of the
subjects of the state had rist rights. The rist owners were known as bale-rist.
The Rist owners paid tributes to the state and all land belonged to the state
theoretically. Tribute was collected through a complex hierarchy of state
functionaries or officials who were given gult right over the areas and
populations they administered on behalf of the central government.
Gult right is a right to levy and collect tribute on rist owners’ produce. The
tribute collected by bale-gults, partly allotted for their own up keep and the rest
were sent to the Imperial center.
Gult right that became hereditary was called Riste-Gult as prominent well-
placed officials used to transfer their position to their offspring.
B. Handicraft
Indigenous handcraft technology had existed since the ancient period.
Handicrafts includes metal work, pottery, tannery, carpentry, masonry, weaving,
jewelry, basketry, carpentry and masonry and others.
However, in the long history of Ethiopian societies, except the carpenters and
masons in some cases, the artisans were mostly despised and marginalized.
C. Trade
Trade was another important economic activity of ancient states that obtained
considerable income from both internal and international trade.
3.5. Socio-cultural Achievements of the ancient Ethiopian states
A. Architecture
One of the unique architectural technologies Aksumite state was the engraving of stele
around the third century AD. There were totally fifty eight steles in and around Aksum that
can be grouped into well made and decorated, half completed and megaliths (not hewn).
The longest one of these stele measures 33meters heights (the first in the world). It is
highly decorated in all of its four sides. It represents a-14 storied building with many
windows and a false door at the bottom. It also bears pre-Christian symbols, which are a
disc and a crescent (half moon) at the top.
The Zagwe’s Rock-hewn churches are regarded as some of the finest architecture of
artistic achievements of the Christian world and that is why they were registered by
UNESCO as part of world cultural heritage in 1978, two years before that of the Aksumite
stele.
B. Writing System
Sabean inscriptions: The Sabean language had an alphabet with
boustrophedon writing type that is paleographical writing from left to right and
right to left alternatively.
The earliest Sabean inscriptions in Eritrea and Ethiopia date to the ninth
century B.C that characterized by absence of vowels as most of the words are
written in consonants. For instance, Da’amat was inscribed as D’mt,
Geʽez script: After the seventh and sixth centuries B.C, however, variants of
script arose, evolving in the direction of the Geʽez script (an alpha syllabary).
By the first century A.D, "Geʽez alphabet" arose, an abjad (26 consonant
letters only) written left-to-right with letters identical to the first-order forms of
modern vocalized alphabet.
Though the first completely vocalized texts known as inscriptions were used
by Ezana (who left trilingual inscriptions in Greek, Sabean and Ge'ez) in c. 330
A.D, vocalized letters predate him by some years, as vocalized letter exists in
Wazeba’s coin some 30 or so years before.
Ethiopia's ancient indigenous writing system has immense contribution to the
development of
literature, art and the writing of history.
C. Calendars
Calendars were developed and adopted among various peoples of Ethiopia and the
Horn. For instance,
The Ormo’s colander: Oromo calendar has been based on astronomical
observations of moon in conjunction with seven or eight particular stars or group
of stars called Urjii Dhahaa (guiding stars) and Bakkalcha (morning star). There are
29.5 dates in a month and 354 days in 12 months of a year. The beginning of new
year or colander being is celebrated by them called Irrecha.
The Sidama’s calendar: The Sidama calendar rotates following movements of
stars with 13 months a year, 12 of which are divided equally into 28 days while the
thirteenth month has 29 days. The Sidama week has only 4 days (Dikko, Dela,
Qawado and Qawalanka) and hence each month has 7 weeks. Nominated Mote
(King) is presented to Fiche Chambalala, New Year ritual, for Qetela or popular
demonstration.
Ethiopic solar calendar: Ethiopic solar calendar has 12 months
of 30 days plus 5 or 6 (is added every 4 years) Epagomenal
days, which comprise a thirteenth month. The Ethiopic solar
calendar has evolved to become the official calendar of the
country. The first day of the year, 1 Meskerem/Enkutatash is
usually September 11 (in Gregorian).

The Muslim (Islamic) calendar is a lunar calendar consisting of

12 months in a year of 354 or 355 days. It employs the Hijra
year of 622 AD, in which Mohammed and his followers made
flight from Mecca to Medina and established the first Muslim
community (ummah). Dates in this era are usually denoted AH
(After Hijra, "in the year of the Hijra"). Years prior to the Hijra are
reckoned as BH ("Before the Hijra").
Other peoples\ calanders, like the Agaw, Halaba, Hadiya, Wolayta, Gedeo,
Gamo, the Nilotes of different regions, etc have their own dating system
and calander systems.
D. Numerals
Numerals appeared in Ethiopia and the Horn at the beginning of fourth
century AD.
Geʽez uses numeral system comparable to the Hebrew, Arabic and Greek
numerals, but it lacks individual characters for multiples of 100.
Examples of Ethiopic numerals
 UNIT FOUR

POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY FROM THE LATE

THIRTEENTH TO THE BEGINNING OF THE SIXTEENTH
CENTURIES
From the 13 to the 16 centuries, the "restoration" of the "Solomonic" Dynasty, succession
th th

problems, territorial expansion, evangelization, flourishing and development of trade, as well as

expansion of extensive socio-cultural interactions among different peoples who lived in
different agro-ecological zones were some of the events that shaped the course of history in
Ethiopia and the Horn region.
4.1. The Restoration of the “Solomonic Dynasty”
Based on a book known as Kebra-Negest (Glory of Kings) to the Solomonic rulers’, the Zagwe
rulers were ‘illegitimate’ and ‘power usurpers\ from legitimate Solomonic line of ruling classes.
In line with this ideology, Yekuno-Amlak (r. 1270-1285) from the Amhara region, who claimed
decent from the last Aksumite king Dil na’od, organized his forces with the assistance of the
ecclesiastical hierarchy and fought the last king of Zagwe called Yetbarek and killed him in
battle at Gaynt.
As a result, Yekuno-Amlak took the state power and proclaiming the “restoration” of
“Solomonic” Dynasty in 1270 A.D. This tradition continued until the end of the last year of the
reign of Emperor Haile Selasie I in 1974.
To legitimize their power, the claim has been elaborated in the Kibre Negest
(“Glory of Kings”) that associated Ethiopia with the Judeo-Christian tradition.
Further more, the Kibre Negest claims that Ethiopian ruling class/families
descended from the line of Menilek I, son of the Queen of Sheba and King
Solomon of Israel. As a result, Ethiopian monarchs from YikunoAmlak to
Emperor Haile-Silassie I claimed descent from Menilek I.
4.2. Power Struggle, Consolidation, Territorial Expansion and Religious Processes
4.2.1. Succession Problem and the Establishment of a ‘Royal Prison’ of Amba
Gishen
Following the end of the reign of Yikuno-Amlak (1270-1285) in 1285, a political
instability caused by constant power struggles among his sons and grandsons
for succession to the Imperial throne.
A letter written by Yegba-Tsion (r.1285-94) to the Sultan of Egypt and the
Patriarch of Alexandria in 1290 reflected the existence of those struggles.
The power struggle intensified during the reigns of Yegba-Tsion’s five sons who
reigned from 1294 to 1299.
The succession problem seems to have been partly resolved in 1300 A.D during
the reign of Widim-Ra’ad (r. 1299-1314) following the establishment of a 'royal
prison' at Amba-Gishen located in present day southern Wollo where all male
members of the royal family were confined until one among them was installed
in power when the reigning king was died.
Loyal soldiers to the reigning monarch guarded the royal prison. When the
monarch died, court dignitaries would send an army to the royal prison to
escort the designated successor and put him on the throne. This practice
continued until Amba-Gishen was destroyed by Imam Ahmad Ibrahim Al-Ghazi's
forces in 1540.
NB: Yikuno-Amlak (1270-1285) who took power after defeating Yitbarek at Gayint and restores “Solomonic
dynasty”
• Yegba-Tsion (r.1285-94)
• Yegba-Tsion’s five sons who reigned from 1294 to 1299 where power/succession problem/struggles were
intensified.
• Widim-Ra’ad (r. 1299-1314) who established a 'royal prison' at Amba-Gishen in 1300
• Amde-Tsion (r.1314-44), the first most expansionist Solomonic leader
4.2.2. Consolidation and Territorial Expansion of the Christian Kingdom
From 1270 until the establishment of Gondar in 1636, the medieval monarchs
had no permanent capital, but mobile capitals.
Initially, the center of the “restored” dynasty was in medieval Amhara (today’s
South Wollo) around Lake Haiq. However, from time to time, it gradually shifted
southward to the districts of Menz, Tegulet, Bulga, and finally to the regions
dominated by the great height of the Yerer, Entoto, Menagesha, Wachacha, Furi
and Zequalla mountains.
Until the coming of Amde-Tsion (r.1314-44), the center and the territorial limit
of the Christian Kingdom was mainly in present day Tigray, Lasta, medieval
Amhara and Shewa.
Amde-Tsion was the first "Solomonic" King, who embarked on a policy of a
wider and rapid territorial expansion. His main motives of expansion were
economic and political i.e. to control the trade routes and to seize new
territories.
In the process of consolidating his power, Amde-Tsion subdued rebellions in an
attempt to end centrifugal tendencies, which threatened the unity of the
Christian Kingdom.
In the process, he expanded his territory into Agaw (Awi) of Gojjam around
1323/4; Bizamo and Damot in 1316/7; Bete-Israel (located between Dambiya
and Tekeze River) around 1332; and the Red Sea Coast.
To consolidate the control of the Christian state over the provinces of the north
extending to the coastal areas of Massawa, Amde-Tsion gave Enderta (in
today’s northeastern Tigray) to his wife Bilen-Saba. Amde-Tsion's army faced
stiff resistance from among Ifat and Shewa, which might have cooperated with
the rebellious army at Enderta, led by Yibeka-Igzi in 1320s. However, Bahr-Sagad,
the son of Amde-Tsion, became the governor of Tigray.
In 1325, Amde-Tsion campaigned to today’s Eritrean region. After controlling the
whole region, he appointed a governor with a title of Ma'ekale-Bahir, which later
on changed to BahireNegash.
In the southeast, Muslim sultanates paid tributes to the Christian Kingdom. In the
south, Gurage speaking areas and a few of the Omotic kingdoms like Wolayta and
Gamo were brought under the influence of the Christian state. Amde-Tsion was in
full control of all the trade routes and sources of trade of the Ethiopian region in
the early 1330s.
The consolidation and territorial expansion of the Christian Kingdom continued
during the successors of Amde-Tsion too.
4.2.3. Evangelization, Religious Movements, and Religious Reforms of Zara-Yaqob
During the Solomonic dynasty, those early Christians of central Ethiopia at Shewa
and Northern Ethiopia played very important role in the spread of
Christianity in several areas from 13th to 16th century. Of them,.
i. In the thirteenth century, Aba Eyesus-Mo'a opened new opportunities of learning
for Christians who lived in the central part of Ethiopia and later he evangelized the
newly incorporated areas where the influence of Christianity had either been non-
existent or minimal.
ii. Abune Tekle-Haymanot (thirteenth century) played a key role in reviving
Christianity in Shewa, which was followed by the evangelization of areas in
southern Ethiopia including medieval Damot. He baptized and converted Motalami
to Christianity.
iii. The clergy Yaqob, in this period under the direction of the bishop in Ethiopia,
Yaqob, spread Christianity to different areas of Shewa such as Kil'at, Tsilalish,
Merhabite, Wereb, Moret and Wegda, and Fatagar, Damot, Waj and Enarya.

II. Religious Movements

A.The Ewostatewos Movement
The period of 13
century witnessed development of monasticism and religious movements. Of
which the major one was the Ewostatewos movement, named after the founder.
Ewostatewos established his own monastic community in Sara'e (in present day
southern Eritrea) where he was joined by many students and taught them until
1337. Among his teachings was the strict observance of Sabbath was very
important.
When Ewostatewos was opposed by an organized religious rival group of the
clergy in Sera'e, he fled the country to Egypt. He faced the same opposition in
Cairo by Ethiopian pilgrims.
After Ewostatewos left Ethiopia, the movement was weakened although his
followers led by Abba Absad tried their best to maintain its momentum. The
movement revived when some of his followers such as Aba Bekimos,
Merkoryewos and Gebre–Iyasus returned home from Armenia.
The followers of Ewostatewos soon became active and dispersed to different
monasteries in northern Ethiopia. The movement spread to areas like Enfraz,
northern Tigray, and Hamessen.
The then King and the Abun opposed the movement. Hence, the anti-Ewostatewos
group led by the Abbot of the Hayq Monastery in Wollo called Aqabe-Se’at
SereqeBirhan was supported by the Abun and the monarch. The King imprisoned
some of the Ewostatians owing to the fact that he feared that dispute in the
church could divide his kingdom. The clergy expelled Ewostatians from their
church services; some of the Ewostatians were forced to withdraw and settle in
peripheral areas while some of them sustained their movement in monasteries
like Debre- Bizen, Debre-San, etc.
B. Deqiqe Estifanos/ the Estifanosites
The Estifanosites were a group of the movement within Ethiopian monasticism,
named after their founder and spiritual leader Abba Estifanos.
The head of the movement, Abba Estifanos, was born in Agame at the end of
the fourteenth century. He established a rigid monastic organization, which
emphasized poverty, absolute self-subsistence, equality and autonomy from
secular authorities.
The movement rose to prominence in the fifteenth century and continued until
the sixteenth century, when it was formally reconciled with the main body of the
Ethiopian Orthodox Church.
When summoned to the royal court, Estifanos was initially able to convince the
emperor (probably Atse Takla Maryam, r. 1430-33) that he posed no threat to
royal power or the unity of the Church.
 Later, however, he collided/confronted with Zara-Yaqob (r.1434-68),
Estifanos appears to have disapproved of the Emperor’s religious
initiatives, rejected royal supremacy and authority in spiritual matters and
refused to participate in court judiciary procedures. Zara-Yacob took very
harsh measures against the Estifanosites allegedly for their opposition of
the veneration/respect/honor of St. Mary.
Finally, king Naod appears to have been more favorably inclined towards
the Estifanosites and to have been instrumental in their reintegration into
the EOC during the period of Metropolitan Abune Yeshaq. For their part,
Estifanosites appear to have softened their opposition; the
excommunication was lifted by the Metropolitan.
King Naod (r. 1494-1508), the third successor of Zara Yaeqob next to
King Eskinder ( r. 1478-1494), appears to have been more favorably
inclined towards the Estifanosites and to have been instrumental in their
reintegration into the EOC during the period of Metropolitan Abune
Yeshaq. For their part, Estifanosites appear to have softened their
opposition; the excommunication was lifted by the Metropolitan.
III. The Religious Reforms of Emperor Zara-Yaqob (r.1434-68)
Emperor Zara-Yaqob (r.1434-68) took several measures to stabilize and consolidate the
Orthodox Church. For instance,
 he settled the conflict among the Ethiopian clergy in order to create an amicable/good
church-state relationship. In this regard, he made peace with the House of
Ewostatewos by reviving Sabbath in the Ethiopian church and the Ewostatian agreed
to receive Holy orders from the Ethiopian prelates/Bishops.
 He urged the clergy to preach Christianity in remote areas. Besides, he ordered the
people to observe fasting on Wednesdays and Fridays and get Father Confessors.
 Lack of sufficient religious books was another problem. Thus, the king encouraged the
establishment of library in every church. This was followed by revival of religious
literature.
 He himself wrote some books like Metsafe-Birhan, Metsafe-Me’lad, MetsafeSillasie,
Metsafe-te'aqebo Mister etc.
 During his reign, some parts of Te’amreMaryam were translated from Arabic to Geez.
4.3.2. Trade and the Expansion of Islam
Islam spread into the central and southwestern parts of the Ethiopian region
through trade, Muslim merchants and preachers/teachers since the
8 century that consequently
th

resulted the establishment of various Muslim sultanates in the region. For

instance, the Muslim sultanate of Shewa, Ifat, Hadya, Bali, Dawaro, Fatagar,
Arababini, Adal etc.
Among them, the most powerful and known Muslim Sultanates during this period
were Ifat (1285-1415) and Adal (1415-1577).
The main trade outlet shifted to the most important foreign trade port of Zeila
and the old city-states of Mogadishu, Brava, and Merca were used as ports for
their hinterland trade. In the meantime, for the trade in the northeast, Massawa
served as an outlet.
The ruins that mark the landscape around Jigjiga and the highlands of Harar and
Charchar attest to the market towns that served the Zeila route. These include
Weez-Gebeya in western Shewa/famous market on the Fatagar-Dawaro-Harar
route, Suq-Wayzaro in old Damot, Suq-Amaja and the very famous market center
Gandabalo on the Ifat-Awsa route. Gandabalo was largely inhabited by Muslim
and Christian merchants serving the kings and sultans as agents.
Other big market towns were including the ones that linked medieval Amhara
with Awsa called Wasel near what is today Ware-Illu, Qorqora/Qoreta (north of
Waldiya) and Mandalay in southern Tigray. The towns of Dabarwa, the seat of
the Bahre-Negash (“Lord of the Sea”), and Asmara were the two important
entrepots of caravans in the hinterland of Massawa.

4.4. The Early Rivalry between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim Sultanates
Zeila was the main outlet to the sea during the medieval period. The ambition to
control this trade route and commodities that passed through Zeila led to rivalry
between the“Solomonic” rulers and first with the Sultanate of Ifat. Therefore, the
first recorded conflict between the Christian Kingdom and Ifat took place in
1328 during Amde-Tsion (r.1314-44),.
The Sultan of Ifat, Haqaddin I stopped merchants belonging to the Christian
King Amde-Tsion, confiscating the goods, capturing, and imprisoning the king's
agent called Ti’iyintay returning from Cairo.
These rival actions forced Amde-Tsion to wage a campaign against
Haqaddin I; defeated and took him prisoner and eventually replaced him
by his brother Sabradin. Both Ifat and Fatagar came under Sabradin’s rule.
Later on, in the Christian ruler’s campaign Ifat was defeated and Sabradin
was captured during his retreat. As a result, Ifat, Fatagar and Dawaro
were incorporated by Amde-Tsion. Amde-Tsion required from them
annual tributes and freedom of movement for all caravans through Zeila.
Following the decline of Ifat, other Muslim Sultanates like Sharkha, Bali,
Dara, and Arbabani were also seriously weakened.
It was owing to these developments that some members of the militant
Walasma ruling classes and their followers moved their seat of power
further east to Adal, from where they continued their struggle. To check
their attacks on the highlands, the successors of Emperor Amde-Tsion
conducted repeated campaigns into the Muslims’ lowlands.
In 1376, Haqadin II came to power and refused to pay tribute and rebelled against King
Neway-Maryam (r. 1371-80), the son of Amde-Tsion. However, he died fighting in1386.
Similarly, the successor of Haqadin II, Sa’d ad-Din II (c. 1386-1402) gained initial
success until king Dawit I (r. 1380-1412) in 1402/3 extended his expansion and
defeated him. Sa’d ad-Din II became refuge in Zeila until King Yishaq (r.1413-30) killed
him in 1415.
Following the death of Sa’d ad-Din and loss of Zeila to Christian Kings, the Muslim
sultanates declined in power. Sa’d ad-Din’s sons who took refuge in Yemen came back
to succeed their father.
Yet, Adal continued to challenge the Christian state and were successful in killing
Tewodros (1412-13) and Yeshaq. This led to intense struggle for predominance.
In 1445, Zara Yaqob (r.1434-68) defeated Sultan Ahmed Badlay at the battle of Yeguba.
As a result, the son and successor of Ahmed Badlay, Mohammed Ahmed (r.1445-71)
sent a message of submission to King Ba’ede Mariam (r. 1468-78) to remain vassal of
the Christian Kings.
On the death of Mohammed, however, Adal was still strong and
continued its struggle. Hence, the reigning monarch, Ba’ede-Mariam
campaigned against Adal. Despite initial successes, the army of Ba'ede-
Mariam lost the battle in 1474.
The successors of Ba'ede-Mariam proved weak in their dealings with
the rulers of Muslim Sultanates.
At the same time, leaders of the Muslim Sultanate sought to resolve
the problem peacefully. As a result, Mohammad ibn Azhar ad-Din
(1488-1518) attempted to smoothen relations with the Christian
Kingdom. However, among the various Sultans of the Muslim
sultanates, Emir Mahfuz carried out some effective military campaigns
into the highlands Christian kingdom’s seizures.
Unfortunately, in 1517 Emir Mahfuz died fighting against Emperor
Lebne-Dengel's (r. 1508-40) force and his son-in-law, Imam Ahmed ibn
Ibrahim al-Ghazi, popularly known as Ahmed Gragn or the "left-handed"
took over the leadership who started to prepare to avenge the killing of
his father in-law or the father of his wife Dil Wonbera.

Beside the above socio-cultural and economic interactions between

different ethnic and religious groups, the period witnessed the
flourishing of Geez literature as it is evident from the works of Abba
Giorgis Ze-Gasicha and others, and philosophies exemplified by an
Ethiopian philosopher and writer Zara-Ya'iqob (not to be confused with
the king). On the Muslim side, literature had developed including the
works of Arab writers such as Ibn Fadil al Umari, Ibn Khaldun and others.
4.5. External Relations from 13th to the early 16th century
4.5.1. Relations with Egypt
From the late thirteenth century onwards, the Christian Kingdom continued to maintain
relations with Egypt, which was mainly religious in character. Their were either positive or
negative.
In 1272, Yekuno-Amlak sent an emissary to Egypt’s Sultan, Baybars, requesting an Abun
from the Coptic Church.
Furthermore, both Egypt and Ethiopia continued to act as protectors of religious
minorities in their respective domain. Egypt also wanted to ensure secure flow of the
Nile (the Abay River) that originated from Ethiopia.
In the early fourteenth century, Mohammed ibn Qala’un persecuted the Copts and
destroyed their churches in Cairo. In response, Amde-Tsion (r.1314-44)demanded the
restoration of the churches and warned that failure to do so would result in the diversion
of the Nile waters.
Patriarch Marqos (1348- 63) sent a message to Sayfa-Arad (r.1344-71), revealing his
imprisonment by the then Egyptian Sultan. Sayfa-Arad is said to have mobilized a huge
army against Egypt after which the Sultan released the patriarch and sent a delegation to
the King.
Besides, Patriarch Matewos (1328-1408) delegated by the Sultan, established
harmonious relations between King Dawit and Egypt. The Sultan is said to have
sent a piece of the "True Cross" and in return, Dawitis said to have given a
number of religious paintings to the Sultan.
In 1437/8, Zara-Yaqob wrote a friendly letter to Sultan Barsbay requesting the
protection of Christians in Egypt.
Three years later, however, Patriarch Yohannes XI wrote Zara-Yaqob a letter
stating the demolition of the famous church of Mitmaq (Debre-Mitmaq). Then
ZaraYaqob sent an envoy to Sultan Jaqmaq (1438-53) with a strongly worded
letter. In reply to this message, Jaqmaq sent an envoy to Ethiopia, with
complimentary gifts to the King but
rejected the reconstruction of the church.
4.5.2. Relations with Christian Europe in the Pre-16th century
 During the medieval period, contacts between the two regions were strongly influenced by the legend of
“Prester John” which was widely deiminated among European states that he was a strong Christian ruler in
the Gulf of Aden and Horn region.
 Besides the un consolidated early Ethiopian and Europeans relations, the beginning and continued rivalry
between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim Sultanates in the fifteenth century strengthened the relation
between the Christian Kingdom of Ethiopia and Christian Europe.
 Queen Elleni (the daughter of Hadiya Garad and married to King Zara Yaeqob) played an important role in
the strengthening of these relations. She had foreseen the possibility of consolidating relations with and
getting technical and weapons support from Portugal against the Ottoman Turks and its supporters in the
region.
 In 1508, Portugal sent an envoy to act as an ambassador to Christian Ethiopia. Around 1512, Queen Elleni,
the mother and regent of Lebne-Dengel sent an Armenian called Mathew with a letter to Portugal. The
Portuguese court doubted his authenticity and was received coldly.
 The Portuguese Embassy led by Rodrigo di Lima, Duwarto Galliba and Francisco Alvarez reached Ethiopia in
1520 and remained only for six years and finally back to home in 1526. The interest of Lebna Dingl’s state
was not realized, he did not get anything with regard to the potential threats he needed the Portugal’s
government help. Their objective was to establish a naval port against the expanding Turkish power in Red
Sea Area. The mission was not successful.
 UNIT FIVE
POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIAL PROCESSES FROM THE
EARLY 16th TO THE END OF THE 18th CENTURIES
The major developments of this period include:
 the expansion of trade and the growing importance of the most lucrative long
distance trade routes;
 the military conflicts between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim Sultanates
and foreigners interventions;
the population movements of the Afar, Somali, Argoba and the Oromo;
religious expansions, controvercies and movements,
interactions of peoples and the resultant integration across ethnic and religious
diversities;
 the Gondarine Period (1636-1769); and
the Zemene Mesafint (1769-1855), including the Yejju rule (from 1786-1853).
5.1. Conflicts between the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of
Adal and After
i. Causes of the Conflicts

 The major factors of the conflicts were both economic and political
factors, means the need of creating economic monopolization along
the lucrative long distance trade routes and political supremacy over
the region.
The primary source of conflict among peoples and states in Ethiopia
and the Horn of Africa was the desire to monopolize long-distance
trade. Because, long-distance trade was a source of great wealth.
The desire for territorial expansion was also another source of
rivalry among the peoples and states of the Ethiopian region.
Therefore, the desire for the monopoly of long-distance trade and
territorial expansion proved to be sources for inter-state conflicts.
This was followed by a series of wars, depicted as wars for religious
supremacy in historical accounts of Christian and Muslim clerics.
While maladministration and exploitation of the periphery made
military mobilization possible, religion provided ideological
justification for the wars.
However, the interest in controlling trade routes lay at the heart of
the conflict that continued for two centuries. The war reached its
climax and finally culminated in the years from 1529 to 1543.
The revival of long-distance trade caused competition and struggle
for control over the trade routes between the Christian Kingdom and
the Muslim principalities.
This was followed by a series of wars, which were depicted as wars for
religious supremacy in historical accounts of Christian and Muslim
clerics. While mal-administration and exploitation of periphery made
military mobilization possible, religion provided ideological justification
for the wars.
In its actual truth ambition for political supremacy and economic
interest of controlling the long distance trade routes were the major
reasons behind the conflict.

However, the interest to control trade routes and creating political and
military supremacy one over the other lay at the heart of the conflict
between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim Sultanates that
continued for over two centuries, culminating in the wars between the
Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal that lasted from 1529 to
1543.
ii. Process of the Conflicts
In the beginning, the Zeila trade route was under the control of the
Muslim states, mainly Ifat. However, in 1332 Ifat was defeated by the
Christian kingdom and lost its independence.
Thus monopoly over the route went to Amde Seyon. To regain their
independence and control over the Zeila trade route Haqadin II and
Sa'adadin retreated to the Harar plateau and set up a new Muslim
resistance base in the late fourteenth century called the Muslim
sultanate of Adal.
In 1445, Zara Yaqob (r.1434-68) defeated Sultan Ahmed Badlay at the battle of
Yeguba. As a result, the son and successor of Ahmed Badlay, Mohammed Ahmed
(r.1445-71) sent a message of submission to King Ba’ede Mariam (r. 1468-78) to
remain vassal of the Christian Kings.
After the death of Sultan Badeley in 1470, they had formed a strong opposition
and challenged the power of the reigning Sultan. Subsequently, a civil war was
Brocken out in Adal which lasted for a long period of time. The Afars from the
lowlands were also began to make incursions in to the highland agricultural
regions.

Mean while, there was strong opposition in Adal against Adal’s status of
dependency to Christian Kingdom. Therefore, various Emirs, Imams and Shayks
and powerful merchants put strong pressure on Sultan Mohamed, the son and
successor of Ahmed Badeley, to lead a revolt against the Christian Kingdom
though the Sultan continued paying tributes to the Christian state.
 On the death of Mohammed, however, Adal was still strong and
continued its struggle. Hence, the reigning monarch, Ba’ede-Mariam
campaigned against Adal. Despite initial successes, the army of Ba'ede-
Mariam lost the battle in 1474. Similarly, the successors of Ba'ede-
Mariam proved weak in their dealings with the rulers of Muslim Sultanates.

At the same time, leaders of the Muslim Sultanate sought to resolve the
problem peacefully. As a result, Mohammad ibn Azhar ad-Din (1488-1518)
attempted to smoothen relations with the Christian Kingdom.
However, among the various Sultans of the Muslim sultanates, Emir
Mahfuz carried out some effective military campaigns into the highlands
Christian kingdom’s seizures.

.
• During the civil war the Sultans lost their power. The actual power was also held
by Emirs or Imams who fought for power. Only a few imams held power for a
long years. Mahfuz was one of the powerful Emirs who strengthened the
Sultanate of Adal and launched a series of military attacks against the Christian
kingdom from the last decades of 15th century onwards.
• Mahfuz’s attacks continued throughout the successors of Zara Yaeqob during
the reign of King Eskinder ( r. 1478-1494) and king Naod (r. 1494-1508). But
finally Mahfuz was killed in 1517 in a battle fighting with the army of King Libna
Dengel ( r. 1508-1540).
• After the death of Mahfuz various Emirs fought against one another for power in
Adal sultanate. But finally the victory and leadership of the Muslim sultanate of
Adal was passed to a powerful Imam called Ahmed Ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi who
was traditionally well known by the Christian high landers as Gragn Ahmed,
means the left handed.
• Unfortunately, in 1517 Emir Mahfuz died fighting against Emperor
Lebne-Dengel's (r. 1508-40) force and his son-in-law, Imam Ahmed ibn
Ibrahim al-Ghazi, popularly known as Ahmed Gragn or the "left-handed"
took over the leadership who started to prepare to avenge the killing of
his father in-law or the father of his wife Bati Dil Wonbera.
He was a devout Muslim. He served as a soldier for Garad Abun of Adal,
who during his few years in power called for Islamic Puritanism.
According to local tradition, the Imam withdrew to the countryside, upon
the death of his source of inspiration, Garad Abun, and started calling
for devotion to the teachings of Islam.
After Imam Ahmad came to power, the battles were not just fought to
control the long-distance trade route going through Zeila, but mainly
because there was a demographic pressure among the Afar and Somali
pastoralists pushing to approach Harar and pressure from he Christian
Kingdom.
It was one of the Imam's remarkable achievements in leadership that
he mobilized the pastoral communities of the Afar, the Argoba, the
Somali, the Harla, Harari and others to a common cause.
He convinced them not to fight amongst them but to unite and expand
towards the Christian Kingdom seizures. It was to resolve their
pressing material needs while at the same time keeping Islamic
beliefs and practices from the infiltration of any alien religious doctrine.
Meanwhile, Lebne-Dengel (1508-1540)) was enthroned when he was
only eleven years old. Assisted by the elderly mother Queen Elleni and
due to internal conflicts in Adal, the Christian state initially retained its
interest and even advanced into Muslim territory scoring significant
victories in the early sixteenth century. As a result, most of the Muslim
Sultanates including Adal were made tributaries to the Christian
Kingdom.
Shortly, Adal fell to Imam Ahmed’s army. By the time Imam Ahmed was strong
enough for military confrontation in 1520, he refused to pay tribute and this
was followed by a campaign against the Christian Kingdom in 1527.The
Imam’s army fought fiercely and controlled the territories including Bali,
Dawaro, Fatagar, Sidama, Hadiya and Kambata and putting the Christian
Kingdom at risk. To avenge this problem Libna Dingel sent one of his army
under his general called Deglehan, but he was defeated and killed by the Adalis.
In 1528, realizing the upcoming threat, Lebne-Dengel mobilized a vast force.
However, there was a logistics problem, and the leadership of the army of the
Christian Kingdom failed to adopt a common strategy to defeat Adal’s force.
On the other hand, enthusiastic Imam Ahmed’s army managed logistics
problems with its small-sized army. The Imam’s army also had an excellent
leadership characterized by better mobility and flexible tactics with a unified
command.
• As a result, the larger and well-equipped Christian army was defeated
in one of the most decisive engagements at the battle of Shimbra Kure
in 1529, near present-day Mojo.
• After the victory, the Imam's army made a large-scale control of the
territories of the Christian Kingdom, including Shewa, Amhara, Lasta,
and moved as far north as Mereb Melash.
• By 1535, Imam Ahmed's seizures stretched from Zeila to Massawa on
the coast, including the Ethiopian interior.
• As he penetrated deep into the Christian Kingdom, Imam Ahmed
established a civil, administrative bureaucracy constituted by his men
and newly recruited personnel from the Christian territories.
• One of the most helpful figures during the war was the wife of the
Imam, Bati Del Wanbara. She was the daughter of a Muslim military
commander of Adal known as Mahfuz who was killed in 1517 by Libna
Dibgel’s army.
Tradition claimed that Dil Wonbara had encouraged her husband to avenge the
death of her father. She accompanied her husband throughout his expeditions.
Indeed, she delivered her two sons during the campaigns of 1531 and 1533 in
Ifat and present-day Tigray respectively.
On the part of the Christian Kingdom, the military set back forced the reigning
king, Lebne Dengel, to retreat and to live a fugitive life, and finally died in 1540
as a fugitive. His son and successor, Gelawdewos (r. 1540-1559), continued to
face the wars this time with more intensity as Imam Ahmed had received
Turkish musketeers.
In the meantime, based on the earlier request made by Lebne Dengel in 1535,
about four hundred Portuguese soldiers, armed with matchlocks arrived in the
Christian court in 1541.The force was led by Christopher da Gama, the youngest
son of Vasco da Gama.
However, in August 1542 the Christian army was defeated at Ofla, in
today's southern Tigray.
In the battle of Ofla, about two hundred Portuguese were killed and
their leader Christopher da Gama was beheaded.

An important anecdote/story that should be mentioned here is the

role of Lebne-Dengel's wife Seblewongel. She is said to have been
participated in the war against Imam Ahmed or Gragn Ahmed in
1542 when the army of the Christian Kingdom lost almost half of the
Portuguese soldiers.
iii. Foreigners Interventions and the conflict took International Dimension
• Conflict in the Ethiopian region began to take an international dimension
when two foreign powers intervened for their advantage.
• These powers were Portugal and Ottoman Turkey. Since the twelfth
century, Europeans had found the long-distance trade route from Europe
to the Far East that later on blocked by the Ottoman Turks in the mid 15th
century.
• The Ottoman Turkish Empire was already in control of Arabia and Egypt. It
also occupied areas in parts of the Red Sea coast and along the eastern
coast of the Indian Ocean. Ottoman Turkey was an established power in
the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean regions.
• After Vasco da Gama discovered a direct sea route to India for Europe in
1498, the Portuguese began to establish trading stations along the
eastern coasts of Africa.
They were also interested in getting new alliances on the Gulf of Aden and
the Red Sea coasts.
Having noticed the movement of diplomatic missions between the Christian
Kingdoms and Portugal, the Turks gave moral and military support to Imam
Ahmed. Imam Ahmed had received two hundred Turkish Muslim musketeers
and ten cannons in 1540.
In the meantime, based on the earlier request made by Lebna-Dengel in 1535,
about four hundred Portuguese soldiers armed with matchlocks arrived in
the Christian court in 1541 a year later following the death of a fugitive King
Lebna Dengel.The Portuguese army was led by Christopher da Gama,
Having noticed the movement of diplomatic missions between the Christian
Kingdom and Portugal, the Turks gave moral and military support to Imam
Ahmed. In 1540, the Imam turned to his Muslim ally, Turkey, for assistance
and regional Ottoman authorities provided him two hundred Muslim
musketeers and ten cannons.
However, in August 1542, the Christian army was defeated in Ofla, in
today's southern Tigray. In the battle, about two hundred Portuguese and
their leader Christopher da Gama were killed, and the leader was beheaded.

After the success, Imam Ahmed was confident about his army's ability to
repulse any future attack by the force of the Christian Kingdom that he sent
his allies back home and let his army camp.

On the part of the Christians, preparations were made for the final
confrontation under the leadership of Emperor Gelawdewos.

 The Queen's mother, Seble-Wongel, advised the reigning emperor how to

prepare and march for the battle of Woyna-Dega.
After the success, Imam Ahmed was confident about his army’s ability to repulse
any future attack that can be made by the force of the Christian Kingdom. Due to
this reason he sent his allies back home and let his army camp. On the part of
the Christians, preparations were made for final confrontation under the
leadership of Emperor Gelawdewos (r.1540-59). The Queen mother, Seble-
Wongel, advised the reigning emperor how to prepare and march for the battle of
Woyna-Dega. Due to limited resources, the monarch employed hit and run
strategy, which severely affected Imam’s army.
Finally, On February 25, 1543 while Imam Ahmed was encamped near Lake Tana,
he was attacked and killed after a fierce fighting at the battle of Woyna-Dega.
The Aftermath of Woyna Dega’s Victory
Muslim communities in the highlands submitted to Gelawdewos and he was
tolerant towards them to promote national conciliation and to develop revival of
smooth relations with the Muslim world.
Besides, Gelawdewos was able to restore many of the pre-1520s territories and
tributary regions. The king attempted to reconsolidate the state through
campaigns to different areas and camping Chewa (regiment) in border areas. By
the early 1550s, Gelawdewos had established a strong Christian Kingdom.
In the period, the growing challenge to the Christian state came from the
retreating soldiers of the Sultanate of Adal, the Ottoman Turks, Jesuit interlude,
and Oromos advance into the center. Adal under the leadership of Nur Ibn al
Waazir Mujahid was ready to wage war against the Christian state for revenge. In
1559, the forces of Emir Nur confronted Gelawdewos and killed the king himself.
Emperor Minas (r.1559-1563) who succeeded Gelawdewos defeated the Turks'
force and reclaimed territories in the coast including Dabarwa. However, in the
early 1560s, one of the conspirators Yishaq revolted and allied with the Turks
against him ( Minas).
Similarly, Sartsa-Dengle (r.1563-1598) had to defend his territory from the Turks
while fighting with the Agaw, Gumuz, Bete-Israel, Sidama, Enarya and the Oromo.
The emperor then marched to the north, defeated Turkish forces, and restored the
territories.
The Muslim-Christian conflict had resulted in a number of consequences. For instance,
 Consumed huge human lives and material cost
 Both the Muslim Sultanate and Christian Kingdom were weakened thereby paving the way
for an easy infiltration and success of the Oromo population movement
 The destruction and burning of churches and mosques with their precious heritages
 In its positive outcomes, the war had arguably resulted in cultural interaction among the
peoples of Ethiopia. Linguistic and religious interactions accompanied by intermarriages
among peoples of various cultural groups were one of these manifestations in the long
history of Ethiopia and the Horn.
 The foreign powers such as Portuguese and the Ottoman Turkish intervened in the internal
affairs of the country and catalyzed the war.
 In the subsequent period due to the teaching of the Portuguese Catholics religious
controversy was created within the EOC etc.
 Behind the huge human and material cost lost from the two conflictin parties, both the
Muslim Sultanate and the Christian Kingdom were damaged, demoralized and weakened
military, thereby paving the way for easy penetration and success of the Oromo population
movement and their integrations with other
peoples in the 16th century.
5.2. Foreign Intervention and Religious Controversies
The rulers of the Christian Kingdom might have regarded an alliance with Roman
Catholicism as a tactic to secure sufficient modern weaponry and training to
restore its lost territories.
As a result, in 1557, several Jesuit missionaries along with their bishop, Andreas
de Oviedo, came to Ethiopia to expand Catholicism.
The Jesuits promoted Catholic doctrine of two different and therefore separate,
natures of Christ-divine and human, which was contrary to Monophysite theology
of Ethiopian Orthodox Church.
The leading members of the mission who played key role in efforts to evangelize
the country include Joao Bermudez, Andreas de Oviedo, Pedro Paez and
Alfonso Mendez.
But the EOC taught that Christ, through union or Tewahedo had a perfect human
nature inseparable from the divine.
The Jesuits began their evangelical effort with Emperor Gelawdewos (r.1540-59)
, hoping that the rest of the society would follow suit. Gelawdewos listened and
engaged in doctrinal debates with the missionaries, but he was not prepared to
give-up. Instead, he defended the teachings of Orthodox Christianity in a
document entitled the Confession of Faith.
Minas (r.1559-1563) and Sertse-Dengel (r.1563-1598) who succeeded
Gelawdewos(1540-1590) one after the other, were too busy fighting against the
Oromo and the Turkish forces to engage the Jesuits in their courts.
The Jesuits got relative success with Emperor Za-Dengel (r. 1603-4), who was
said to have been sympathetic to Catholicism. Yet Za-Dengel’s reign was too
short for the Jesuits to effect the desired result. Za-Dengel was overthrown by
Yaqob (r. 1604-7), who met a similar fate in the hands of Susenyos (r. 1607-32).
Susenyos who was challenged by provincial leaders who refused to pay tribute,
integrated the Oromo with the forces of the central government to consolidate
his power and stabilize the country.
Probably as a means to resolve this problem , Susenyos sought for an
alliance, which he got through the diplomatic advisory of Pedro Paez. In
1612, Susenyos converted to Catholicism and announced it to be a state
religion later in 1622. In the meantime, in 1617-18 several anti-Catholic
voices mounted following the changes in liturgy and religious practices.
Even worsened the situation, with the monarch’s consent, another
Spanish Jesuit, Afonso Mendez ordered:
Reconsecration of Orthodox priests and deacons and rebaptism of the
mass.
Besides, he called for the suspension of Old Testament customs such as
male circumcision and the observance of the Sabbath.
Additional pronouncements include prohibition of preaching in Ge’ez,
fasting on Wednesdays and Fridays, reverence/honoring or worshiping
for Ethiopian saints and the Holy Ark of Covenant (Tabot).
Meanwhile, he ordered eating pork/pig,
Latin Mass and Gregorian calendar to be adopted.
Thus, the catholic reforms led to revolts headed by the ecclesiastics and
the nobility of EOC adherents. Even loyal followers of the emperor
including his own son Fasiledas (r. 1632-1667) were opposed to the
changes initiated by the Jesuits.
Due to the above factors, after 1625, controversies, rebellions,
repressions mounted and the state came to the verge of falling apart. In a
battle in June 1632, large number of peasants lost their lives in one day.
Finally, emperor Susenyos abdicated the throne in favor of his son
Fasiledas, who reversed the Catholic transformation, and restored the
EOC in to its former position.
Consequently, after he came to power Emperor Fasiledas (r. 1632-1667) did the following
things and too various measures:namely:
 Restored the position of Orthodox Church as the state religion, and by doing so
Fasiledas was able to restore peace and order.
 Expelled the Jesuits and punished local converts including Susenyos’ brother and the
most fervent supporter of Catholicism, Se'ela Kristos.
 Fearing another religious conflict, Emperor Fasiledas introduced a “closed-door” policy,
which isolated the country from all Europeans for about a century and a half. Ethiopia’s
diplomatic break from Europe remained effective until the beginning of the nineteenth
century with the exception of secret visits by a French Doctor Charles Jacques Poncet
and the Scottish traveler James Bruce in 1700 and 1769, respectively.
 Conversely, he initiated and adopted a policy of close diplomatic relations with the
Islamic world and formed an alliance with the neighboring Muslim states to ensure that
no European crossed into the Christian Kingdom. As a result, in 1647, he concluded an
agreement with the Ottoman Pasha at Suakin and Massawa to the effect that the latter
should block any European from entering in to his territory.
In the subsequent period, the Jesuit Catholics intervention triggered doctrinal
divisions and controversy within the Ethiopian Orthodox Church that was divided
into disputant sects and reached its peak during the Zemene Mesafint
(1769-1855).Those disputant sects were the following:
i. Tewahedo teaches Hulet Lidet (two births) of Christ: first in eternity as a Divine
Being the eternal birth and second, born again from St. Mary into the world as a
perfect man and perfect divinity united in one nature, thus Tewahedo (United). It
was dominant in Tigray and Lasta.
ii. Qibat (Unction) was also developed from Hulet Lidet doctrine and accepted the
eternal birth as the first birth of Christ, but claimed that at the moment of his
incarnation ( ende sew siga melbes) , when he was born into the world, Holy
Ghost anointed him. This sect was dominant in Gojjam.
iii.Sost Lidet/Three Births (Ya Tsega Lij/Son through Grace) taught that Christ was
first born in eternity as divine being, was born again in the womb of St. Mary and
anointed by Holy Ghost. This sect was dominant in Gonder and Shawa.
However, this problem was finally resolved at the Boru Meda Meeting held in
1880s under Emperor Yohanes iv where Tewahido doctrine was declared to be
the only doctrine of the national religion called Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido
Church .
5.3.1. Population Movements of the Argoba, Afar, Somali, and the Oromos
In addition to the environmental factors and population pressure, the military conflict
between the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal in the late fifteenth and the early
sixteenth centuries for reasons of political supremacy and economic domination mainly
controlling the long distance trade routes was partly responsible for the population
movement of the Argoba, Afar and Somali, including the Oromos.
i.The Argoba: the Argoba were major agents of Islamic expansion, trade and Muslim state
formation in the Horn. For instance, the sultanate of Shewa and Ifat were established by the
Makhzumite and Walasma Dynasties respectively.
Towards the end of the thirteenth century, the sultanate of Shewa moved further to the
east as the result of the pressure from the Christian Kingdom. The sultanate of Ifat, in
which the Argoba were dominant, became the center of Muslim resistance for it was a
target of the expanding Christian Kingdom and was the major center of conflict due to the
fact that the major caravan trade routes passed through it.
Thus, on the eve of the wars of Imam Ahmed al Ghazi, the Argoba joined the Afar and the
Somali against the Christian Kingdom. As a result, the Christian-Muslim rivalry and the
conflicts thereof led to the destruction of sultanates and dispersion of the people. The
enduring effect of the conflict can be observed from the fragmented settlement patterns
of the people.
ii.The Afar: before the sixteenth century, due to drought, the Afar moved towards
the east until they reached the middle Awash. Trade routes linking the ports in the
Horn passed through the Afar's territory. As a result, the region was the center of
competition between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim sultanates to control
the trade routes. The conflict inevitably pressurized the Afar to move into different
directions to avoid the risk of the conflicts.

iii.The Somali: their territory lay in the region traversed by major trade routes
during medieval period. Prior to the sixteenth century wars between the Christian
Kingdom and the Muslim Sultanates, there was environmental pressure on Somali
inhabited areas.
Before the wars of Imam Ahmed al-Ghazi, there was strong demographic
pressure from the Somali.
The population movement of the Somali was a strong force behind the military
strength of the Imam. However, the population movement of the Somali did not
last for long as they returned to their home base following the defeat of Imam
Ahmed in 1543.
5.3.2. The Gadaa System and the Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)
The Oromos : The Oromos are an indigenous large Cushitic language speaker
people of Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa..
According to Oromo oral traditions, the original homeland of the Oromo before
the sixteenth century was the south-central part of Ethiopia's highlands called
Madda Walabu, located on the Bale- Sidama borderlands.

The Gadaa System was the socio-political institution of the Oromo developed
and functioned over thousands of years through which the Oromo socially
organized themselves, administered their affairs, defended their territories,
maintained law and order, and managed their economies under this institution.
In the system, eight years represented one Gadaa period, 5-gadaa periods or
40 years represented one generation and nine generations represented an era.
Gadaa was interrupted and revitalized during various eras because of various
internal and external factors. For instance, the Borana-Barentu Gadaa was
instituted after interruption for nearly two generations. It was revived in 1450 at
Madda Walabu that became the central Chaffe (assembly) and seat of
the senior Qallu until the 19 century..
th
The Gadaa system constituted elements of democracy such as
periodic succession and power sharing to prevent a one-man rule.
Other principles of the system included representation of all
lineages, clans and confederacies.
The Gada’s Age-grades and their roles
The head of the government in the gada institution was known as Abba-
Gadaa literally “father of the people and leader of the period” assumed for
four years and who was assisted by several elected representatives from
among the generation set. These included:
 Abba Bokku (father of scepter),
 Abba Chaffe (head of the assembly),
 Abba-Dula (war leader),
 Abba Sera (father of law),
 Abba Alanga (judge),
 Abba Sa'a (father of treasury)
 Abba Muda (the father of anointment)and other councilors.
In the Gadaa system, the senior Qallu (Abba Muda) played indispensable
ritual roles in power transfer and legitimizing the ruling gadaa class.
Women maintained their rights by the Sinqe institution, which helped them
to form sisterhood, social position and role, and solidarity.
Women maintained their rights by the Sinqe institution, which
helped them to form sisterhood and solidarity. Women from
childhood to old age i.e. guduru (pre-pubescent), qarre (adolescent,
ready for marriage), kalale (wives of Luba and Yuba) and cifire
(wives of Gadamojji/above 80 years) were believed to have sacred
power. They involved in occasions like power transfer, conflict
resolution, thanks-giving and others. The kalale were also privileged
to support and advise the ruling class.

The Gadaa system functioned by the cyclical power transfer from

one Gadaa class to the next every eight years. With some minor
differences in nomenclature in different parts of Oromo territories,
the five Gadaa classes (generation sets) are listed below:
 The Five Gadaa Classes

Fathers Sons
Melba Harmufa
Mudena Robale
Kilole Birmajii
Bifole Mul’ata
Michille Dulo
 The Oromo’s Movement and Expansion in the Sixteenth century(1522
to 1618)
Factors for the movement were both natural and man made; namely:
Demographic pressure and the need for fertile land for further
settlement
The need for enough pasture land for their livestock population.
The conflict between the Christian Kingdoms and Muslim Sultanates
that forced the Oromo to leave the lands they inhabited and to move
to other areas.
The movement was set out in two major directions in the Ethiopian
region. The Barentu moved out in to a northeast direction. The Borana
followed a north-westerly direction. They also moved out in the
directions of Kenya and Somalia outside the Ethiopian region.
Long before their expansion, the Oromo people were divided into
two major confederacies: the Barentu and the Borana confederacies
that constituted smaller divisions and clans. They were:
i. The Borana confederacy consisted of Mecha, Tulama, southern
Borana and Guji clans.
ii. The Barentu was composed of the Karayu, Marawa, Ittu, Humbana,
Akachu, Wollo and Arsi clans.

The movement took places in two stages.

i. The first stage was the period of a small and slow movement in the
first half of the sixteenth century.
ii. The second large scale stage started around the mid-sixteenth
century and lasted up to 1618.
At the beginning, the Oromo forces took northern direction and passed
through a corridor between Mount Walabu and Lake Abaya. When they
reached halfway between two Lakes Abaya and Hawassa, they took
westward. First, they penetrated across the Bilatte River to the southwest.
Then they headed northwards to the lake's region of the Rift Valley.
From 1522 to 1618, the Oromo fought twelve Butta wars. They were;
i. The first Gadaa, i.e. Melba Gadda (1522-1530), fought and defeated the
Christian regiment Batra Amora led by Fasil and occupied Bali.
ii. Gadaa Mudena (1530-8) reached the edge of Awash River.
iii. Kilole Gadaa (1538-46) controlled Dawaro after defeating Christian
regiment Adal Mabraq
iv. Bifole Gadda (1546-54) advanced to Waj and Erer.
v. Michille Gadda (1554-62) scored a victory over Hamalmal's force at
Dago, Jan Amora forces, and Adal led by Emir Nur Mujahiddin at Mount
Hazalo.
vi. The Harmufa (1562-70) fought Minas (r.1559-63) at Qacina and
Wayyata; occupied Angot, Ganzyi, Sayint etc.
vii. In 1574, Sartsa Dingil's (r.1563-97) cavalry led by Azzaj Halibo
defeated Robale Gadaa (1570-78) at Woyna Daga. However, Robale
recovered by defeating Zara'a Yohannis' force.
viii. The Birmaji (1578-86) controlled Ar'ine in Waj, crossed Jama
River to Wolaqa and overwhelmed the Daragoti regiment.
ix. The Mul’ata (1586-94) seized Damot, Bizamo, Gafat, Dambiya and
Tigray.
x. In the early seventeenth century, the Dulo (1594-1602), ix.) Melba
(1603-10), and xii) the Mudena (1610-18) expanded to the West and
Northern parts of the Horn of Africa while others like the Warday
moved to Kenya and Bur Haqaba and Majertin in Somalia.
In addition to the wars between the Christian Kingdoms and Muslim Sultanates,
the leadership and military organization of the Oromo under the Gadaa system
played a crucial role in the success of the Oromo population movement and
expansion.
During their movement and expansion into various regions, different Oromo
branches established Gadaa centers. These centers were:
 Oda Nabee of Tulama (East Shewa),
Oda Roba of Sikko-Mando (Arsi),
Oda Bultum of Itu-Humbenna (Hararge),
 Oda Bisil of Mecha (West Shewa) and
Oda Bulluq of Jawwi Mecha (Horro-Guduru).
Other places, which became Gadaa centres, were Gayo of Sabbo-Gona, Me'e
Bokko of Guji, Oda Dogi of Ilu, Oda Hulle of Jimma, Oda Garad of Wallo, etc.
Gadaa leaders such as Dawe Gobbo of Borana, Anna Sorra of Guji, Makko-Bili of
Mecha, Babbo Koyye of Jimma and others established Gadaa centers as well.
 However, various Oromo groups kept their relations through the office of
Abba Muda (the father of anointment) seated at Madda Walabu and formed
alliances during times of difficulty. Besides, they obeyed similar culture and
law (Seera) by sending their delegates to Madda-Walabu, the central Chaffe.
The expansion was successful probably due to the following reasons:
namely:
During expansion both the Sultanate of Adal and the Christian kingdom were
very much exhausted and weakened due to the wars of the first half of the
sixteenth century.
According to their tradition, the Gadaa system consistently provided war
training and able to create efficient military organizations.
Almost all able members of the society participated in wars. So, it was a
large-scale expansion that made it difficult to stop by others.
The Oromos made wide and good use of the cavalry horse force
An Oromo institution which seems to have facilitated the expansion was two
adoption mechanisms: called Guddifacha and Moggasa.
Consequences of the expansion: The Oromo population movement and
expansion brought about fundamental changes in the Ethiopian region.
And the Horn
i. Ethnic and cultural intermixtures took place between the Oromo and
other peoples of the region.
ii. Besides their military might, the Oromos integrated non-Oromos through
two adoption mechanisms: Guddifacha and Moggasa.
Guddifacha refers to the adoption of a child by a foster parent. In this
system, the child enjoyed equal rights and privileges as a biological child.
Likewise, Moggasa was a system of adopting non-Oromos commonly
known as Oromsu. Moggasa was the practice of incorporation of
individuals or groups to a clan through oath of allegiance/adherence with
all the rights and obligations. It was undertaken by the Abba Gadaa on
behalf of the clan. The adopted groups gained both protection and
material benefits.
  In some instances, the Oromos either destroyed or annexed the old states of the
kingdoms of Damot, Bizamo and Ennarya. The peoples of Damot and Gafat were
either assimilated with the Oromo or forced to move out from the south to the north
and intermingle with the Christian community of the neighboring areas.

 As a result of the growing power and pressure of the Oromos, the traditional power
and seizures of the Christian kingdom was greatly disturbed and overshadowed by
the Oromo population movement and expansion.
As a result, the economic, territorial and military strengths of the kingdom were highly
weakened. It was forced to shift its political center from Shewa in the south to Lake Tana
area north and then Gondar.

 On the other hand, the powerful Sultanate of Adal was reduced to the walled town of
Harar as the result of the Oromo expansion due to its fear and the need for defending
themselves.
After the death of Iman Ahmed, the Muslims of Adal was reorganized under Emir Nur
Mujahid who launched an offensive war against the Christian kingdom and killed King
Gelawdewos in the Awash valley in 1559.
 However, since most of the Harar area was occupied by the
Oromos, Emir Nur Mujahid built a stone wall around the town of
Harar, which is known as the Harar Jegol Gimb. This led to the end
of an age-old conflict between Adal and the Christian kingdom.

 Following their movement and expansion, the Oromo became

largely sedentary agriculturists. Subsequently, the great majority of
them also adopted Christianity and Islam.
 Later on, in the 19th century they were able to form monarchical
form of kingdoms of their own in the Ethiopian region, mainly in
the Gibe River region such as the Kingdom of Jima, Enarya, Gera,
Guma etc.
 5.5. Peoples and States in Eastern, Central, Southern and Western Regions
5.5.1. Peoples and States in the East
i. Somali
The Somali practiced pastoral economy and moved between places for
centuries possibly in search of sufficient pasture.
Historically, a council known as shir governed the society. The guurti (a
council of elders) was the highest political council mandated with resolving
conflict and crisis.
The decision making process was highly democratic in which all-adult males
were allowed equal access and participation. It governed wide-ranging affairs
including resource allocation, marriage, trade and crime.
i. Afar
The Afar predominantly lived in northeastern Ethiopia and in northern Djibouti,
although some have also inhabited southern part of Eritrea.
The Afar people were first mentioned by Ibn Said of Islamic writer.
During the thirteenth century, they occupied the lowland territory near Bab el-
Mandeb.
The Afar had an indigenous governance system known as Makabanto, which has
some elements of democracy.
The land inhabited by the Afars was home for many historical cities such as
Maduna and Abasa.
Following the collapse of the power of Sultanate of Adal in the sixteenth century,
the Afar established their sultanates like Awsa, Girrifo, Tadjourah, Rahaito and
Gobad.
Awsa Sultanate succeeded the earlier Imamate of Awsa in the middle Awash. The
latter polity had come into existence in 1577, when Mohammed Jasa moved his
capital from Harar to Awsa.
At some point after 1672, Awsa declined and temporarily ended in conjunction
with Imam Umar Din bin Adam's recorded ascension to the throne.
The Sultanate was subsequently reestablished by Kedafo around 1734, and was
thereafter ruled by his Mudaito Dynasty. Primary symbol of the Sultan was silver
baton/rod or stick.
Awsa’s economy mainly depended on Bati Ginda’e trade route. Later it became
center of Islamic learning led by preachers like Tola Hanfire.
i. Argoba
Early reference to the people of Argoba is insufficient. There are two versions on
the origin of the people of Argoba. The first version holds that they descended
from the followers of the Prophet Mohammed who came to the Horn of Africa
and settled at Ifat. The second version claims that the origin of the Argoba is
not related with Muslim-Arab immigrants. More plausibly, the Argoba are one of
the ancient peoples in the region that accepted Islam very early from religious
leaders who came from Arabia.
V. The Emirate of Harar
Harar is one of the earliest Muslim centers in the region of Ethiopia and the
Horn. In the
sixteenth century, Harar became the capital of Walasma of Adal replacing Dakar
until 1577 when it was shifted to Awsa due to the pressure from the Oromo.
Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim used Harar as a center from where he launched his
campaigns into the Christian kingdom in 1527. Later during the reign of Emir Nur
Mujahid, Harar became a walled city where the sultanate of the Harari
developed.
In the mid seventeenth century, Emir Ali ibn Da’ud (r. 1647-62) in cooperation
with the Oromo established a dynasty which was to rule for nearly two centuries
and a half.
It was strengthened by Amirs like Abdul Shakur (1783-94). The Amir’s council,
Majilis engaged in supervising Mosque land, Waqf, and offering other assistance
to the Amir. The emirate grew in importance to be a steady center of Islamic
culture and power.
Its authority was established over the surrounding Oromo and Somali through
trade, inter-marriage, and expansion of Islamic teachings.
Egyptians were attracted by such a prominence that they sent an expeditionary
force in 1875 and controlled the emirate for nearly a decade.
Although it was later restored, and ruled by Amir Abdulahi, as the last emir of
the Sultanate for two years, Emperor Menilek’s expansion to the region shortly
followed in 1887.
5.5.2. Peoples and States in Central and South-Central Parts
i. The Kingdom of Shewa
The Kingdom of Shewa was formed by a Menz ruler Negasi Kristos
(r.1696-1703) and eventually controlled districts like Asandabo, Debdabo,
Mafud and Yifat. Shewa’s economy was mainly based on agriculture
supplemented by trade and craft.
The second king was Merid Azmatch Sebestie/Sebastyanos (r.1703-18).
Abuye/ Abiyye (1718-45) made Haramba, his capital and tried to subjugate
the surrounding Oromo before he was killed by the Karrayu Oromo.
In addition to his unsuccessful attempts to control the Afar and Abitchu
Oromo, Amaha Iyesus/ Amayyes (r.1745-75) declared authority over Bulga,
Efrata, Menz and Tegulet with his capital at Doqaqit which later shifted to
Ankober. Asfa-Wosen (r.1775- 1808) conquered Antsokia, Asbo, Gedem,
Gishe, Merhabete, Morat and Shewa Meda.
The dynasty became very strong under Negus Sahle-Sellasie (r.1813-47), the
grandfather of Emperor Menilek II. During his reign, many travelers visited
Shewa and he even signed “treaty of friendship and commerce” with the
British in 1841. Near the capital, Ankobar, there was an important trade center
in Aleyu Amba administered by the Shewan court.

ii.Gurage
• The Gurage are divided into the Western and Northern Gurage.
 The Western are also known as Sebat Bet Gurage and include: Chaha, Muher,
Ezha, Gumer (Inamor, Enner, Endegegna and Gyeto).
 The Northern are variously known as Kistane, Aymallal or Soddo Gurage.
Additional groups included Dobbi, Gadabano and Masqan.
The Gurage had traditional system of governance developed over centuries
known as the Yajoka Qicha among the Sebat Bet Gurage and the Gordanna
Sera among the Kistane. They had no centralized leadership. Power was
vested in clan or lineage groups. The Gurage grow different types of crops
and domesticated animals. The staple crop in Gurage land is enset.
 iii.Kambata
By about 1550-70, four communities of separate origin coalesced/merged to
form the contemporary state of Kambata.
 The first one, Kambata in the narrow sense, had its original homeland
around Mount Hambericho in the heartland of Kambata territory.
 The other three namely the Dubamo, Donga and Tembaro trace their
homeland from Sidama highlands.
• The people were ensete farmers sharing similar culture and speaking the
same language called Kambatissa, which belongs to the Highland East
Cushitic family together with Qabena, Halaba, Hadiya, Sidama, Gedeo and
Burji groups.
• Kambata also benefitted from Omotic and Semitic peoples who moved into
the region at different times.
• Emperor Yeshak (r.1413-30) annexed Kambata proper and controlled the
area between Omo and Bilate Rivers, which he incorporated into the Christian
Ethiopian Empire.
 In 1532, the region was captured by Imam Ahmed’s army, which furthered the interaction of
peoples.
At the end of the sixteenth century, the groups were recognized as and conscious of the
name Kambata related to one of the seven dominant clans (Kambata Lamala) in the region.
The Kambata had a traditional administrative institution called the Hambericho Council. The
council had seven members each representing the seven clans in the region. With a king at
the top, the council ruled Kambata until the late nineteenth century.
iv.Hadiya
The origin of the state of Hadiya goes back to the thirteenth century. The Hadiya language
belongs to the Highland East Cushitic family.
It was mentioned in the Kebre-Negest (Glory of the Kings) and it referred to the area west of
the Islamic states in the federation of Zeila.
The people were heterogeneous both linguistically and culturally. Semitic-speaking
agricultural people dominated north of the state while the southern part was largely inhabited
by Cushitic-speaking pastoral communities. There was a considerable Muslim population.
By about 1332, the ruler of the Christian kingdom, Amde-Tsion, subjugated
Hadiya after defeating its ruler, Amano who supported by a Muslim
“prophet” Bel’am aligned with the then leader of Ifat, Sabraddin to confront
the Christian force.
From the thirteenth to the sixteenth centuries, Hadiya’s political importance
was considerablewith sizable population and vast territory.
In 1445, a Hadiya Garad (king) called Mahiqo rebelled against Emperor
Zara-Yaqob (r.1434-68) and was consequently replaced by his uncle Bamo.
To stabilize the situation, Zara-Yaqob made a political marriage.
Accordingly, PrincessElleni, from Hadiya, who became an important
historical figure, married Emperor ZaraYaqob.
Another Hadiya leader, Garad Aze refused to pay tribute to Emperor Sartsa-
Dengel(r.1563-98), but was suppressed in 1568/9.
The relation between Hadiya and the Christian Kingdom was
interrupted following the warsbetween the latter and Adal and the
Oromo population movement until Hadiya'sincorporation into the
Imperial state of Ethiopia in the late nineteenth century.

After these two major historical events especially the latter, Hadiya’s
population became more diverse.
However, descendants of the old historical Hadiya can be traced
from four different linguistic clusters: the Oromo, the Sidama, the
Kabena and Alaba, and the Hadiya proper with its sub-groups-the
Mareko, Lemu, Soro, Shashogo and Badowacho.
5.5.3. Peoples and States in the South
Historically, the Sidama have been living in the southern parts of Ethiopia .
Agriculture was the basis of Sidama’s economy while Enset and coffee are their important
staple food and cash crops respectively.
The Sidama had an indigenous system of governance led by the Mote (king) who
exercised political andadministrative authority in consultation with the council of elders
called Songo. Songo members raised any agenda for discussion within the council and
submitted their decisions to the Mote for approval.
The cultural and ritual leader in Sidama society was the Woma who was selected for his
ability as a peacemaker, bodily perfection, oratorical ability, wisdom and caution. The
Woma could not participate in war or cattle raiding as he was considered a man of peace.
The Woma handled cultural matters such as offering sacrifices to the spirits. He also
performed other rituals such as circumcision and marriage.
Sidama society was divided into generation-sets called Luwa. The system had five grades
each lasting for eight years. These are Darara, Fullassa, Hirbora, Wawassa and Mogissa.
Candidates for Luwa received a five-month military training and war songs like
gerarsha under the leadership of the gaden with his deputy called Ja’lawa. The
gaden settled disputes within his Luwa, besides handling the defense of Sidama
society together with the Mote.
Another important institution of Sidama society is Seera. Seera was the social
unwritten constitution of the Sidama people governing social life based on the
Sidama moral code, halale (the ultimate truth) to judge the right and wrong.
ii.Gedeo
Contradictory traditions exist regarding the origin of the Gedeo people. The
dominant
tradition relates the ancestors of the Gedeo to Daraso, who was the older
brother of Gujo (father of Guji Oromo). Accordingly, the seven major Gedeo clans
descended from the seven sons of Daraso.
The Gedeo shared a very close language with Sidama, and their economy was
based on the cultivation of enset.
The Gedeo clans were grouped in two houses, namely:
 shole batte (senior house) where the first four clans belonged including more
than 25 sub-clans.
 sase batte (junior house) where the last three belonged having 10 sub-clans.
Each clan was exogamous and was assigned for particular duty such as ritual,
traditional medicine or leadership.
The Gedeo had a culture of traditional governance system called baalle, that
worked with age classes and ranking. The baalle had seven grades with a 10-
year period each creating a 70- year cycle.
Sasserogo was a federation of three territories; Sobbho, Ributa and Rikuta
sharing one Abba Gadaa who leaves office every eight years to be replaced by a
new holder with the next age set at baalle ceremony. It was at this ceremony
that all positions ranging from the top, Abba Gada down to Hayitcha were
assumed.
iii. Konso
The name Konso is invariably used to refer one of the ancient peoples in
Ethiopia and the Horn who spoke affa Konso (Konso language) and their land.
Agriculture was and remains to be the major economic activity of the Konso.
Farmers practiced a fairly balanced and integrated system of specialized
agricultural technology. They adopted soil conservation techniques notably the
construction of terraces and selecting plant varieties that withstood harsh
climatic conditions.
Besides agriculture, Konso’s economy depended on bee keeping and craftworks.
Until the late nineteenth century, the Konso people lived in walled villages
(paletas) which were further divided into wards called Kanta.
Each village was ruled by a council of elders called hayyota who were selected
through direct participation of male members of the village. Membership to the
council was not hereditary but rotated every eighteen years.
The Konso were divided into nine exogamous clans namely Toqmaleta, Elayta,
Saudata, Pasanta, Kertita, Ishalayta, Mahaleta, Tikisayta and Argamyta.
5.5.4. Peoples and States in Southwestern Part
i.Wolayta
According to local traditions, before the emergence of Wolayta as a political unit, the
area was inhabited by different communities such as the Badia, Badiagadala and Aruja.
From the thirteenth to the late fourteenth and from fifteenth the late nineteenth
centuries, two successive dynasties ruled Wolayta were both the Wolayta-Malla
established by its ruler Motalami and the Wolayta Tigre respectively. According to their
tradition, the later called Tigre because it was supposedly founded by Tigreans from
northern Ethiopia.
At the apex of the social and political hierarchy was the Kawo (king), assisted by a
council of advisors. All land was nominally owned by the king who granted it to his
dependents.
There were also communal lands allocated for grazing and social gatherings to which all
members of the society except artisans had equal access. Except those who worked on
the royal estate, all landholders paid tribute to the kawo,
 king. The dominant food crop was enset (Enset Ventricosum).
ii. Kafa
 According to traditions, this powerful kingdom emerged in the fourteenth century. Around
mid seventeenth century, the state had come to prominence.
 The ruling Minjo dynasty and the medieval kingdom of Ennarya had close contact. The Oromo expansion
might have forced the ruling house of Ennarya to flee south of the Gojeb which as a result brought Christianity
and the royal title called Tato to Kafa.
 The Tato was assisted by a council of seven advisors called Mikrecho. The Mikrecho served to moderate the
power of the king but they played important roles in succession as well.
 At the apex of the administration of the kingdom was the Tato with his major political center at Bonga.
Another seat of power was Andarcha, seven miles to southeast.
 Kafa’s economy was based on the cultivation of enset on peasant farms supported by trade. Besides working
on their land, peasants rendered free labor service and tilled royal estates with the support of slaves who were
acquired through raiding or trading, or as payment for debt.
 They traded with the Gibe Oromo states and the major trade items, such as musk, coffee, slaves, Ivory, gold,
honey-wax, and civet were exported via markets like Tonkolla, Tiffa, Qeya etc.
 The Kafa had a tradition of digging deep trenches called Kuripo as defensive barrier. The Gojeb also served as
natural protection against external invasion and it might have contributed to their relative independence until
1897 when annexed by Emperor Menilik II’s army.
iii. Yem
The Yem state was located along the eastern banks of the Gibe or to the northeast of the
Kafa
kingdom. Its economy mixed agriculture, trade and crafts.
Initially, an indigenous dynasty called Dida or Halmam-Gamma ruled Yem from its palace in
Dudarkema/Zimarma near Oya, in the vicinity of Bor Ama Mountain.
The Amno (king) of Yem acted as a political leader and chief priest with attributes of
divinity.
A state council of 12 members named Astessor with its chairperson Waso assisted the
Amno in administering the state.
Erasho were the provincial governors and they were responsible for digging ditches called
bero and erecting nearly fifty-meter wooden or iron pillars at the center of the kingdom
around Brisi Bita. So that the war father, the Nomiaw, could patrol the surroundings.
Special messengers, Wosi carried orders from Amno down to district chiefs, Gagna and
vice versa.
In the fourteenth century, the last King Oyokam/Amo Dasha was overthrown by people
from the north who founded a new dynasty called Mowa (Howa) with its center at Angari.
In the nineteenth century, the neighboring state of Jimma Abba Jifar tried to control the Yem
which itself was absorbed into the Imperial state of Ethiopia under Emperor Menilek II
towards the end of the century.

iv. Gamo
Historically, the Gamo inhabited areas from Lakes Chamo and Abaya to the Gughe Mountain
and beyond.
The Gamo’s physical landscape divided into two: the geze (highland) and the bazo (lowland).
The Gamo people had/have a set of interrelated indigenous laws called the Woga. The laws
had their origin in a belief that everything was connected and bound in a delicate balance. It
was a traditional socio-cultural management system that governed everything beginning
from interpersonal and family relationships to the conservation and preservation of pasture,
forest, soil, and water.
The cultivation of enset had been central to the subsistence of Gamo highlands while maize
and sweet potato were staple food crops in the lowlands. Other crops grown in the highlands
included barely, wheat, teff, peas, beans and cabbage. Besides farming, most farmers kept
cattle for food, farming and manure, which they needed for successful agriculture. Craft
making, pot making, tanning and metalworking were other modes of the subsistence system.
The Gamo people had developed their own indigenous knowledge and technologies in
manufacturing different types of tools and weapons, traditional musical and funeral
instruments, weaving colorful textiles etc.
The first mention/reference of the Gamo in written records dates back to the fifteenth
century in the praise songs of King Yishak (r.1413-30). The song mentioned the Gamo as
one of the tributary states to the monarch.
Between the sixteenth and the nineteenth centuries, the Gamo lived in scattered
settlements and organized in different communities called Dere.
The dere were politically autonomous villages (units) but shared three essential features.
These were:
1) each dere had kawo (hereditary ruler) who also offered sacrifices and symbolized the
unity of the people.
2) every dere had its own initiates called halaqa and;
(3) every dere had its own assembly place called dubusha, where communal matters were
discussed and disputes resolved.
Access to politico-ritual status among the Gamo people was made possible through
initiation
or election and baira, a system of seniority. The two systems functioned both in opposition to
each other as well as complementarily. For instance,
a)Through initiation or election the dulata (assembly) elected married men to positions that
were known by different names from one dere to another. In some dere it was called halaqa,
in others it was known by the name huduga or maga. Election to this office was open to all
married able men and accorded representatives with provisional political authority.
The dulata, assembly, had an institutional authority to give decisions on different social,
political and many other important matters. The assembly had also the power to impose
sanctions as penalty on individuals or groups who committed serious crimes or violated the
community’s social regulations and cultural values.
a)The second system, the baira, was ascribed and largely based on genealogical seniority
according to primogeniture. The Gamo people were distributed in agnatic/paternal clans
each having a system of individual genealogical hierarchy. The baira (senior) of the clan had
a privilege over lineage members. The baira made animal sacrifice on behalf of their juniors
at all levels of the community.
The senior sacrificer of the dere is the kawo. The concept of kawo refers to the first rank
status, with variable attributes and he was legitimatized by birth and primogeniture. The kawo
represented the unity of dere and played an important role in relations with the outside world
or their neighbors.
 v.Dawuro
Dawro people who lived in the mountainous and plateau areas at the central, and lowland
and plain at Gojeb and Omo river basins livelihood was based on mixed agricultural
activities.
The language of Dawuro people is Dawurotsuwa, a sub-group of the Omotic family.
Historically, Dawuro land had been inhabited by three major clans namely Malla, Dogolla,
and Amara which altogether were regarded as Gok’as or K’omos.
A political alliance through royal marriages was one important factor that facilitated the
movement of people from neighboring territories into Dawuro.
By about 1700, the Kawuka dynasty had created a big state from a great number of petty
chieftainships on the territory between the Gojeb and Omo rivers in the north, east and
south and the Kafa high mountains in the west.
Among the rulers of the Kawuka dynasty of Dawuro, Kati Irashu and Kati Halala were
famous. Kati Halala was the grandson of the king of Kafa. During his reign, Dawuro
incorporated Konta. He is known for the construction of his stone fortifications, which he
oversaw to defend his territories from outsiders.
Vi.Ari
The Omo River basin had been home to different groups of people since early
times. These included the Ari, Dasenech, Tsemayi, Erbore, Hamer, Surma,
Meniet, Nyangatom, Bodi, Male, etc. Major economic activities in the region
were sedentary agriculture, pastoralism and handcrafts.
The language of the Ari people is called Araf, which is one branch of the Omotic
language family. The people were sedentary agriculturalist.
The society was organized into ten independent clan based chiefdoms.
Hereditary clan chief known as Babi headed each of these chiefdoms. The clan
chief was entitled with both political and ritual authorities over the people of his
respective domain.
The clan chief was assisted by officially appointed prominent figures in the
administration of the political unit. The assistants included Godimis (religious
leaders), Zis (village heads) and Tsoikis (intelligence agents of Babi).
5.5.5. Peoples and States in the West
i.Berta and Gumuz
The Berta people inhabited in the present-day Beni-Shangul Regional State. The
earliest record of Berta settlement in this region dates from the sixteenth century.
The Berta people speak the Berta language (a branch of the Nilo-Saharan linguistic
group) as their mother tongue.
In addition to the Berta, the Beni-Shangul is home for the Gumuz people. They are
mentioned by the Scottish explorer James Bruce.
Islamic influence had been strong on the Berta and other Nilotes because of their
trade and social contacts with the northern Sudan.
ii. Anywa
Historically, the Anywa predominantly inhabited areas along Pibor, Sobat, Gila,
Akobo, Agwei, Oboth, Baro, and Alwero Rivers on the western borderlands of the
present-day Gambella region.
They speak a language called Dha-anywaa, a sub-branch of the Nilo- Saharan
language family.
The Anywa had an indigenous administrative system whereby each village lived
under a chief called Kuaari who along with the nobles, Nyiye, managed the
distribution of farm and grazing fields, settled disputes etc with the community.
Although local traditions mention a certain person by the name Oshoda as the
founding father of the Anywa, the administration of the territory was not centralized.
Economically they were engaged in small scale cultivation, fishing and hunting.
While most Anywa practiced Christianity, they also believed in traditional religion.
iii. Nuer
Historically, the Nuer lived in areas that extended across the savannas and marshes
of the Bahr el-Ghazal and the Upper Nile regions of the Sudan.
Nuer’s economy was cattle herding and breeding supplemented by crop production.
The Nuer had an age-set system combining social and political functions. Nuer
boys had to pass through a rigorous test and a series of rites connected with it
before they were initiated into adulthood.
Since the nineteenth century, they had been largely settled in the plains of Gambella
along the Sobat and Baro Rivers and parts of the Sudan.
iv.Majang
The Majang formed the southern end of the Nilo-Saharan settlement that covered the
escarpment of the Oromo inhabited highlands to the Baro plains. Linguistic evidence
relates the origin of the Majang to the Boma plateau in South Sudan.
Gradually, they moved northwards and settled in forested areas of western Ethiopia. By
mid twentieth century, their settlement extended to areas near Dembi-Dollo in the north.
Economically, the Majang practiced shifting cultivation and animal husbandry, including
beekeeping, hunting and fishing.
V. The Kunama
The Kunama people also called the Baza are one of the ancient inhabitants of western
Eritrea on the Gash and Tekkeze Rivers and in today’s northwestern and western Tigray.
The Arab traveller al-Ya‛qubi in 872 A.D. mentions the kingdom of Baza, which is a self-
designation of the Kunama.
The Kunama had a customary institution called sanga-anene where the office was held
only by male members of the society that transmitted hereditarily.
The backbone of Kunama’s economy is mixed agriculture based on the use of hoe,
spades, sickles and ox (or camel)-drawn plough.
5.4.1. The Gondarine Period and Zemene-Mesafint
5.4..1. The Gondarine Period ( 1636-1769)
A. Political Developments
The early beginning of the period of Gondar began from the reign of
Emperor Sartsa-Dengle (r.1563-1598),who was the second
successor of Gelawdewos( 1540-59) next to King Minas ( 1559-63),
when the political center of Ethiopian emperors shifted to Gondar
area. Emperor Sartsa-Dengle established royal camp at Enfranz in
1571.

Emperor Susenyos (r. 1607-32) also tried to establish his capital

near Gondar in such places as Qoga, Gorgora, Danqaz and Azazo.
Finally Gondar was founded as a permanent royal seat in 1636 when
Emperor Fasiledas (r. 1632-1667) established his political seat there.
Gondar achieved its glory during the reigns of its first three successive
emperors: King Fasiledas
(r.1632–67), Yohannes I (r.1667-82) and Iyasu I (r.1682- 1706).
Some of the major reforms during these periods were:
 the restoration of Orthodox Church as state religion,
 the establishment of a royal prison at Amba Wahni to resolve
problems stemming from power rivalry.
 Emperor Yohannes I and his council established a separate quarter for
Muslims at Addis Alem.
 His successor, Iyasu I, reformed land tenure system, introduced a
system of land measurement called qallad in Begemder, taxes, and
customs, and revised the Fetha Negest (the civil code).
The assassination of Iyasu the Great by a faction under the
leadership of his own son, TekleHaymanot, ushered in political
instability in Gondar involving intrigues and poisoning of reigning
monarchs.

King Tekle-Haymanot ( r.1706-08) was crowned in 1706 before the

death of his father and was in turn assassinated by Tewoflos in 1708.

Tewoflos ( r. 1708-1711) was again killed in 1711 by Yostos

(r.1711-1717), who was also poisoned in 1717 and replaced by King
Dawit III, ( r.1717-1721) who himself was poisoned and replaced by
King Bakafa in 1721.
King Bakafa ( 1721-1728) tried to restore stability with the support of
his followers and his wife Etege Mentewab until he was incapacitated
in 1728. The Gondarine Period also witnessed increased involvement
of the Oromo in Imperial politics and the army within the Imperial
court.
Etege Mentewab ( 1728-1768): as a regent of her successive sons’
reigning periods of Iyasu II and Eyoas, together with her brother Ras-
Bitwaded Walda Le’ul (1732-1767) dominated the Gondarine court
politics. Walda Le’ul was influential during the reigns of Iyasu II
(r.1730-55) and Iyoas (r.1755-69).
Following the death of Ras-Bitwaded Walda Le’ul in 1767, Etege
Mentewab was challenged by Wubit Amito, her daughter-in-law (
Eyasus’s wife) from Wollo.
To counter the growing power of the Wollo Oromo in the royal court,
Mentewab sought the alliance of Ras Mika'el Sehul of Tigray who was
politically astute and militarily powerful.
Mika'el Sehul came to Gondar accompanied by large number of
strong army and succeeded in stabilizing the situation but refused to
return to Tigray although demanded by Iyoas.
This was followed by political and military intrigue and the killing of
Iyoas and his replacement by an old man Yohannes II by Ras Mika'el
Sihul. Soon in the same year Ras Mika'el killed Yohannes II and put his
son TaklaHaymanot II (1769-77) on power. This marked the onset of
the period of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855).

B. Achievements of the Gondarine Period

Gondar became the center of state administration, learning,
commerce, education, art, and crafts for more than two centuries. The
first three kings were successful not only in political affairs but also in
cultural developments.
This enabled Gondar to repeat the splendors of Aksum and Lalibela.
The cultural achievements of the period led some writers to describe
Gondarine period in history as Ethiopian Renaissance.
The major cultural achievements of the period were:
 Architecture: Gondar served as a permanent capital, for about one
hundred fifty years
The Gonderine kings built significant secular buildings like castles,
bridges, residences, bath,library, towers, fortifications and churches
of various size and shapes. in addition to the most impressive
building known as Fasil Gemb,there are different palaces
corresponding to Emperor Fasiledas, Yohannes I, Iyasu I, Dawit III,
Bakafa and Regent Queen Mentewab.
The Gondarine style of architecture may have started before the reign of
emperor Fasiledas during the reign of Emperor Sartsa-Dengle at about
1586, as could be seen from his palace at Guzara near Enfranz. Emperor
Sartsa-Dengel is said to have built a very fine bridge near his palace at
Guzara, and Emperor Susenyos likewise erected a bridge over Blue Nile
at Alata.
The architectural styles of Fasiledas castle usually have two strides and
almost square, circular domed corner towers. His contribution also
includes the building of bridges.

Painting: this period is known as for the production of a wealth of

religious paintings on manuscripts and on wood, ornaments, weapons
and other accessories. The churches built by
Queen Mentwab were known for their beautiful paintings, cross and art
works.
Besides the Gospels, the Miracles of Mary, the Lives of Ethiopian
Saints and the Litanies, many other kinds of illuminated manuscripts
were also produced. Gondar is also known for its traditional
medicine, music and poetry.
Trade and Urbanization: Gondar was a commercial center that
connected long distance trade routes of the southern region with
Massawa and Metemma in the Ethio-Sudan border. Gold and salt
were used as medium of exchange.
With spread of urbanization, the city became residences of foreign
communities like Indians, Greeks and Armenians. It was also served
as religious center of Christians, Muslims and Bete-Israel. Besides, it
served as the center of Ethiopian Orthodox Church until the middle
of the nineteenth century. The city had an estimated 60,000-70,000
population.
5.5. The Period of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855)
The period lasted from the time Ras Michael Sehul "assassinated“ king
Iyoas in 1769 to 1855, when Kasa Hailu was crowned as Tewodros II.
During the Zemene-Mesafint the actual political power was in the hands of
different hereditary regional war lords, not at the hands of the nominal
crowning kings at Gondar.
Ras Mika’el who was a king-maker in the period attempted to dominate the
other regional lords. These measures made him highly unpopular because of
which coalitions of lords of Gojjam, Amhara, Lasta and Wollo fought and
defeated him at the battle of Sarba-Kussa in 1771. Under the reigns of his
successors, there was relative stability but several regional lords evolved.
The main political regions that Zemene-Mesafint had strong hereditary
regional/provincial war lords ruled were Tigray, Semen, Dembiya, Begemedir,
Lasta, Yejju, Wollo, Gojjam and Shewa.
As compared to others, the “Yejju dynasty” was the leading power
during the Zemen-Mesafint with the center at Debre-tabor. Ali
Gwangul (Ali I or Ali Talaq) was considered as the founder of “Yejju
dynasty” in 1786.
Yejju rule reached its zenith under Gugsa Marso (r.1803-1825) who
made incessant struggle against Ras Walde-Silassie of Enderta and
Dejjazmatch Sabagadis Woldu of Agame. In 1826, Gugsa's successor,
Yimam (r.1825-8), defeated Hayle-Mariam Gebre of Simen. Maru of
Dambiya was also killed at the battle of Koso-Ber in 1827.
The period of Zemene Mesafint was brought to an end by Kasa Hailu
of Qwara or the later Emperor Tewodros II through a series of battles
that lasted from 1840s to 1855.
The Major features and characteristics of Zemene-Mesafint include:
 Imperial absence of effective central government;
 the growing power and influence of the regional warlords;
 the domination of Yejju lords over other lords in northern Ethiopia;
 rivalry and competition among regional lords to assume the
position of king-maker known as Ras Bitwoded;
 establishment of fragile coalitions between provincial hereditary
war leaders to advance political interests;
 Ethiopian Orthodox Church was unable to play its traditional role of
unifying the state due to doctrinal disputes created within the EOC;
 Revival of foreign contacts with European states that ended up by
the “closed-door” policy introduced by King Fasiledes. And isolated
Ethiopia from the outside world for a century and a half.
 UNIT SIX

INTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS AND EXTERNAL RELATIONS OF

ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN, 1800-1941
6.1. The Nature of Interactions among Peoples and States of Ethiopia and the Horn
At the beginning of the nineteenth century, many autonomous and semi-autonomous peoples
and states existed in Ethiopia and the Horn.
6.1.1. Peoples and States in South-Central, Southwestern, and Western Ethiopia
A. South-Central: Hadiya, Halaba, Kambata and Gurage were autonomous and semiautonomous
political entities during this period. Economically, they depended largely on agriculture.
Local merchants were actively involved in local trade and to some extent in the long distance trade.
Among them, the Gurage land was an important market centre and political entity. Important trade
centers such as Soddo and Aymallel were located in the Gurage land.
The Gurage had their own political organization and their leaders held the titles of Abegaz or Azmatch
who combined political and military authority.
In the second half of the nineteenth century, Qabena emerged as a strong political entity. It became a
centre of Muslim revivalist movement to the northeast of the Gibe River. Stirred by Muslim refugees
from Wollo, and with possible connections even with the Mahdist Sudan,
B. The Gibe States: towards the beginning of the nineteenth century, several
monarchical states (motumma) emerged among the Mecha Oromo at the expense of
the Gadaa system.
In the process, the war leaders of the Gadaa system (Abba-Dula) and powerful
individuals usurped the power of the Gadaa government. The abba-dula
accumulated wealth from the control and taxation on long distance trade and
utilized the opportunity to establish hereditary leadership in their newly formed
states.
As a result, the following five monarchical Gibe Oromo states emerged.
i. Limmu-Enarya: Limmu-Enarya was the earliest of the Gibe states. It was founded
through the incorporation of Enarya. Initially, Abbaa Dulas of Limmu like Tesso
fought and defeated the rulers of Enarya like Badancho, Gu’amcho and Banaro at
different times. Finally, Bofoo/Abba Gomol (1800-1825) established Limmu-Enarya.
Bofo abdicated in favor of his son, Ibsa/Abba Bagiboo (1825-61). The Kingdom
reached the height of its power during Ibsa’s reign, when he incorporated areas
including Hagalo, Badi-Folla etc. Ibsa was succeeded by Abba Bulgu (1861-1883).
ii. Gumma: Jilcha Abba Bal’oo of Chira killed Sarbaroda of Dagoye clan; began state
formation and succeeded by his son Oncho (1810-1830) who was in turn followed by
Jawwe (1840-1854).
 iii.Gomma: formed by Abba Bokee (1800-1829) who was succeeded by his
son Abba Manoo (1829-1840) who occupied Qattuu and converted to Islam
by Muslim Ulama/scholars.
iv. Jimma: Towards the late eighteenth century, Makahore emerged as an
influential female figure among the Sadacha Mecha Oromo of Jimma.
The local Abba Dula sought to take political power from her. Among the Abba
Dulas, Ose Kobi (Abba Faro) was elected as a hereditary ruler against the
Gadaa rule. He was succeeded by Dangila (Abba Magal) who enlarged the
domain. The process of state formation was completed by Sanna/Abba Jifar I
(r.1830-1855) who formed Jimma Kingdom and left a consolidated state to his
successors like Abba Rebu (1855-1859), Abba Boqa (1859-1861) and Abba
Gomol(r.1861-75).
The most famous among the Jimma monarchs was Abba Jifar II (c.
r.1875-1934).
Apart from agriculture and trade, the kingdom's economy depended on iron
mining and smelting at Dakkano and Kito, respectively.
v.Gera: was the last of the Gibe kingdoms to be formed. The process of state formation in
Gera was completed during the reign of Tullu Gunji (r.1835-38), a successful war leader who
made himself king.
Abba Rago I (r.1838-48) succeeded Tullu Gunji after a short interlude by Abba Basso.
Gera enjoyed its prosperity under Abba Magal who had been converted to Islam.

C)The Leqa States

Like in the Gibe region, several monarchical kingdoms evolved among the Mecha Oromo
of Wallagga.
Among these were the Leqa states, the Sibu and the Jawwi south of the Abbay River.
While Moti Abishe established strong kingdom of Horro, a number of Abba Dulas declared
themselves moti (king) by controlling profitable trade routes and large territories in the
region west of the Gibe region.
Among them, the Leqa states were the prominent ones, namely:
i.Leqa-Naqamte: was founded by Bakare Godana in 1840, and reached its height under his
successors Moroda and Kumsa. The latter were able to establish strong monarchical state
rich in trade and agriculture. Moti Kumsa (later Dejazmach Gebre-Egzi'abiher) was known
for promoting handcraft work, gold washing, coffee planting and game reserves/hunting.
 The Leqa-Naqamte rulers instituted a new administrative structure and judicial hierarchy
that replaced the Gadaa system known as sirna abba-qoro (qoro system).In its nature, the
administration system was essentially kingship and was quite similar to feudal
administration in its reliance on land.
ii. Leqa-Qellam: was located in southwestern Wallagga. It was founded by Tullu and became
powerful under his son, Jote being centered at Gidami and controlling the areas around Sayyo-
Dambi Dollo.
iii.Ilu Abba Bor: The Tume clan leader Chali Shono (also known as Abba Bor) set up the well
consolidated state of Ilu-Abba Bor in the early nineteenth century. It was one of the
prosperous states in the region.
During this time, in each Oromo monarchical state had officials like Abba Gurmu (next
person to the king), Abba
Mizan (treasurer and foreign affair minister), Abba Dango (immigration chief), Lammi
(ambassador/royalmessenger), Abba Qoro (district governor), Abba Ganda (village chief),
Abba Busi (tax head), Abba Jiga (murder judge) and Abba-Qawe (body-guard).
Contrary to the Gadaa values that did not levy any kind of taxation, under monarchical
systems farmers
were forced to pay crop tax measured by traditional instruments called buchano (about 15
kilograms) and later guboo (25 kilograms) on each crop harvest.
E. Nilotic Sheikdoms: in the early nineteenth century, important Islamic centers
emerged in the lower course of the Abbay River. A number of Sheikdoms were
established through parallel imposition of Arabic-speaking Sudanese mercantilists
over Berta and Gumuz inhabitants.Among them,
 the Sheikhdoms of Assosa or Aqoldi, Bela Shangul and Khomosha were
established to the south of Abbay River and
 the Sheikhdom of Guba emerged to the north of the same river in the western
edge of Gojjam.
The four sheikhdoms were founded by Muslim leaders of Sudanese origin who
considered themselves as ‘Watawit’. The term Watawit refers to Arabized Berta
people who had entered and settled in Benishangul as traders and Islamic religious
teachers in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
The main economic bases of the sheikdoms were agriculture, gold mining and
frontier trade. Among these sheikhdoms, Asosa got preeminence under Sheikh
Khojale al Hasan. While Bela/BeniShangul became famous under Abd al Rahman
Khojale, Khomosha reached its zenith under Khojale Muhammad Wad Mahmud.
Similarly, Guba was founded to the north of the Abbay River along the Ethio-
Sudanese border.
6.1.2. Trade and Trade Routes
In the 19th century trade became one means of maintaining strong relations
across peoples of different areas and cultural backgrounds.
 During this period, two main trade lines linked various territories of Ethiopia and
the Horn.

i. One route originated from Bonga, the capital of Kafa Kingdom, linked peoples
and states of the southwestern Ethiopia with the northern part of the Ethiopian
region.
The main market centers along this line were Bonga, Hirmata (in Jimma), Saqa (in
Limmu), Billo (in Leqa-Naqamte), Asandabo (in Guduru), Basso-Yajube (in Gojjam),
Yifag and Darita (in Begemider) and Gondar.
From Gondar, one line splited and goes to westward through Chilga to Matamma
Qallabat (Gallabat) taking commodities to be sold to the Sudanese merchants
called Jallaba.
The other second splited route passed through Adwa, Asmara and entered
Massawa.
ii. The second major trade route also began from Bonga and passed through
Hirmata to AgabjaAndode-Toli to Soddo in southwest Shewa; Rogge near Yerer.
Then, the line passed through Aliyu Amba or Abdul Rasul in northern Shewa and ran
eastward to Harar.
Again, From Harar, the route branched into Zeila and Berbera, the most important
commercial centers in Somalia. Then Ethiopian products were mostly sold in the
Middle East through these ports.
In the trade between the interior and the coast, varieties of items were exchanged.
The main sources of exported items were the southwestern regions. Among these
were gold, ivory, rhinoceros horn, skins, civet, musk, honey, wax, coffee, various
spices and slaves exported to Arabia, Persia and India. Likewise, imported
products included mirrors and ironware..
The major medium of exchange were salt bars (amole), iron bars, wines, cowries’
shells, beads, pieces of cotton cloth (abujadi), Maria Theresa Thalers (MTT) etc.
For internal trade, amole was the major important commodity and source of
wealth. It was mined in the Afar plains bordering eastern Tigray where it was also
suitably shaped for transportation. Maria Theresa Thalers (MTT) was a coin
introduced from Austria to the Horn of African region at the end of the eighteenth
century often used for external trade with other kinds of European and Middle
On the Red Sea, although diverse peoples of different ethnic and
religious background were involved in the trade,
Muslim merchants were the most dominant that traveled from
interior to the coast. Among them:
The northern Muslim merchants known as Jabarti and
Muslim Oromo merchants of southwestern region known as Afqala.
the Argoba from the Kingdom of Shewa were active merchants in the
trade between Harar and the northern Somali coast were very
important.
6.2. The Making of Modern Ethiopian State
Indeed, diverse peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn were brought into contact
through the agency of trade, population movements, evangelization, and wars.
These agencies played an important part in the process of creating common
values, integrations and making of the later modern Ethiopian state.
On the other hand, a number of autonomous and semi-autonomous peoples and
polities were in existence in many regions up to the end of the nineteenth
century until then who were not unified and incorporated under single sovereign
national state.

The process of making the modern Ethiopian state went/carried out through
two distinct phases.
The first one involved unifying different regions and peoples in north and north
central parts of Ethiopia through peaceful submission or military means.
The second phase involved territorial expansion into the southern parts of the
country conducted in the last quarter of the 19th century.
6.2.1. The Process of Territorial Unification
The beginning of the process of territorial unification and creating a
unified Ethiopian state coincided with a revival of the imperial power
immediately after the end of the Zemene-Mesafint by Kassa Hailu of Quara.
Therefore, the leading figure in the overall process was Kasa Hailu of
Quara who later became Emperor Tewodros II of Ethiopia. Kasa’s mission to
create a unified state goes back to the time when he was a shifta.
Kassa Hailu started his military career by assisting his half-brother,
Dejjazmach Kinfu in defeating the Egyptians at Wad Kaltabu (in present-day
eastern Sudan) in 1837.
As he acquired military and political strength and experiences, he started
mobilizing his own army in the area and fought battles in his own right. In
1848, Kasa fought against the Egyptians at a place called Dabarki (again in
present Sudan). Although they showed extraordinary courage, Kasa’s forces
lost the battle owing to the Egyptians’ superior military organization,
discipline, and better arms. Notwithstanding his defeat, Kasa drew a lesson
pertaining to the importance of a modern army.
i. During the former Kassa Hailu and the later Emperor Tewodrod II ( 1855-1868)
On the other hand, Kasa’s fame was spreading in the area and became a major
concern to the Warra-Sheh
(Yejju) ruling house. As a result, they decided to pacify Kasa through marriage
arrangement. Hence, Kasa married Mentwab, the daughter of Ras Ali II and he
was appointed the governor of Quara. However, Kasa felt that he was not well
treated by Ras Ali and his mother, Etege Menen, and hence, he resumed his
shiftnet resulting in a series of battles.
 As the first carrier and successes, ,Kasa Hailu fought and defeated all his rivals
regional war lords one after another, namely,
 Dejjach Goshu Zewde of Gojjam at Gur Amba on November 27, 1852;
 Birru Aligaz, Aben, Yazew and Belew, the four dejjazmachs sent by Ras Ali, at
Taqusa (Gorgora
Bichign) on April 12, 1853;
Ras Ali at Ayshal on 29 June 1853 and
Dejjazmach Wube of Simen and Tigray at Deresge on 8 February, 1855
Then he was anointed by Abune Salama, the Coptic bishop at Deresge
Mariam on 9 February 1855, with the throne name of Tewodros II (1855-1868),
King of Kings of Ethiopia.
Tewodros pursued his victory at Deresge by marching to the south. He
subsequently marched first to Wollo and then to Shewa. He wanted to create
a strong central government by appointing individuals (both hereditary and
non-hereditary) who would be totally accountable to him.
However, locally he faced resistance soon after he came to power. After the
inclusion of Shewa, rebellions broke out in several regions such as in Gojjam,
Simen, Wag and Lasta, Shewa, Wollo, and Tigray.
Externally, he was involved in a serious diplomatic crisis following the
imprisonment of a handful of Britons and other Europeans. As a result, the
British government under General Napier sent an expeditionary force to free
those prisoners and to punish the emperor. After the defeat of his army, in a
battle that took place at Maqdela, Emperor Tewodros committed suicide on
April 13, 1868.
ii.During the Unpopular Emperor Tekle Giorgis ( 1868-1871)
Following the death of Emperor Tewodros, three contenders to the throne
emerged; namely, Wagshum Gobeze of Lasta, Kasa Mircha of Tigray and Menilek
of Shewa. Gobeze took state power immediately after Tewodros with a crowning
name Emperor Tekle-Giorgis II (1868-71).
Although attempts were made to create a smooth relation between the Emperor
and Kasa Mircha, the quest for state power put them in enmity and it was brought
to an end following they fought a battle at Assam (near Adwa) in July 1871, in
which Kassa Mircha became victorious and took power with a new crowning
name Emperor Yohabes iv ( 1872-1889)
iii.During the former Kassa Mircha and the later Emperor Yohanes iv ( 1872-1889)
Kasa Mircha, who became Emperor Yohannes IV in January 1872, embarked on
a state building project with an approach that differed from that of Tewodros.
Yohannes IV (1872-1889) attempted to introduce a decentralized system of
administration, permitting regional rulers to exercise a great deal of autonomy. A
good example of this was his recognition of Menilek as Negus of Shewa in 1878
by the Liche agreement. Similarly, Yohannes designated Ras Adal Tesema of
Gojjam as Negus Tekle-Haymanot of Gojjam and Kafa in 1881.
He succeeded in achieving the unity of the predominantly-Christian provinces
including Wag and Lasta, Simen, Begemidr, Amhara Saynt, Gojjam, Wollo, Shewa,
Emperor Yohannes IV sought to end the religious controversy within the EOC as well as
effect religious unity in the country as a whole. In this regard, he presided over the Council of
Boru Meda (1878) where Tewahdo was declared the only doctrine of the EOC.
This was followed by a campaign to convert Muslims and adherents of other religions into
Orthodox Christianity. Accordingly, the leading Wollo leaders such as Mohammed Ali was
converted and got a new Christian name Ras Michael and the Benishangul’s Amede Liben
was also converted and took a new Christian name Dajjach Hayle-Mariam.. Others also
accepted the Emperor's demand outwardly but remained Muslims, becoming "Christians by
day and Muslims by night".
But others who were not willing to change their religion of Isla, had resisted and fled Wollo
to Arsi, Gurage, Jimma and the Sudan while others still revolted under the leadership of
Sheikh Tola (Talha) Jafar that led to harsh measures of Emperor Yohannes IV.
Externally, Emperor Yohannes faced challenges from Egyptians, Italians, and the Mahdists
at different times and he had defeated them at different battles. But finally, he lost his life
fighting the Mahdists at Metemma in 1889.
Although the Emperor had designated Mengesha Yohannes as his successor, rivalry for
power split the monarch’s camp and thus, Mengesha was unable to make a viable bid for the
imperial throne.
iv. During Emperor Menilik II (1889-1913)
After Yohanes iv, the Ethiopian Imperial satate throne was assumed by Negus
Menilek of Shewa who became Emperor Menilek II (1889-1913).
But Ras Mengesha refused to submit to Emperor Menilek. The tension was
resolved after Menilek led a campaign to force Mengesha's submission in 1889.
Ras Mengesha was appointed as governor of Tigray after a temporary
arrangement in which Ras Mekonnen Wolde Mikael ruled the area for about a
year.
B. Territorial Expansion
Even though Emperor Tewodros II, Emperor Yohannes IV and others made state
building their mission and struggled to achieve that goal, the most successful was
Menilek of Shewa. This is because,
Menilek had, among other factors, better access to modern firearms.
The control of resource rich areas that enabled the emperor to build military
muscle
the determination of his generals counted for his successes.
. The process of territorial expansion by Menilek can be discussed in three
phases i.e. i)when he was king of Shewa (1865-89), ii)from 1889-96 and iii)the
aftermath of Adwa (1896-1900).
When Minilik was the King of Showa,
Before the 1870s, Menilek had already incorporated the Tulema and eastern
Mecha Oromo territories after controlling local leaders notably Ashe Rufo of
Salale, Dula Ara’e of Gullale, Tufa Muna of Gimbichu, Ture Galate of Soddo and
others.
Meanwhile, other Oromo elites such as Ras Gobena Dache, Fitawrari Habte-
Giorgis Dinagde, Dejjach Balcha Safo (Abba Nefso) and others worked
towards the formation of the modern Ethiopian state.
In 1875-76, the northern Gurage, the Kistane, peacefully submitted to Menilek
because of their religious affinity and geographical proximity to the Kingdom
of Shewa, and for fear of their local rivals notably the surrounding Oromo.
On the other hand, the western Gurage, led by Hasan Enjamo of Qabena,
which had elements of Hadiya-Gurage coalition, strongly resisted Menilek's
force until Ras Gobena broke their resistance in 1888.
Menilek's territorial expansion to western and southwestern regions was
concluded through both forceful and peaceful submissions. For instance,
In the regions south of the Abbay River, particularly in Horro Guduru, Ras
Adal Tesema of Gojjam had already established his control over the region
since the mid1870s. Although he faced stiff resistance from Moti (King)
Abishe Garba of Horro, Adal’s force ambushed Abishe and his entourage at a
place called Kokor. Thus, Ras Adal (Nigus Tekle-Haymanot since 1881)
controlled the region until 1882, when he was defeated at Embabo by
Menilek's commander, Ras Gobana
After the Battle of Embabo, Leqa-Naqamte, Leqa-Qellem, and Jimma Abba
Jifar submitted to Menilek peacefully, who promised them to recognize and
maintain their autonomy. Meanwhile, Garbi Jilo (of Leqa-Billo), Tucho Dano
(Leqa-Horda), Ligdi Bakare (LeqaNaqamte), Genda Busan (Sibu-Sire),
Mardasa Konche (Nonno Migira), and Turi Jagan (Nonno Rogge) formed a
coalition and defeated Menilek's army led by the Nadew brothers, Dasta,
Dilinesaw and Tesemma at the Battle of Gurra Doba. Similarly, west of the
Dhidhessa River, an alliance of Wachu Dabalo of Sibu, Jorgo Dagago of
Noole Kabba and others fought Menilek's local allies like Moroda and
Amante Bakare at Sambo Darro. Later, however, they were defeated.

From 1889-1896
In the Gibe region, Firissa of Guma fought Menilek's army from 1889 to
1901. The imperial army faced similar resistance from Abba Bosso of
Gomma, although defeated by Ras Demisew Nesibu in early 1900.
Also, Ras Tesemma Nadew’s force incorporated Ilu Abba Bor into the
imperial state after fighting with Fatansa at Qarsa Gogila.
Of all the campaigns Nigus Menilek conducted before he became
emperor, perhaps, the most sustained bloody wars were those against
the Arsi Oromo. It took six different campaigns from 1882-6 to control
this vast region. Menilek encountered fierce resistance from the Arsi
Oromo led by notables like Sufa Kuso, Damu Usu, Lenjiso Diga, Gosa
Dilamo and Roba Butta. Initially, the Arsi Oromo defeated Menilek's
force at Dodota and Qalata. Yet, with intelligence service of local
supporters, Ras Darge Sahile-Selassie's force defeated the Arsi Oromo
at the battle of Azule on 6 September 1886.
In the east, Menilek's commander, Dejjach Wolde-Gabra'el, fought against
the Itu in 1886 and incorporated Chercher. A year later, Dejjach Mekonnen’s
army marched into Harar. The resisting forces of Emir Abdullahi
(r.1885-1887) of the Harari and Bakar Ware of the Eastern Oromo were
defeated in the final engagement at Chalanqo on 6 January 1887. This was
followed by the appointment of Dejjach (later Ras) Makonnen Wolde Mikael
as governor of the province by Emperor Menilek II.
The Great Famine or Kifu Qen (Evil Day) of 1888-92 also contributed to
Menilek’s territorial expansion to parts of southern Ethiopia. Accordingly,
Menilek's army occupied DawuroKonta and Kambata in 1889 and 1890,
respectively.
From the early 1890s to 1894, Menilek’s army controlled Bale, Sidama, Gamo
Gofa and Wolayta. In the campaign to Wolayta, Emperor Menilek and many
notables such as Ras Mikael of Wollo, Fitawurari Gebeyehu Gurmu, Liqe
Mekwas Abate Buayalew, Dejjach Balcha Safo, Ras Wolde-Giorgis, and Abba
Jifar II of Jimma participated. Wolayta's resistance led by Kawo (King) Tona
against Menilek's force was defeated in 1894 in which large number of
people lost their lives
In the Post-1896 Adwa’s Victory
The it was followed by the incorporation of Gedeo, Borana and Konso into
the imperial state.
Menilek's force incorporated Kafa, Borana Beni-Shangul, and Gambella after
the battle of Adwa. The process of the incorporation of Kafa paralleled the
Wolayta experience in terms of human cost. In 1897, the king of Kafa, Tato
Gaki Sherocho, fought and lost to Menilek’s army led by Ras Wolde Giorgis.
Beni-Shangul was incorporated after the Battle of Fadogno in 1897/98. This
was followed by the occupation of Maji in 1898/99. Tesema Nadew also
controlled Baro (Sobat) and Nasir in Gambella around this time.
The process of territorial expansion was consummated with the signing of
boundary agreements with the neighboring colonial powers that continued
until 1908. Most of these treaties were signed after the victory of Adwa.
After Menilek, the process of centralization and establishing a unitary state
continued by abolishing regional autonomies in the early decades of the
twentieth century. In the process, Wollo (after the battle of Segele in 1916
when Nigus Mika’el was defeated), Begemedir (after the battle of Anchim at
which Ras Gugsa Wole was defeated in 1930), Gojjam in 1932 and Jimma in
1933 were reduced to mere provinces by Teferi-Mekonnen (Haile-Sillassie I).
6.3. Modernization Attempts
The period from 1800 to 1941 also witnessed efforts to adopt western ideas and
technology by Ethiopian monarchs.
As a monarch, Emperor Tewodros took a number of military, administrative and
socio-economic reform measures. For instance,
 With regards the army, Tewodros introduced military titles, like Yasr Aleqa,
Yamsa Aleqa, and Yeshi Aleqa. Besides, he tried to organize and replace the
regional armies of the Zemene-Mesafint with salaried national army.
Furthermore, he tried to manufacture firearms at his workshop, Gafat (near Debre
Tabor) with the help of European missionaries and artisans. At Gafat, about 35
cannons were produced of which the biggest one was known as “Sebastopol."
He also tried to build a small navy in Lake Tana.
The administrative reforms of Tewodros were focused on the centralization of
power and securing financial base.
He tried to separate church and the monarchy. He tried to reduce the amount of
land held by the church as well as the number of priests and deacons serving every
church. brought him into conflict with the EOC, which precipitated his downfall.
In the case of socio-economic reforms, he began the construction of
Ethiopia’s first embryonic road network to link Debre Tabor with
Gondar, Gojjam, and Maqdela.
He also attempted to put an end to the slave trade.
land reform and banning of polygamy.
The use of Amharic writing became more developed, and a
traditional library was established at Maqdala, He wrote letters after
letters to different foreign powers including to QueenVictoria using
Amharic language.

Regarding religion, he tried to solve the doctrinal controversy that

continued from the 17th century within the EOC. However, his reforms
were not fully materialized owing to internal oppositions and external
challenges.

Emperor Yohannes' reign also witnessed several important reforms

He hired a French mechanic, a Hungarian gunsmith, and an Italian construction worker to
assist his modernization efforts of the country.
he sent some individuals abroad for modern education.
He was also the first to introduce modern style vaccine against smallpox replacing
traditional inoculation, including extensive treatment of syphilis in several towns.

Modernization attempts of the reign of Emperor Menilek II had diverse elements.


the establishment of a postal service and telecommunications/ the telephone-telegraph
system,
he construction of railway line from Djibouti to Addis Ababa ( arrived in 1917),
 the opening of a bank (the Bank of Abyssinia) and the introduction of silver coin.
 Regarding administration, the emperor introduced European style ministerial
system/ministers in 1907. Accordingly, he appointed
• Afe-Nigus Nesibu Meskelo (Minister of Justice),

• Azazh Metaferia Melke-Tsadiq (Minister of Imperial Court),
• Bejirond MulugetaYigezu (Minister of Finance),
• Fitawurari Habte-Giorgis Dinagde (Minister of War),
• Negadras Hailegiorgis Weldemikael (Minister of Commerce and
Foreign Relations), and
• Tsehafe-Tizaz Gebreselase Welde Aregay (Minister of Pen).
the opening of a hotel in 1907 (Itege Hotel),
The opening of a modern school (Menilek II School in 1908) and
the foundation of Russian Red Cross hospital in 1906 and Russian-run
hospital (Menilek II Hospital) in 1910.
During his short stay in power, Lij Iyasu (1913-16), with Ras Tesemma Nadew as
heir to the throne and regent ,
also took several reform measures.
the banning of the Quragna system, a system that involved chaining the
applicant and defendant as well as creditor and debtor until justice was settled.
amend Leba Shay, a customary mode of detection of criminals or theft
introduced municipal police called Tirnbulle.
introduced a policy of auditing of government accounts,
he tried to integrate Ethiopian Muslims into the administration structure.
the introduction of a flourmill that functioned mechanically and private
industrial enterprises like sawmill, a grinding-mill, a tannery, a soap-factory, etc.

 During the Dual Rule of Empress Zewditu and Ras Teferi (r. 1916-1930), The
two rulers namely Ras Teferi and Empress Zewditu had different views towards
western culture. Because of his close link with foreigners, Ras Teferi had keen
interest in modernization by which he wanted to boost the country’s image on
the international stage. For instance,
the entry of Ethiopia into theLeague of Nations and his grand tour to Europe in
1923 and 1924, respectively.
• Some remarkable reforms based on European model took place following his
coronation as
Emperor Haile-Selassie I in 1930. Among them,
. the centralization of the government,
promulgation of Ethiopia’s first constitution in 1931 (despite its drawbacks),
establishment of Imperial Body Guard in 1930, with the help of Belgian military
mission and
the opening of Ethiopia’s first Military Academy at Holeta with the help of a
Swedish military mission in 1934.

6.4. Socio-Economic Developments

6.4.1. Agriculture and Land Tenure

The nineteenth and early twentieth centuries were times when agricultural
economy grew and the demand for land for cultivation and grazing increased.
The system favored the powerful groups to control land that resulted in the
change of property right on the preexisting land tenure system.
The quest for land and surplus production was one factor for territorial expansion by
Menilek in the late nineteenth century.
Hence, the incorporation of the southern half of the country into the imperial state
resulted in the redefinition of access to resources in these regions.
The state institutionalized different forms of surplus expropriation and mechanisms to
ensure political control in the regions that had peacefully submitted and those that resisted.
As a result,
The former peacefully submitted ones relatively enjoyed self-administration but were
subjected to pay qurt-gibir (fixed tax).
The latter who resisted were placed under the naftegna-gabbar/gabbar-naftegna system
whereby local peoples
were made to pay tribute to the former.
Gradually, the naftegna-gabbar system led to the evolution of a new tenure regime in the
forcefully incorporated areas. Literally, naftegna means a person with a gun. In this context,
naftegna refers to soldiers of different social backgrounds who were stationed in the
southern territories under the imperial banner
One effect of the institution of the naftegna-gabbar system was the creation of classes
like landlords, ballabat, gabbar and tenants. The landholders were largely government
agents while the local population was reduced in time into gabbar and later tenants.
 One major factor that brought change to agricultural practices including
land tenure system was the beginning of the qalad system (land
measurement) in the 1890s. Land measurement affected access to
agricultural resources in diverse ways including changes to customary
rules of access to land. Qalad introduced new practices in which certain
social classes gained access to land while at the same time it resulted in
the dispossession of the local peasantry in parts of the south. Later, land
was categorized into lam (cultivated), lam-taf (partlycultivated) and taf
(uncultivated) to facilitate taxation.
6.4.2. Slavery and Slave Trade
 Slavery and slave trade had long history in Ethiopia and the Horn. Most
slaves in Ethiopia were kept as domestic slaves and some were sold to
Egypt and the Middle East and the Ottoman Empire through the Sudan, the
Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden ports.
Thus, several regional and local rulers enslaved people for these
purposes. Slaves were traded as commodities in local and
international markets. For instance, in 1837 slave raiders captured
Bilile from Guma and sold her to a German prince, Herman Pickler
Muskau at Cairo who changed her name to Mahbuba and made her
his mistress. Similarly, Hika (later Onesimos Nasib) was kidnapped in
1869 in Hurumu when he was four years old. He was sold at Massawa,
later freed by a Swedish mission, after which he translated the Bible
into Afan Oromo at Menkulu (in Eritrea). Aster Gano was also sold into
slavery from Limmu. However, in 1886, she was emancipated and
assisted Onesimos in the translation of the Bible.
During the nineteenth century, slave trade expanded in Ethiopia and
the Horn due to increased demand for slaves in foreign markets
largely in the Middle East. This was followed by the emergence of
market centers from Bonga to Metemma and Massawa. Selling slaves
was source of revenue for many local chiefs.
Measures taken towards the abolition of slave trade and slavery
Emperors Tewodros II, Yohannes IV and Menilek II tried to stop the slave
trade although not slavery itself.
In 1923, Ras Teferi banned slave trade which eventually came out in a
decree in 1924 to emancipate slaves.
This was followed by the establishment of the Office for the Abolition of
Slavery in 1932. Freed slaves were kept under the overall supervision of
Hakim Warqineh Eshete.
The Italians proclaimed the abolition of slavery immediately after their
occupation of the country. They used the exitance of slavery in Ethiopia as
a pretext to invade the country in 1935 as a librator.
 After liberation, the Emperor issued a new decree in 1942 abolishing any
forms of slave trade and the institution of slavery itself..
6.4.3. Manufacturing

One result of the contact with the industrialized world from the mid nineteenth
century was the introduction of manufacturing technologies.
the strong interest of rulers in the region for the introduction of western
technologies and the subsequent contacts with the industrial world since the mid
nineteenth century contributed to the introduction of manufacturing industries.
The beginning of diplomatic relations and opening of legations in the post-Adwa
period was followed by the coming of many expatriates, who either came with the
skill or became agents of the introduction of modern manufacturing.
Foreign citizens from Armenia, Greece, Italy and India also brought
entrepreneurial capacity to develop manufacturing industries
Among the first modern manufacturing industries,
Holeta Grain Mill and Massawa Salt Processing were set up in 1896 and 1904,
respectively.
Up to 1927, about 25 factories were established in Addis Ababa, Dire Dawa,
Asmara and Massawa. These included cement factories, wood and clay workshops,
tanneries, soap and edible oil plants, ammunition factories, breweries, tobacco
processing plants and grain mills.
 Artistic Printing Press and Ambo Mineral Water plant were established before the
Italian occupation.
After 1928, including in the short lived Italian occupation, more than ten
manufacturing industries were set up.
6.4.4. Urbanization
The period from the early nineteenth century to 194l marked the evolution of towns
stemming from political, socio-economic, demographic and ecological factors.
Besides, the expansion of both local and long distance trade since the early
nineteenth century, the beginning of railway connecting Djibouti and Addis Ababa
as of 1917 was followed by the evolution of several fast growing towns. Towns
including Dire-Dawa, Adama, Mojo, Bishoftu and others were results of the
extension of the railway and the
expansion of trade. On the other hand, politico-religious centers in several parts of
the region evolved into towns.
Many centers that once served as "royal camps" evolved into towns. One of the
towns that grew through such process was Addis Ababa. In 1886 by Empress Taytu
Betul chose the place for its hot springs, Fel-Wuha (formerly called Hora Finfinne).
 Similarly, as of the late nineteenth century, in southern Ethiopia, a number of
towns emerged when Menilek's generals established garrisons in suitable locations
in order to maintain control of the occupied provinces. They were called katamas.
6. 5. 2. Major Battles Fought Against Foreign Aggressors and Patriotism

Ethiopian people fought several battles patriotically against foreign threats through
determination and cooperation as well as the successes and limits of Ethiopian peoples
in the course of defending their country. For example,
i.The Battle of Dabarki (1848): Dabarki was fought between Kasa Hailu of Qwara and
Egyptian forces in 1848 where Kasa Hailu lost the battle though he got important lesson
about the necessity of modernized well organized and equipped military force with
modern technologies.
ii.The Battle of Maqdela (1868): Tewodros II had early relation with Britain through two
British citizens, Walter Plowden and John Bell. His main aim was to obtain help against
foreign threats. In 1862, he sent a letter to Queen Victoria requesting assistance through
Consul Cameron. Cameron came back to Ethiopia via Egypt without bringing any
response. Suspecting him of plotting with Egypt, Tewodros imprisoned Captain Cameron
and other Europeans. On learning of the imprisonment of the Europeans, Queen Victoria
sent a letter through Hormuzd Rassam, which did not satisfy Tewodros.
After some communications, the British parliament decided to take military action.
Subsequently, 32,000 troops led by Sir Robert Napier were sent through Massawa. This
force reached Maqdela guided by Dejazmach Bezibiz Kassa of Tigray (later Emperor
Yohannes)
On April 10, 1868, up to 8,000 Tewodros’ soldiers including his general Gebriye were
defeated by the British at the battle of Aroge. On April 13, 1868, Tewodros committed
iii. The Battles of Gundet and Gura ( 1875 and 76)
Following their occupation of the Sudan in 1821, the Egyptians moved to occupy
Ethiopia on several occasions. For instance, in 1875, Khedive Ismail Pasha sent his
troops to invade Ethiopia in three directions.These were:
 Mohammed Rauf Pasha led the Zeila front and the result was the occupation of
the Harar Emirate between 1875 and 1885.
Werner Munzinger, a Swiss born adventurer and former French Consul in Northeast Africa, the
architect of the whole of Ismail’s scheme for invasion of Ethiopia, led about 500
Egyptian troops equipped with cannons and rocket tubes through Tajura. But,
Munzinger and his troops were all killed by the Afars at the Battle of Odduma.
Finally, Colonel Arendrup a Danish Citizen and Arakel Bey led another 2,000 well-
armed troops through Massawa. Emperor Yohannes IV and Ras Alula mobilized
about 20,000 forces and encountered the Egyptians at the Battle of Gundet (16
November 1875) where the Egyptian troops were severely defeated.
Notwithstanding their setback, Egyptians again reorganized their forces and sent
their army to invade Ethiopia. However, the Ethiopian forces again defeated them
at the Battle of Gura (7–9 March, 1876).
iv. The Battle of Dogali
During the late nineteenth century, Europeans had interest to control the Red Sea area.
Due to its strategic importance.
One of the colonial powers with interest in the Horn of Africa was Italy. The relations
Italy had with the Horn began when an Italian private shipping company (Rubatino) bought
the port of Assab from the local chiefs in 1869. In 1882, the port of Assab was transferred
to the Italian government. Then in 1885, Britain secretly transferred Massawa from
Egypt to Italy.
In the following step, Italy began to penetrate into northern Ethiopia. Subsequently, the
Italian forces occupied Sa’ati, Aylet and Wia in the then Mereb Milash region. However,
they were defeated decisively at the Battle of Dogali by Ras Alula Engida, Emperor
Yohannes’s famous general and right hand man.
 Following this battle, Italy signed a Treaty of Neutrality with Menilek in October 1887 in a
bid to isolate Emperor
Yohannes.
v. The Battle of Metemma ( 1889)
The Hewett Treaty/also called Adwa Treaty caused clashes between the Mahdist and
Ethiopian forces that lasted from 1885 to 1889. Of them,
The first clash was at Kufit between Ras Alula and Uthman Digna in September 1885.
Initially, the Ethiopian force was victorious.
In January 1887, Yohannes ordered Nigus Tekle-Haymanot of Gojjam to repulse the
Mahdists. A year later, the Mahdists led by Abu Anja, defeated Nigus Tekle-Haimanot’s
Later, in another direction, the Mahdists were defeated at Gute Dilli (in Najjo-
Wallagga) by Menilek's commander Ras Gobana Dache on October 14, 1888.
When Emperor Yohannes IV was in northern Ethiopia to check the Italian advance
to Mereb Milash, Mahdists caused a lot of destruction on churches and
monasteries, including the killing of the clergy and the laity. And hence, at this
important juncture, Nigus Menilek and Nigus Tekle-Haimanot conspired against the
emperor, instead of directly facing the Mahdists.
 Thus, Emperor Yohannes made a national call:
የኢትዮጵያ ህዝብ ሆይ ኢትዮጵያ የተባለችዉ ሀገር: 1ኛ እናትህ ናት፤ 2ኛ
ክብርህ ናት፤ 3ኛ ሚስትህ ናት፤4ኛ ልጅህ ናት፤5ኛ መቃብርህ ናት። እንግዲህ
የእናትን ፍቅር፣ የዘዉድን ክብር፣የሚስትን የዋህነት፣ የልጅን ደስታ፣
የመቃብርን ከከባቲነት አስበህ ተነስ!
In the following, on March 9, 1889, the Emperor marched to Metemma where he
died fighting the Mahdists.
As a lesson, evidently, it has to be noted here that internal divisions and
acrimonies among rulers would result in a huge cost to the country and its peoples.
Among others, Maqdela and Metemma are very good testimonies.
vi. The Battle of Adwa and Its Aftermath ( March 1896)
Beyond Italy’s colonial interests over Ethiopia, the disagreement on
the Wuchale Treaty finally led to the big battle between Ethiopia and
Italian forces.
To meet their intention, the Italians crossed the Mereb River, arrived
at Adigrat, and proceeded to Emba-Alage.
Following Emperor Menilek’s proclamation for general mobilization,
about 100,000 troops from every part of the country gathered at Wara-
Illu (in today’s South Wollo).People marched to the front irrespective
of gender, regional, and ethnic differences to fight against the Italian
aggression.
The Ethiopian army led by Fitawrari Gebeyehu Gurmu defeated the
Italians at Emba-Alage and forced them to retreat to Mekelle.
In January 1896, under the leadership of Ras Mekonnen, the
Ethiopian forces defeated Italians at Mekelle. At Mekelle, the Italians
were brought under siege denying them of access to a water well
A month later, Ethiopian forces led by Emperor Menilek, Empress Taiytu and
war generals like Ras Mikael, Ras Makonnen, Ras Alula, Ras Mangasha and
Negus Tekle-Haymanot and others encountered the Italians at Adwa. The
result of this battle was a decisive victory for Ethiopians but a huge blow to the
Italians, which spoiled their colonial ambition over Ethiopia.
At this battle, about 8,000 Italian fighters were killed, 1,500 wounded and 3,
000 were captured. On the Ethiopian side, about 4,000-6,000 troops are said to
have been killed.
Consequently, Italy recognized the independence of Ethiopia by the treaty of
Addis Ababa that was signed on October 26, 1896. A number of powers of the
time (including Italy, France, Britain, Russia, the United States, Germany,
Belgium, Turkey, and others) also recognized the independence of Ethiopia and
opened their legations in Addis Ababa.
The heroic national campaign, cooperation, and common successes of
peoples of Ethiopia had a positive implication for success and national
integration. The victory assured independence and national pride. It has thus
become a source of pride for Ethiopians, Africans and the black race in general.
The victory of black people over white colonizers initiated entire Africans
fighting against colonialism. The well-known Pan-Africanist, Marcus Garvey,
6. 5. 3. Italian Occupation (1936-41) and the Patriotic Resistance
A) Background of the War
Before the battle to achieve their colonial ambition in Ethiopia, the Italian
government followed two policies. Namely, ‘subversion’ and
‘rapprochement’.
The policy of subversion aimed at affecting the unity of the empire via
sowing dissatisfaction in Tigray, Begemedir, Gojjam and Wollo. This
responsibility was entrusted to Corrado Zoli, the governor of Eritrea
(1928-1930).
The policy of ‘rapprochement’: The Italian legation in Addis Ababa,
headed by Guiliano Cora led the policy of ‘rapprochement’, a pseudo
reconciliation tactic which was trying to persuade the Ethiopian
government to establish cordial relations between the two countries. For
instance, the signing of the 1928 Italo-Ethiopian Treaty of Peace and
Friendship was the manifestation of the success of the rapprochement
policy. Beside their legation in Addis Ababa, the Italians had also consulates
in provincial towns such as Dessie, Adwa, Debre Markos and Gondar. These
consulates played a significant role in propagating dissatisfaction and
The Fascist government leader, Mussolini who made all necessary preparations to launch
an invasion against Ethiopia was only searching for a pretext.

 Fortunately he found it in the Walwal incident. The Walwal Incident that took place on 5
December 1934 was the result of the post-Awa boundary agreement limitations: lack of
demarcation on the ground and lack of effective administrative control in the frontier regions.

However, the Italians refused to give back Walwal and even attacked the Ethiopian soldiers
who were stationed nearby. Thus, this situation gave birth to the Walwal Incident.

 Although the number of Ethiopians dead during this border clash was three times as high
as the Italians, it was Italy, which demanded totally unreasonable apology and reparation from
Ethiopia.

Then, Ethiopia that refused to accept Italy’s demand took the matter to the League of
Nations and a period of diplomatic wrangling followed to resolve the dispute was failed.
B. The 1935 Invasion and the Process of the War
After forty years preparation following their defeat at Adwa, the Italians waged
their aggression via two major fronts: such as the Northern Front and the Southern
Front.
i.The Northern Front
In this front war was started when the Italians crossed the Mereb River on October
3, 1935 and launched a three pronged invasion and controlled Adigrat, Adwa and
Mekelle.
 In January 1936, the Ethiopian counter offensive force marched north through
three fronts. Ras Emiru Haile-Selassie led the westernnfront, Ras Kasa Hailu (also
commander of the entire northern front), Ras Seyum Mengesha led the central front,
and Ras Mulugeta Yigezu (War Minister) led the eastern front.
On January 20, 1936, the Ethiopian army launched a major offensive against the
Italians intending to isolate Mekelle, but failed to realize its objective due to lack of
coordination among commanders, lack of logistics, their superiority in modern
weapons and the air force,
On January 24, the Ethiopian force lost victory to the Italians at the first battle in
Temben, and in the subsequent battles at Amba-Aradom, to the south of Mekelle,
Italians scored yet another decisive victory in which the commander of the Ethiopian
army, Ras Mulugeta Yigezu, lost his life.
The forces of Ras Kasa and Ras Seyum were outnumbered by the Italian troops.
On the western front, the Ethiopian army under Ras Emeru’s better leadership
quality put strong resistance against the advancing force of the Italians.
A series of battles between the Ethiopian and Italian forces in the northern Front
culminated in Maychew on 31 March 1936 though the Ethiopian army (especially
members of the Kebur Zebegna) under the command of the Emperor put strong
resistance.
Finally, Many Ethiopian soldiers lost their lives from ground and air
bombardment during the battle. Then the Italian forces controlled Dessie and
Addis Ababa on 4 April 1936 and 5 May 1936, respectively.

ii. The Southern Front

In this front the Ethiopian army was better equipped and well led under the
commandership of Ras Desta Damtew (in the south) and Dejazmach Nesibu
Zamanuel (in the southeast).
 The Ethiopian army lost to the Italians at two major battles in the Southern
Front: namely, Qorahe (November 1935) and Genale Dorya (12-14 January 1936).
In this front, fortunately the Askaris (recruited from Eritrea) deserted the Italians
and joined the Ethiopian force which boosted the moral of Ras Desta’s troops. Ras
Desta continued to challenge the Italians until he was captured and executed in
early 1937.
The Italian soldiers s lost during the fighting in the Southern Front was larger
than the North, which slowed their advance to the center; Badoglio of the
northern front commander entered Addis Ababa before Graziani even crossed
Harar.
Finally, On 2 May 1936, the Emperor fled the country and three days later the
Italians entered Addis Ababa.
Between Haile Selassie’s departure and the Italian entry, Addis Ababa was
beset by burning of buildings, looting and random shooting. The major targets
of the violence were the rich, foreigners and the imperial palace. Many
foreigners saved their lives by taking refuge in foreign legations.
After their control of the capital Addis Ababa, Marshal Badoglio immediately
reported the situation to Mussolini. Benito Mussolini announced to the people
of Italy and the world about their control of Ethiopia using the phrase “Ethiopia
is Italian!”
The Italians immediately merged Ethiopia with their colonies of Italian
Somaliland and Eritrea. Then, they named the combination of their colonies
Italian East Africa (IEA) or Africa Orientale Italiana (AOI).
The newly formed Italian East Africa had six administrative regional divisions
such as, i.Eritrea (including Tigray) with its capital at Asmara;
ii.Amhara (including Begemidr, Gojjam, Wollo and Northern Shewa) with its
iii. Oromo and Sidama (including Southern and Southwestern provinces) with its capital at
Jimma;
iv. Eastern Ethiopia with its capital at Harar;
v. Somalia (including Ogaden) with its capital at Mogadishu;
vi. Addis Ababa (later changed to Shewa), the capital of the entire Italian East Africa.

The following Italians served as governors of Italian East Africa successively: Marshal
Badoglio (till the end of May 1936), Marshal Graziani (till February 1937), and finally
Amadeo Umberto d’Aosta (the Duke of Aosta).
Generally, a top-heavy bureaucracy and corruption characterized the Italian
administration of IEA. For instance, the last governor of IEA, the Duke of Aosta himself
characterized 50% of his officials as inept and 25% as thieves. Marshal Badoglio himself
reportedly pocketed about 1,700,000 Maria Theresa Thalers confiscated from the Bank of
Ethiopia.
 In the economic respect, the Italians weakened and destroyed non-Italian foreign firms
and replaced them with governmental enterprises that controlled the industry, trade and
agriculture.
The Italians were relatively successful in the sectors of trade and industry ( for they
were largely confined in the urban areas) as compared to the agricultural sector (due to
the prevalent patriotic resistances in the rural areas and their policy failure). For instance,
they planned to settle Italian farmers in selected Ethiopian areas such as Wegera,
Chercher and Jimma.
Generally, the legacy of the Italian rule can be summarized in the following brief points:

Architecture- the Italians left an indelible mark of buildings, bridges etc in towns such
as Addis Ababa, Jimma, Adwa, Gondar, Desse, Harar, Asmara, Mogadishu and others, but
to facilitate their colonial activities).
Introduction of some urban facilities like clean water and electricity to facilitate their
colonial rule.
Social legacies (expansion of prostitution, adoption of European habits-including
eating and dressing styles,liquors and adoption of Italian words);
The consolidation of cash economy;
Road construction and development of engine motor transport;
The sense of division, deliberately fostering ethnic and religious partialities and
tensions etc
C. The Patriotic Resistance Movement

The five-year Italian occupation (1936-41) was not a smooth experience and they
were challenged a series of patriotic resistances in different regions of the country
by all ethnic groups of the empire with varying degree of intensification. .
The Patriotic Resistance Movement can be grouped in to two phases such as The
first phase of resistance up to 1937 and The first phase of resistance since 1937 to
41.
i.The first phase of resistance
It was the continuation of the war itself. waged by and led under three
commanders of the Southern Front namely Ras Desta Damtew, Dejjach Beyene
Merid and Dejjach Gebre Maryam Gari.
An extension of this phase was a five pronged assault campaign on the capital in
the summer of 1936 that involved two sons of Ras Kasa Hailu (Asfawesen and
Aberra), the veteran of Adwa Dejjach Balcha Safo, Balambaras (later Ras) Abebe
Aregay, and Dejjach Fikre-Mariam Yinnnadu.
Unfortunately, this campaign was failed because of lack of effective means of
transportation and radio communication while Abune Petros, the Bishop of Wollo,
who was the spirit behind the patriots was executed and became a martyr of the
resistance and subsequently that shocked the nation, arousing the indignation of
the people, especially the clergies of the EOTC and their adherents at large.
 . The second phase of resistance ( 1937-41)
ii

It covers from 1937 to the end of the Italian occupation in 1941.
On 19 February 1937, two young Ethiopian patriots, Abreha Deboch
and Moges Asgedom, hurled a bomb at Graziani in the Genete-Le’ul
palace compound at Sidist Kilo, wounding him seriously and killing
some others.
The unsuccessful attempt made against Grazziani was followed by
a reign of terror waged by the Black Shirts; who chopped off heads,
burnt down houses with their inhabitants, and disemboweled about
30,000 thousands Ethiopians of different ages, classes and sex
within three days in Addis Ababa and its environs.
 During the massacres, special targets of the Fascist terror were
educated Ethiopians to create a “missing intellectual generation” ,
many members of the Black Lion Organization and the EOTC clergies,
monks and devoted adherents.
For instance, on 21 May 1937, in the EOTC monastery of Debre
Libanos alone, 297 monks were executed.
As the Fascist regime became intolerable to Ethiopians, there also arose women
who led their own army in the guerrilla war fares,. For instance,
Woizero Lekyelesh Beyan, whose career as a guerrilla fighter ended in January
1941, when she was captured after an Italian air bombardment.
Woizero Kebedech Seyoum (a daughter of Ras Seyum Mengesha and the wife of
Dejazmach Abera Kasa), started her patriotic activity before the fall of Addis Ababa
to the Italians. When her husband was fighting in the northern front, she
maintained peace and order in the province of Salale representing her husband.
W/ro Shewareged Gedle was another important women who engaged in the
patriotic activity behind the Italians by providing the patriots with secret
intelligence information, weapons, bullets and food.
To list a few patriots that we think can represent different parts of Ethiopia. We
have patriots men like:
Dejjazmach Umar Samatar,
Colonel Abdisa Aga,
Dejjazmach Belay Zeleke,
Dejjazmach Gebrehiwot Meshesha,
Dejjazmach Abbbai Kahsay,
Woizero Shewareged Gedle,
Zeray Dires,
Colonel Jagama Kello,
Woizero Sinidu Gebru,
Ras Amoraw Wubneh,
 Lij Haile Mariam Mamo,
Ras Abebe Aregay,
Dejjazmach Habte Mariam,
Colonel Belay Haile-ab,
Major Matias Gemeda,
Captain Yosef Nesibu,
Blatta Takele Wolde-Hawaryat,
Dejjach Geresu Duki,
Bekele Woya, etc.
Even though the struggle and patriotic resistance movements continued, it was
suffered from serious internal weakness. For instance,
It was handicapped by the Ethiopian collaborators called the Banda who
exercised their corrosive activities in different areas in favor of Fascist Italy’s
government either for material or political position interests.
The resistance movement was divided among different regions or war leaders
and that there was no one national organization to coordinate the activities of the
many patriotic groups dispersed in many parts of the country.

Relations between guerrilla groups were characterized by parochialism and

jealousy. Some guerrilla groups spent more time fighting one another than
attacking the declared enemy.

However, against the weaknesses mentioned above, the Ethiopia brave patriots
carried on a persistent resistance against Italian fascism until suddenly they got
external support from Britain in 1941. Indeed, it was b/c of the political
miscalculation made by Fascist Italy’s government who took part on the side of
Germany in Europe against the Allies powers of Britain and France during W.W.II
since 10 June 1940..
The internationalization of the conflict was a good opportunity to Ethiopia. For
Consequently, on July 12, 1940, the British government in London
recognized the Emperor as a full ally and launched a three-pronged
attack on the Italians both from air and the ground. They were,
From the north, General William Platt led the forces that attacked
the Italians in Eritrea.
From the West, in January 1941, Colonel Sandford and Major
Wingate accompanied the Emperor from Sudan into Gojjam at the
head of British and Ethiopian troops called the Gedeon force.
From the South, General Cunningham led the attack from Kenya and
annihilated the Italian forces suddenly and rapidly from all direction,
largely due to the demoralization that the patriots had caused on the
Italian forces in the last five years.

As a result, the Fascist Italy's forces and government seriously

hammered and defeated by the combined Ethio-British’s troops, and
completely withdrew from Ethiopia. Ethiopia was liberated. Finally,
 UNIT SEVEN

INTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS AND EXTERNAL RELATIONS, 1941–1995 ( 5 hrs)