Lesson 1 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Quantitative Research

You have learned from Practical Research 1 that research method is classified into two
main types: quantitative and qualitative. While both methods utilize a specific data gathering
procedure, the former is generally concerned with understanding phenomenon relating to or
involving quality or kind. The latter, on the other hand, is based on the measurement or quantity.
In this module, we will focus on quantitative methods of research and its different kinds.

Quantitative research uses scientifically collected and statistically analyzed data to

investigate observable phenomena. A phenomenon is any existing or observable fact or
situation that we want to unearth further or understand. It is scientific for the fact that it uses a
scientific method in designing and collecting numerical data. Once data is collected, it will
undergo statistical analysis like Pearson’s r, t-test and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) for
analysis. Since data is analyzed statistically, it is imperative that the data obtained must be
numerical and quantifiable, hence its name quantitative research.

Numerical data are generally easier to collect than descriptions or phrases used in
qualitative research. Information like student’s grades in different subjects, number of hours
of engagement in social media platforms of teens, percentage of consumers who prefer the
color blue for soap packaging, and average of daily Covid-19 patient recovery per region are
just few examples of research data expressed in numbers. Some data, on the other hand, are
not directly countable and thus require conversion from non-numerical information into
numerical information. For instance, determining which brand of canned sardines is the best
choice for consumers in terms of taste cannot be expressed in numbers unless we do a survey
using a rating scale. Several forms of rating scales are available, e.g., the Likert scale that we
can use to quantify data. Usually, they come in a selection of numbers with a corresponding
meaning for each choice, for example: 1= tastes very good, 2 = satisfactory, or 3 = undesirable.
Numerical choices convert texts into numbers so the researcher can perform mathematical
operations for faster, more accurate, and more objective analysis.
Characteristics of Quantitative Research

Quantitative research is commonly used in natural sciences research problems because

of the following characteristics:

1. Large Sample Size. To obtain more meaningful statistical result, the data must come
from a large sample size.

2. Objectivity. Data gathering and analysis of results are done accurately, objectively,
and are unaffected by the researcher’s intuition and personal guesses.
 3. Concise Visual Presentation. Data is numerical which makes presentation through
graphs, charts, and tables possible and with better conveyance and interpretation.

4. Faster Data Analysis. The use of a statistical tools gives way for a less
timeconsuming data analysis.

5. Generalized Data. Data taken from a sample can be applied to the population if
sampling is done accordingly, i.e., sufficient size and random samples were taken.

6. Fast and Easy Data Collection. Depending on the type of data needed, collection
can be quick and easy. Quantitative research uses standardized research instruments
that allow the researcher to collect data from a large sample size efficiently. For
instance, a single survey form can be administered simultaneously to collect various
measurable characteristics like age, gender, socio-economic status, etc.

7. Reliable Data. Data is taken and analyzed objectively from a sample as a

representative of the population, making it more credible and reliable for policymaking
and decision making.

8. High Replicability. The Quantitative method can be repeated to verify findings

enhancing its validity, free from false or immature conclusions.

Advantages of Quantitative Research

The following are the advantages of quantitative research or its strengths:

1. Very objective
2. Numerical and quantifiable data can be used to predict outcomes.
3. Findings are generalizable to the population.
4. There is conclusive establishment of cause and effect
5. Fast and easy data analysis using statistical software.
6. Fast and easy data gathering
7. Quantitative research can be replicated or repeated.
8. Validity and reliability can be established

Disadvantages of Quantitative Research

The following are the disadvantages of quantitative research or its weaknesses:

1. It lacks the necessary data to explore a problem or concept in depth.
2. It does not provide comprehensive explanation of human experiences.
3. Some information cannot be described by numerical data such as feelings, and
beliefs.
4. The research design is rigid and not very flexible.
5. The participants are limited to choose only from the given responses.
6. The respondents may tend to provide inaccurate responses.
7. A large sample size makes data collection more costly.
Kinds of Quantitative Research

Quantitative research is a broad spectrum that it can be classified into smaller and more
specific kinds: descriptive, correlational, ex post facto, quasi-experimental, and experimental.

Descriptive design is used to describe a particular phenomenon by observing it as it occurs in

nature. There is no experimental manipulation, and the researcher does not start with a
hypothesis. The goal of descriptive research is only to describe the person or object of the
study. An example of descriptive research design is “the determination of the different
kinds of physical activities and how often high school students do it during the quarantine
period.”

The correlational design identifies the relationship between variables. Data is collected by
observation since it does not consider the cause and effect, for example, the relationship
between the amount of physical activity done and student academic achievement.

Ex post facto design is used to investigate a possible relationship between previous events
and present conditions. The term “Ex post facto” which means after the fact, looks at the
possible causes of an already occurring phenomenon. Just like the first two, there is no
experimental manipulation in this design. An example of this is “How does the parent’s
academic achievement affect the children obesity?”

A quasi-experimental design is used to establish the cause-and-effect relationship of

variables. Although it resembles the experimental design, the quasi-experimental has
lesser validity due to the absence of random selection and assignment of subjects. Here,
the independent variable is identified but not manipulated. The researcher does not modify
pre-existing groups of subjects. The group exposed to treatment (experimental) is
compared to the group unexposed to treatment (control): example, the effects of
unemployment on attitude towards following safety protocol in ECQ declared areas.

Experimental design like quasi- experimental is used to establish the cause-and-effect

relationship of two or more variables. This design provides a more conclusive result
because it uses random assignment of subjects and experimental manipulations. For
example, a comparison of the effects of various blended learning to the reading
comprehension of elementary pupils.
 Lesson 2 DESIGNING A RESEARCH TOPIC

The first and foremost step in the research is selecting and properly defining a
research problem. Before starting a laborious journey of finding the unknown, you need
to know first what it is that you want to find out, where and how you are going to find the
answers to your questions, and what specific qualities are you looking for. For instance,
you want to find a specific kind of fish in the ocean; however, the ocean is so vast that it
is almost impossible for you to achieve that goal of finding the fish without equipping
yourself with the right tools and information about it. You may need to know first its
behavior and living conditions before you can precisely pinpoint the perfect spot to find
the fish. Thus, baseline information is needed for a successful quest. That fish analogy
can be applied to finding a research topic. A well-defined research topic is essential for
a successful research. When the topic is not well-defined, it becomes unmanageable
and may result in some drawbacks during data collection and analysis that could
compromise the strength of your study. Hence, choosing a topic must undergo proper
and thorough planning and designing.
The four basic steps in designing a research topic are the following:
(1) choose a broad topic, (2) do preliminary research, (3) define the problem, and (4)
refine the question. Guided with these steps, a student researcher can certainly
jumpstart a quantitative research project.
Steps in Developing Research Topic
Despite the advancement in knowledge and technology, there is still a lot to discover
in this world. There is still an ocean of things that we are yet to explore. It can be a
difficult
situation that we want to improve or eliminate, a better understanding of the unfamiliar,
information gaps we wish to fill, or theories that we want to validate. What limits our
choice of a topic are our capacity, understanding, resources, and skill.
Most researchers will agree that choosing a good topic is a challenging and tedious
task. Because a research topic serves as the groundwork for any succeeding actions, it
must be defined appropriately at the beginning of the research work. Otherwise, it may
result in unanticipated complexities to the researcher.

Developing a research problem can be done in four (4) steps:

1. Choose a broad topic
2. Do a preliminary research
3. Define the problem
4. Refine the question

As a student researcher, let us go through these steps to guide us in choosing a

quantitative research topic related to our chosen field.
1. Choose a broad topic. The first step is quite simple. As a Senior High School
student, these tips will surely guide you in selecting a broad topic for quantitative
research:
A. Choose an interesting topic.
Research is a very challenging task that demands your time and persistence. Your
motivation to find the answer to the problem should keep you going, thus building a
momentum along the way. Therefore, your research topic must be something that you
are passionate about. Review your answers in Activity 1, and it might lead you to the
right path. After all, nothing is more satisfying than accomplishing something that
matters to you.
B. Select a significant topic.
A topic that is worth researching must be able to answer or solve problems in the
community. No one will take an interest in your topic if it is obsolete and does not
address any real problem. To be proactive and to take part in solving problems with
socio-economic relevance gives a sense of accomplishment. You do not even have to
look far, just take a look at your household, neighborhood, school, group of friends, or
local community for a common problem or difficulty. Activity 2 will help you identify some
main points that can serve as a basis for choosing your research study.
C. Choose a topic relevant to your field.
One of the goals of this course is for you to be able to produce a quantitative research
study that is aligned to your chosen track. A SHS student under ABM must choose a
topic related to business and management while students taking HUMSS may consider
choosing a topic about politics, culture, and arts. Choosing a topic that you can relate
will certainly make your research project less challenging. In the event that the three tips
above do not shed some light on your minds, do not despair; other sources of ideas like
the ones below may be available for you.
i. Resources. Department of Science and Technology (DOST) harmonized National R
& D Agenda for 2017-2022. Early in 2017, DOST, together with researchers from the
health, agriculture, industry, and academe, released research priorities for 2017 to 2022
that are relevant for the economic growth of the country. Visit this link
https://bit.ly/3hHTf2Y for a list of suggested studies.
ii. Review of Literature. Some researchers reveal that reading previous studies fueled
their minds with tons of research topics. Reviewing the literature lets them know what
has been studied, what is not yet done, and what other researchers suggest working on.
Journals, periodicals, and peer-reviewed articles are a good read.
iii. Field experts. Gather up some guts to approach anyone you know that are experts
on the field of your choice because they may give valuable inputs or may currently be
working on a study where you can collaborate. Your teacher may also give you some
advice, especially on the possible obstacles, resource limitations, and expanse of the
study.
iv. Brainstorming. Do not underestimate the ideas from classmates, friends, and
family members. You may be overwhelmed at first by the outpouring of ideas. Just build
a list, then cross off any topic unrelated to your field or not so interesting to you. Of
course, you must take precautionary measures in doing this by observing physical
distancing. You can use any social media platform to do this.
2. Do a preliminary research.
The second step is much more time-consuming. Once you have chosen a broad topic,
you need to have a better understanding of it by reading some more articles, journals,
and related research studies. Find out how other researchers gathered their data, what
research instruments were used, how the data were analyzed, and what important
findings they shared. Take note of every relevant research study for future reference. If
you started the topic search (first step) by doing a literature review, the second step is
just a continuation of what you started.
3. Define the problem. After getting enough information, you may be able to list some
questions or problems that you want to research. At this stage, you should be able to
narrow down broad topic into feasible and manageable research questions. A broad
topic can be narrowed down by limiting the population, place, period, or a certain
characteristic. However, be very mindful that your problem may not be too narrow that it
becomes very simple and does not need to collect unique data or does not generate
new information. A very narrow research question can be developed by doing a
comparative study or expanding the scope of the study.
4. Refine the question. This step lets you evaluate the questions formulated. What
specific questions should you ask? How should you gather your data sufficient to
answer the questions? Are the questions too narrow, or does it need to be trimmed
down? While evaluating the research question, consider the requirements of the course.
How much time are you given to finish the research? What resources do you need and
are they available? You will learn more about research questions in lesson 4.

Lesson 3 BASIC GUIDELINES IN MAKING A

RESEARCH TITLE

A research study title is the very first thing a reader comes across when searching for
scientific literature. It is a concise description of the content of the research study
containing the fewest possible words, yet adequate to describe the contents of the
paper for a simple reason that we do not want to mislead the readers. After
conceptualizing a most probable research topic, drafting the title early in the research
process helps in keeping your focus on the subject. The following are the basic
guidelines in making a research study title:

1. Use an accurate description of the subject and scope of the study instead of using
general terms.
2. Do not use abbreviations except for commonly known ones like DNA and ICT.
3. Do not include words like “The study of,” “Analysis of,” “An investigation of” or similar
construction as these would only lengthen the title.
4. Include the main dependent and independent variables.
5. Be mindful of the proper use of grammar and punctuation.
6. Capitalize all nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs as well as the first letter of
the first and last words.
7. State in a declarative form, although you may also see titles in question form from
time to time.
8. The year the study has been conducted should not be indicated unless it is a
historical study.
9. Use current terminology.
10. Depending on the institutional requirements, 5 to15 words are sufficient to describe
the research study.
11. Use the common name instead of chemical formula (e.g., Ammonium instead of
NH4)
12. Write and italicize full scientific names.
13. Make sure to reflect the tone of the paper. An academic research paper has title
which is not casual, or informal, or does not contain humor.

The following steps can guide you in writing your research title:
1. Determine what it is that you wish to accomplish or know from your study. Write one
to two sentences to state the main objectives of your research project.
2. Include important keywords and variables. Revise the sentences into one complete
sentence that includes important keywords and variables of the study.
3. Shorten the title by eliminating unnecessary words. You may also shrink a phrase
into a simpler phrase or a single word. In doing this, make sure that the main thought of
the research study is retained.
4. Correct grammar and punctuation errors if there is any.
5. Observe proper formatting. The format may vary according to the requirements of the
course or school. Please seek guidance from your professor.
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Lesson 4 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Background of the Study

The background of the study is the part of your paper where you inform the reader of
the context of the study. When we say context, it means the situation or circumstances
within which your research topic was conceptualized. Ideally, this part is written when
you have already conducted a literature review and has a good perception of the topic
so you can articulate the importance and validity of the research problem. It is also in
this part of the paper where you justify the need to conduct a research study about the
topic selected by establishing the research gap.
A research gap is an under or unexplored area of a topic that requires further
exploration. The gap can be in a form of other variables, conditions, population,
methodology, or test subject. To identify research gaps, an exhaustive literature review
regarding the topic is required. You may have to look for similar or related studies
employing quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods from legitimate sources and
examine the gray areas. Reading through the Discussion, Conclusion, or the
Recommendations sections of the articles will help you know potential areas of study
that need further attention. Identifying research gaps sometimes would even make
researchers modify their research problem as they get noteworthy ideas from fellow
researchers.
While both the Background of the Study and the Review of Related Literature involve
reading past related studies, they differ in some aspects. The former is at the
introductory part of the paper with the purpose of relaying the importance of your
research study; the latter is more comprehensive and thoroughly discusses the studies
mentioned in the background of research. Moreover, the background of the study
answers the following questions:
1. What is already known about the topic?
2. What is not known about the topic?
3. Why do you need to address those gaps?
4. What is the rationale of your study?
While answering these questions, keep in mind that the studies you include in this part
of the paper are laid down as part of the introduction and should not be discussed in
great detail. The depth and length of the background information largely depend on how
much information you think the reader needs to know to have a full grasp of the topic
being discussed.
 Lesson 5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Nature of Quantitative Research Problem

Once we encounter uncertainty, being inquisitive, we always find ways for answers or
solution. Ignited by interest, curiosity, or need, we always find ourselves pondering
about the current problem we are facing. When we are thinking and behaving this way,
we are then confronted by a problem that can be a source of a research problem.
A research problem is simple as a problem you would like to research. Quantitative
Research Problem deals more with the precision and specificity of the problem.
Furthermore, the quantitative research problem describes trends and patterns of a
phenomenon.
When you have identified your quantitative research problem, you can now state it and
make sure to establish its place in your study. In your written paper, this can be found
as Statement of the Problem, where it formally introduces the problem that you want to
investigate or address. By this time, you can start specifying what you want to answer in
your study.
Research Problem and Research Questions
The research questions help clarify and specify the research problem. They are also
considered as sub-problems of your research problem and are informative in nature.
They specify the method of collecting and analyzing data, and the type of data to be
collected when exploring a quantitative research problem.
Characteristics of Good Research Questions
Once you have already enumerated your research questions for your study, it is
important that you consider its quality to answer and explain your research problem.
The following are good characteristics of research questions, as described by Fraenkel
and Wallen (2020).
Feasible. Consider the amount of time, energy, money, respondents, and even your
current situation as a student-researcher. Is the research problem possible? Will it not
spend unreasonable amount? Consider these examples: “How do parents feel about
the blended learning modality for elementary learners?” and “How would giving each
learner their own laptop to be used in this blended learning modality affect their
performance tasks?” The first example is definitely a more feasible research question.
Considering the resources, it is more possible to gather the data needed to answer the
question.
Clear. The clarity of how the questions are stated lead to agreement of meaning of the
readers of your study. Since your research questions are also considered as the main
focus in the gathering and analyzing the data, it is therefore very important that these
are stated clearly.
Significant. Ask if your research questions are relevant or important to ask. Will
answering these questions provide an additional contribution to address the given
research problem? In other words, are the research questions really worth
investigating?
At this point, you do not just consider the time and money that you will spend, but more
importantly, the value of what you are trying to investigate. So aside from the reason
that your chosen research problem is within your interest, you should also provide a
sound justification of your choice as a researcher.
Ethical. Always consider the welfare of people, animals or whosoever are involved in
your study. Look into ways of answering the research questions without inflicting
physical and psychological harm to persons involved.
Formulating Research Questions
Research questions can be generally classified into two: general and specific. The
general question of the study is derived from the research problem while the specific
questions are anchored on the general research problem.
For example:
This study aims to determine the relationship between the types of learning delivery
mode and students’ learning styles. Furthermore, it seeks to answer the following
research questions: (1) What are the different learning delivery modes of the school?
(2) What are the various learning styles of the students? (3) Is there a significant
relationship between the different learning delivery modes of the school and the
learning styles of its students?
Notice that a general problem was presented first. Then it was followed by the specific
questions considered as research questions of the study.
In stating quantitative research questions, you should also consider the design of your
quantitative research. Quantitative research designs will be elaborated in Module 4. For
the purpose of writing your research question, here’s a quick guide of research
questions for 18 CO_Q1_Practical Research 2_Module 2

descriptive research, correlational research, Ex Post Facto research, Experimental, and

Quasi-experimental research.
Research Questions for Descriptive Research focus on observing, describing, and
reporting factors or aspects of the research problem. Phrases such as how
often/frequently, how many/much, what is/are, to what extent/degree, and the likes are
used in these questions. For example, you study the use of social media among Senior
High School Students, you can ask the following questions:
What are the various social media platforms used by Senior High Students?
How many hours students spend on social media per day?
Research Questions for Correlational Research aim to determine the relationships
among two or more variables in your research problem. Correlational research
questions usually begin with the phrases “Is there a significant relationship...” or “What
is the relationship between/among...”. In the study of use of social media and level of
digital literacy of students following questions can be asked:
What is the relationship between the length of hours spent on social media and level of
digital literacy of students?
Is there a significant relationship between the type of social media used and the level
digital literacy of students?
Research Questions for Ex Post Facto Research attempt to identify the causes of
the phenomenon in the context of your research problem. It is also assumed that no
control or manipulation of variable has been done in order to cause the effect. It is also
understood that the cause of the problem already exists before you conducted your
study. For example, ex post facto study on family background and digital literacy of
students, the following questions can be asked:
Is there a difference in the literacy level of students between their cultural and
educational family background?
Research Questions for Experimental and Quasi-experimental Research suggest
that answers to these questions are brought about by manipulation or control of a
certain variable during the conduct of the study. These questions provide explanation to
the causal relationship of variables. The following research questions can be asked on
studies on elementary student’s remedial sessions and academic performance of
students:
Is there a significant difference in the posttest scores of the control group and
experimental group? Scope and Delimitation
In doing research study, we make sure that we have certainty and reasons for drawing
the inclusion and exclusion of research variables. We do not write for the sake of writing
the parts of the research paper, such as setting the scope and delimitation of your
study. It is important because it draws the boundary of your study. Without doing so,
research procedures and results will not be coherent to the goal of your study.
The scope specifies the coverage of your study such as variables, population or
participant, and timeline. Delimitation cites factors of your study that are not included or
excluded or those you will not deal in your study.
In this section of your research paper, you may also state the reasons why you did not
include the variables. A clearly written scope and delimitation of the study will make it
definitely easier to answer questions which are related or not related to your study.
Components of Scope and Delimitation
In writing the scope and delimitation of your study, you are also asking the basic profile
questions of your research. The following are the components of the scope and
delimitation of the study but not limited to:
Topic of the Study. What are the variables to be included and excluded?
Objectives or Problems to be Addressed. Why are you doing this study?
Time Frame. When are you going to conduct this study?
Locale of the Study. Where are you going to gather your data?
Characteristics of the Respondents. Who will be your respondents?
Method and Research Instruments. How are going to collect the data?
Difference between Delimitation and Limitation of the Study
The delimitation of the study describes the various limitations that arose during the
design and conduct of the study. Along the way of conducting your study, you will
encounter limitations which you have not drawn before you start – these are the
delimitations of study. Most of the delimitations arose from the applicability or
usefulness of the findings of the study to the current problem.
Variables not included in your study are also determined by delimitation of your study.
While on the other hand, limitation of the study are those variables included in your
study. Hence, limitation of the study is actually the identified scope of the study.
 Lesson 6 SCOPE AND DELIMITATION OF THE
STUDY
Getting this far means you have already completed the first part of the research paper.
The next step is to present your Statement of the Problem. The following topics were
already discussed and practiced, so it is time to present your output for this Module.
Research Title
Background of the Research
Research Questions
Scope and Delimitation of the Study
Significance of the Study or Beneficiaries (if applicable)

Summary
• Steps in developing a research topic include;(1) Choose a broad topic, (2) Do a
preliminary research, (3) Define the problem, and (4) Refine the question
• Background of the study states the situation or circumstances within which your
research topic is conceptualized.
• Research Problem is the focus of investigation.
• Characteristics of good research questions are feasible, clear, significant, and ethical.
• The scope specifies the coverage of your study such as variables, population or
participant, and timeline. Delimitation cites factors of your study that are not included or
excluded or those you will not deal in your study.
 Lesson 7 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

As you begin writing your research project, you must consider the framework that is suitable for your
study. What is a research framework? A research framework illustrates the structure or blueprint of the
research plan and helps the researcher formulate relevant research questions.

The framework consists of the key concepts and assumes relationships of the research project.
It is normally used as a guide for researchers so that they are more focused on the scope of their
studies. It can be presented using visual (diagrams, chart, etc.) and narrative (paragraph stating the
concepts and relationships of the study) forms.

Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

The types of research frameworks are classified as the theoretical and conceptual frameworks. A
theoretical framework is commonly used for studies that anchor on timetested theories that relate the
findings of the investigation to the underpinning relevant theory of knowledge. At the same time, a
conceptual framework refers to the actual ideas, beliefs, and tentative theories that specifically
support the study. It is primarily a conception or model of what is out there that the researcher plans
to study.

Similarities of the Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

The following are the similar characteristics of Theoretical and Conceptual Framework:
1. Provide an overall view of the research study;
2. Anchor a theory that supports the study;
3. Guide in developing relevant research questions/objectives;
4. Help justify assumptions/hypothesis;
5. Aid in choosing appropriate methodology;
6. Help in gathering and interpreting data and 7. Guide in identifying possible threats to validity.

A Summary of the Differences of Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

Theoretical framework Conceptual framework
Content of Discussion • Focus on specific theory used already in the • Focus on concepts related to your study
field.
Range • Broader in sense • Narrower/focused
• Applicable in different studies • Directly related to a specific study
Theories Presented • Presents one or more theory at a time and • May synthesize one or more theories or
specifically related to the current study concept related to current study

Time Frame • Usually, theory is established before the • A working concept during the time of study.
study
Guidelines and strategies in choosing and developing a Research Framework

In deciding on what research framework, you are going to use in your study, you have to take into
consideration the following vital information about the theoretical and conceptual framework.

Theoretical framework Conceptual framework

• Revisit the information given by your related • Refer to your research questions or objectives
literature and identify if there are potential to identify the essential themes in your study.
theories or knowledge that may be use or Look for additional theories that involve the
anchored to the possible outcome of your same principle and see how they relate to one
study. another. Make a concept map of your
conceptual framework, utilizing the existing
• theories as a reference. If there are topics which
With the use of these information, you can now
create a plan or blueprint for your research are not included in the theories you have
study. chosen and you know that it is essential to your
study, you can include it.
•
You also need to comprehend and consider the • You have to make a written explanation on the
variables that will be significant in your study concepts that are being incorporated and their
and their relationship with another. impact to one another after you have made the
first draft of your conceptual framework.
Moreover, you have to revisit your research
questions and conceptual framework if they are
aligned.

• It is important to remember that developing a

conceptual framework is a process. This means
that as you study more material and research
more theories, it may still be refined or
updated. The research hypothesis may be
stated at the end of the conceptual framework
in some situations.

Concept Map

A concept map is a visual representation of information that helps show the relationship between
ideas. Concept maps begin with the main topic and then branch out into sub-topics, reflecting the
connection of all the elements in the study. It can also provide and organize new ideas.
 It is composed of different figures such as lines, circles, boxes, and other marks or symbols
which represent the elements of your research. It can take the form of charts, graphic organizers,
tables, flowcharts, Venn Diagrams, timelines, or T-charts. Concept map arranges related ideas in a
hierarchy. You start broad, and the sub-topics will get more and more specific. It also helps you in
formulating a specific topic from the general or the main idea with significant connections of
information. In other words, understanding the big picture makes the details more significant and
easier to comprehend.

Concept maps are very useful for researchers and readers who understand better visually. With
the proper connection of lines and linking arrows to shapes and other symbols representing your
concepts about the research, the readers can visualize a comprehensive picture of your study.

However, in the concept map, you are not yet actually researching your study. It is developing
or creating your plan or blueprint so that you will be guided on the flow and direction of your research
study. And that includes your research questions, variables, and methodology. It means that you are
just gathering and soliciting ideas on what you could learn about your chosen topic.

Before creating your conceptual framework, you have to understand first the different
variables of your study. Although these were already discussed in the previous module for the purpose
of utilizing it in your framework, an in-depth concept is a need.

The independent variable is the “presumed cause” of the research problem. It is the reason for
any “change” or difference in a dependent variable. It can be purposely manipulated by the researcher,
depending on the focus of the study. It maybe can cause, influence, or affect the result or outcome of
the study. It is also called as the experimental, treatment, antecedent, or predictor variable. Moreover,
it refers to the variable that is stable and unaffected by the other variables you are trying to measure.

The dependent variable is the “presumed effect” of the research problem. It is usually the
problem itself or the element that is being questioned. This variable is altered as a result of
experimental manipulation of the independent variable or variables. It is also called as the criterion,
effect, response, or outcome variable which captures the interest of the researcher and requires
analysis, interpretation, and implication of the findings of the study. The variable that depends on other
factors that are measured and are affected or influenced by the independent variable.

The moderating variable is an independent variable which influences the direction and the
strength of the connection between independent and dependent variables. The independent variable
interacts with the moderator variable, which makes the relationship of the independent and dependent
variable stronger or weaker. It alters the effect that an independent variable has on a dependent
variable base on its value. The moderator thus influences the effective component of the cause-effect
relationship between the two variables. This is also called as the interaction effect.
 Mediating variable or Intervening variable is an element that exists between the independent
to the dependent variable. A mediator (or mediating) variable is an integral part of the cause-effect
relationship and helps us to understand the effects of the independent variable on the dependent
variable. It is a variable that describes the effect and influence of the relationship between the variables
and what is controlling that relationship. This is also called as correlated or mediator variables

The control variable is a special type of independent variable that can influence the dependent
variable. It takes an active role in quantitative studies. Statistical procedures are used to control this
variable. It is useful to integrate the control variables into your research study, but it is not the main
focus.

It has somehow an effect on the dependent variable and an extension of the independent
variable. However, if you omit the control variable from your study, the findings would be less accurate.
It is mostly relevant if your study is about to prove a cause-effect relationship by undertaking statistical
analysis.

The Input-Process-Output Model

The Input-Process-Output Model (IPO) is a conceptual paradigm which indicates the inputs, required
process, and the output. This approach is seated on the premise of acquiring essential information by
converting inputs into outputs through the required processing steps in obtaining the result. The IPO
Model is also referred to as a functional model that is usually used in action research where an
intervention or solution is necessary to solve the identified problem.

The Input is usually the independent variable of the study. Meanwhile, the Process is the
intervention or solution consist of the instruments and analyses used to acquire the result. Lastly, the
Output is the findings or outcome of the interventions being made to solve the identified problem.

Common Example of Conceptual Framework

As you read on different research studies, the common conceptual frameworks used of most studies
are the independent and dependent variable model and the input, process, and output model.

A. Independent Variable - Dependent Variable Model (IV-DV)

For example:
 Figure 1. The schematic diagram of the Independent and Dependent Variables of the Study.

This conceptual framework shows the independent and dependent variables of the study. It is
presumed that the more number of hours a student prepares for the exam, the higher would be the
expected academic performance.

B. The Input – Process - Output Model (IPO)

Figure 2. The schematic diagram of the Input, Process, and Output Approach of the Study.

This conceptual framework shows the input, process, and output approach of the study. The
input is the independent variable, which includes the socio-demographic and food safety profile of the
respondents. The process includes the tools and analyses in gathering the data, while the output is the
outcome based on the results of the study.
 Lesson 8 DEFINITION OF TERMS

Usually, in writing a research paper, the definition of terms is included. It helps in simplifying some of
the technical terms which are vital in the understanding of the research project. Although this part of
the paper is optional, it is advantageous for the reader to include this to prevent the ambiguous
meaning of terms that might otherwise be interpreted in different ways, causing confusion. It can also
enhance comprehension of important key terms.

Definition of Terms is also called as Operational Definition of Variables (ODV). The word operational
refers to “how the word/term was used in the study. At the same time, the variables are the elements
essential to the study.

There are two ways in defining the terms, the conceptual and operational definition. The conceptual
definition is the meaning of the term that is based on how it is defined in the dictionary or
encyclopedia. Operational definition, on the other hand, is the meaning of the term based on how it
was used in the study.

Generally, there are two cases in which important terms need to be defined; first, if the term is not
common or widely known, and second, if the term has a specific or unique meaning in the context of
the study.

Benefits of Having Definition of Terms

1. It is a useful place to include technical terms in the topic of the research questions.
2. It can clarify the definition of term, especially if it has a different meaning. Define the term
according to how it was used in the study.
3. It makes it easier to revisit or check the meaning of a term instead of trying to locate it through
the paper.
4. Helps to ensure that the reader can understand the technical terminologies and jargons while
reading the paper.

Guidelines on How to Write the Definition of Terms

1. Write a brief introductory statement. It must shortly describe the content of the definition of
terms.
2. List/write the words/terms (which are technical) that would be included (make sure that the
variables and key terms found in the title are included).
 3. The terms should be arranged alphabetically.
4. Indention should be applied to each term.
5. The term should be followed with a period.
6. It can be underlined or not.
7. It can be bold and italic or not.
8. It does not have to be lengthy (direct to the point).
9. Acronym/initials should be defined clearly. Complete name should be written first, followed by
the acronym/initials in open-close parenthesis, then the definition/meaning.
10. Do not overflow with technical terms (only those relevant and significant to the study).
11. Keep the definition brief and basic. You will elaborate on it more in the body of your paper.

Note: Refer also to your institutional format (some institutions have different formats).

Examples of Writing the Definition of Terms

1. Conceptual definition

Face to face. It is when the people involved are being close together and looking directly at each other
(https://bit.ly/2L2IuML).

Module. It is any in a series of standardized units used together, such as an educational unit that
covers a single subject or topic (https://bit.ly/380jv5X).

Online. It is controlled by or connected to another computer or network

(https://bit.ly/3aUatJA).

2. Operational definition

Face to face. This refers to one of the modalities used in learning delivery in which the teacher
and students should be in the same place or setting, such as the classroom.

Module. Teaching modules are guides of the topics and lessons of a specific subject given to students
under the modular method. It is also an alternative distance learning delivery in which students are
required to read and answer the activities specified in the module.

Online. It refers to another form of distance learning wherein the teacher and students will have their
lessons using internet connectivity.
 Lesson 9 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

When you are finished identifying your statement of the problem or research questions/objectives, you
may now start formulating the hypothesis of your study. What is hypothesis?

A Hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables. It
is a specific and testable prediction on what you expect to happen with the variables in your study.
Usually, it proposes a possible relationship between the independent variable (what the researcher
changes) and the dependent variable (what the research measures). It is also described as an
“educated guess” of what possibly the result would be of your research, which should be supported on
existing theories and knowledge. Furthermore, the hypothesis states a tentative answer to your
research question that can be tested by further investigation in which you can support or refute it
through scientific research methods such as data collection and statistical analysis. It is the central
concept of any investigation that converts research questions into predictions and incorporates
elements such as variables, population, and the relationship between factors.

As a researcher, you must determine whether your hypothesis is accepted or not based on the
findings and outcome of your research study. Not all studies have a hypothesis while some studies have
several hypotheses.

Types of Research Hypothesis

1. Simple Hypothesis
A simple hypothesis is a prediction of the relationship between two variables, the
independent variable and the dependent variable. It shows a connection between one
independent variable and a single dependent variable (https://bit.ly/37UCE9q). Ex: The higher
the poverty rate in society (one independent variable), the higher the number would be the out
of school youth (one dependent variable).

2. Complex hypothesis
The complex hypothesis reflects the relationship between the independent variable
and the dependent variable. It expresses a connection between two or more independent
variables and two or more dependent variables (https://bit.ly/37UCE9q).
 Ex: Eating more vegetables and fresh fruits (independent variables) leads to boost
immune system and enhance blood circulation and digestion (dependent variables).

3. Empirical Hypothesis
An empirical hypothesis is also called as the “working hypothesis.” It is presumed to
explain certain facts and relationships of phenomena. It comes to life when a theory is being
put to the test, using observation and experiment. From the name itself “working,” it would
mean that it can be changed or replace anytime as soon as it is no longer supported or
accepted base on the observation and experimentation being done. It is going through some
trial and error and perhaps changing around those independent variables
(https://bit.ly/37UCE9q).

Ex: Plants watered everyday grow faster than plants watered once a week. (Here, trial
and error are leading to a series of findings).

4. Logical hypothesis
Logical hypothesis expresses explanation with limited evidence that can be verified
logically. It reflects a relationship of the variables which are anchored based on logical
phenomena. Sometimes, a logical hypothesis can be turned into an empirical hypothesis in
which you have to test your theories and postulates

(https://bit.ly/37UCE9q).
Ex: Tomato plants bear fruit faster in Earth than in Moon. (Until we are can test the soil
and plant growth in Moon's ground, the evidence for this claim will be limited, and the
hypothesis will only remain logical).

5. Statistical hypothesis
A statistical hypothesis is an analysis of a portion of a population. It can be verified
statistically. The variables in a statistical hypothesis can be transformed into quantifiable sub-
variable to assess it statistically (https://bit.ly/37UCE9q).

Ex: If your research is about the psychosocial development of K-3 pupils of the private
and public schools in the city, you would want to examine every single K-3 pupil in the
city. It is not practical. Therefore, you would conduct your research using a statistical
hypothesis or a sample of the K-3 pupil population.

6. Null hypothesis
The null hypothesis is denoted with the symbol Ho It exists when you consider that
there is no relationship between the independent and dependent variables or that there is an
insufficient amount of information to claim a scientific hypothesis (McLeod, 2020).

Ex: There is no significant change in my health, whether I exercise every day or not.
 7. Alternative hypothesis
An alternative hypothesis is denoted with the symbol (Ha). It is an alternate statement
expressed to be tested in order to generate the desired output when the empirical or working
hypothesis is not accepted. In an attempt to disprove a null hypothesis, you tend to seek an
alternative hypothesis (McLeod, 2020).

Ex: My health improves during the times when I sleep 8 hours a day than sleeping for 4
hours only.

A Hypothesis can be classified as Directional and Non-directional Hypothesis

Directional Hypothesis

The directional hypothesis relates the relationship between the variables and can also
predict its nature. It illustrates the direct association of the impact of the independent variable
with the dependent variable, whether it is positively or negatively affected. The direction of the
statement should be clear and justified according to the findings of the study. Since the
hypothesis is gearing to one specific direction it is investigated through a one-tailed test
(McLeod, 2020).

Ex: Students who are eating nutritious food have higher grades than students not
having a proper meal. (This shows that there is an effect between the grades and
nutritious food and the direction of effect is clear that the students got a higher grade).

Non-directional Hypothesis
A non-directional hypothesis is used when there is no principle involved. It is a premise
that a relationship exists between two variables. However, the direction of the effect is not
specifically determined. It is a statement that reflects the association of the independent
variable to the dependent variable without predicting the exact nature of the direction of the
relationship. This relationship is not specified as negative or positive. The hypothesis, in this
case, is investigated through a two-tailed test (McLeod, 2020).

Ex: There is a significant difference in the average grades between those students that
have proper nutritious meal and those that do not have proper meals. (This depicts
that there is an effect between the average grades and nutritious food, but it does not
reflect the direction of the effect whether it is positively or negatively affected).

Guidelines in Formulating Hypothesis

These guidelines must be observed in formulating your hypothesis.

1. Before writing your specific hypothesis, spend more time researching about the topic you are
interested in. Focus on information and previous studies related to your topic.

2. Your independent variable and dependent variable must be included in your hypothesis.
3. The relationship of your variables must be reflected in your hypothesis. Will your independent
variable affect your dependent variable?

4. Your hypothesis should be simple and specific as possible. If your hypothesis is vague and
complicated, it would be difficult to find the answer to your question.

5. Your hypothesis should be concise and comprises clear and simple language. Make it short and
simple for it to be easily understood and avoid any misconceptions or misunderstandings.

6. Your hypothesis should be testable without violating ethical standards. It means that it could
be investigated and measured through a scientific method such as statistical analysis and data
interpretation.

7. Your hypothesis must be falsifiable. It means that your hypothesis can be proven wrong
through experiments or empirical data. There are no absolute answers to research questions,
but there is a possibility of validating the hypotheses to be true beyond a reasonable doubt.

Lesson

10 REVIEWOF RELATED LITERATURE

After you have selected your research topic, you have to spend more time for your review of related
literature. As a researcher, you are promoting knowledge. The knowledge created by other previous
studies is essential because it can be a baseline or reference for your research study as the related
literature.

Review of related literature is a compilation of studies related to a specific area of research (Fraenkel
& Wallen, 2020). It evaluates, classifies and summarizes all the relevant previous studies conducted on
a specified topic. It is also designed to justify your research by exposing the gaps of the previous
studies. It is vital that your literature review is centralized. Thus, you should choose studies that are
focused to your topic rather than collecting a broader scope of studies which are already not relevant
to your research.

Moreover, literature review is an essential component of research. It forms a "picture" for the
reader, providing a support and full comprehension of the developments in the field. This picture tells
the reader that you have acknowledged, considered and adapted previous related significant works in
the field into your research.

Literature review plays a significant impact in the discussion of the results and findings. The
discussion of results and findings should focus on your research rather than those of the other previous
research. Hence, the literature review should be used only in the discussion as support, evidence, and
further explanation for your study. These are the three (3) ways of using literature review in the
discussion of your study: a) providing context as a foundation to develop your ideas, b) comparing your
findings from other previous related studies, and c) stating what contribution your study has made in
the field.

However, there are also three (3) common errors that are usually made when including
literature reviews in the discussion of the study. First, there are wide range of studies being included in
which most of them are not anymore relevant to your specific topic under investigation. Second,
Related article mentioning the original article is cited rather than citing the original article itself. Lastly,
previous work has been cited by the researcher based only on the abstracts and without even reading
the entire research.

Purpose of a Literature Review

The review of related literature is anchored on the following purposes.

1. To discover the connection of your research to the existing body of knowledge and to the real-
life situations.
 2. To identify more theories or concepts as the foundation of your research study and to learn
from them.
3. To determine the relationship of your research with previous research studies to prevent
duplication and to acknowledge other researchers.
4. To acquire knowledge on the accuracy and significance of your research questions.
5. To acquaint yourself with the technical terminologies relevant to your study.
6. To determine possible gaps, conflicts, and open questions left from other research which might
help you in formulating and justifying your research ideas.
7. To clarify misconceptions on previous research and help refocus, polish, and contribute to the
development of the body of knowledge.

Structure of Literature Review

This is how you are going to structure your review of related literature. The main goal for doing this is
to make the reader understand easily the different studies and how they are relevant to your study.

1. Introduction
The introduction somehow presents the fundamental idea of the particular study of
the literature review.

2. Main Body
The main body consists of the organized discussion of sources. This is where you
summarize and synthesize your literature review and reflect how they related to your study.

3. Conclusions/Recommendations
Conclusion and recommendation emphasize what you have learned from reviewing the
literature and where your study leads to.

Types of Literature Review

These are the different types of literature review according to Nueman (2011). Following the type of
literature review depends on how you organize and present your review of related studies.

1. Context review
From the name itself, context review is primarily focused on the content or contextual
aspect of research. Usually, it is a type of review in which the researcher relates his or her study
to a larger body of knowledge. It presents the current research by merging it into a wider
framework and determine its contribution and impact to the specific field of study.
2. Historical review
Historical review is a specialized type of literature review in which the researcher
organizes the related research according to the period of time it was conducted. Historical
literature review focuses on probing research in a specified field throughout a chronological
order, which usually starts from the oldest period of time going to the most recent studies. The
goal of this type of research is to gain knowledge on the advancement of technology and to
identify developments on certain areas, which progress through time. It can be integrated with
a theoretical or methodological review to illustrate how a concept, theory, or research method
developed through time.

3. Integrative review
Integrative review is a common type of literature review in which the researcher
introduces and summarizes the recent knowledge of the study. It emphasizes the agreements
and disagreements of knowledge among various previous research. It also considers reviews,
critiques, and synthesizes representative literature in an integrated way in order to generate
new structure and viewpoint on the topic. This is the most common form of literature review in
the social sciences. This review is usually merged with a context review.

4. Methodological review
Methodological review is a specialized type of literature review in which the researcher
gathers, compares and contrasts other studies to the current research. It basically summarizes
and evaluates the strengths and gaps in methodological aspects of various studies and
illustrates the effects of different methodologies (research designs, samples, process) to
different outcomes. This approach also emphasizes ethical issues when necessary, which you
should consider and be conscious of as you go through your current research.

5. Self-study review
Self-study review is a literature review in which the researcher demonstrates his or her
understanding of a specific body of knowledge. It contains existing proof associated to a clearly
stated research questions and uses standardized methods to determine and evaluate relevant
research. However, it can also produce problems of prejudice especially when it is used to
summarize claims or statements linking his or her findings to a system of knowledge. Typically,
it is a practice in the educational program or course requirement.

6. Theoretical review
Theoretical review is a literature review in which the researcher introduces several
theories or concepts that are focused on a specific topic. It is particular on the theories and
concepts being highlighted on other researches and compares them to the current study basing
on its framework, hypothesis, consistency, and justification. The theoretical literature review
aids in establishing the theories already existed, the relationships of theories among various
studies, the degree of its investigation, and the development of new hypotheses.
Type of Sources for a Literature Review

In doing a literature review, researchers must be acquainted with the three (3) basic types of
sources which are the general references, primary and secondary sources. General references are
sources in which a researcher refers to tract down other sources. Primary sources are publications in
which a researcher accounts the findings of his or her investigations. Most primary sources are found in
journal articles. Secondary sources are publications in which a researcher considers the work of others
(Fraenkel & Wallen, 2020).

Where can you find the review of related literature?

As a researcher, you can find information about the research studies in numerous formats such as
books, scholarly journal articles, dissertations, government documents, policy reports, and periodicals.
Most researchers are also presenting their findings during meetings, congress, and conventions of
professional societies and organizations. According to Nueman (2011), you can find related literature
in:

1. Books
Books convey many forms of information. The needed information here is from the
books containing a collection of research materials and articles. You can find citation
information on them such as the title, author, date, and publisher in the catalog system.

2. Scholarly Journals
Scholarly journals may also be referred to as academic journals or peerreviewed
journals. They are filled with peer-reviewed information of research. Articles are written by a
scholar in the field and the researcher is always identified. List of the sources of the
information like footnotes, endnotes, and bibliography is always included. Typically, they
contain an advanced terminologies since the researcher uses technical language in their field of
study. The researcher assumes that the reader has a background and basic understanding in
the field of research.

3. Dissertations
Dissertation is a final requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) in
which the student or researcher has to complete a work of original research. Some
dissertations are eventually published as books or articles which consider their findings and
contribution to the academic discipline. Since dissertations are original research, they can be a
source of valuable information.
 4. Government Documents
Most of the government agencies around the world support research undertakings and
publish the findings of the study. Government documents are usually kept at the government
and some school libraries. These documents are rarely found in the catalog system. Assistance
from the librarian is needed for you to be able to locate these documents since it is considered
as specialized publications.

5. Policy Reports and Presented Papers

Policy reports are also a source of information in literature review. Policy papers are
not like the typical research papers. Usually, they are discussed to non-academic readers. They
may initiate by identifying an issue or phenomenon that usually claim an answer and they are
focused on being persuasive. Moreover, policy papers are written proficiently and most of the
readers do not want to read a book due to limited time. Generally, they are supplemented by
policy briefs which summarize the papers.

6. Periodicals
Periodicals are findings of the study which can be seen in newspapers, in popular
magazines, on television or radio broadcasts, and in Internet news summaries. They are the
chosen edited summaries done by journalists for the general readers. They are deficient in
numerous vital details that are required to critically evaluate the study. Therefore, it is essential
to supplement these informations with other sources.

Steps in Writing Literature Review

Transcribed from the video presentation: https://bit.ly/3b12Q4b

1. Find/Search for the Relevant Literature

There are many ways on how to find relevant research studies. You may use the following:

a. Search engines to facilitate your information inquiry. Make sure that they are
reliable.
b. University online library c. Snowballing d. Related dissertations

2. Log, Catalogue and Synthesize

After searching and gathering the different relevant studies, you need to arrange them in
order for you to organize them easily.

a. Log the reference information. You may use reference management software.
b. Catalogue all relevant articles. You may use excel so that it will be organize and
systematic. You can make your own template so that you will be efficient.
c. Digest and synthesize. Organize the different ideas from different sources. Arrange
them according to the criteria that you made in your excel template. This would make
the connections of the different studies easier to identify.
 3. Outlining and Writing Up
In-depth planning and enough time should be given importance during this period since
you will need to concentrate and have focus in writing up your paper.

a. Draw up your outline. You need to make an outline first for the structuring of your
literature review. Thorough reading and understanding should be done for you to be
able to plan and structure the ideas from your different sources. You can use the
different approaches like chronological, thematic, theoretical, etc.
b. Write it up. After formulating the outline, you can now begin writing your first draft. It
is expected that your first draft is still rough. Your second draft involves tightening up
and improving the flow. There would be several drafts needed for your paper to be
polished.
c. Recap. When you are finish with your paper, have it read by others who are qualified
(expert in the field) for further improvements. Comprehend and incorporate their
corrections and suggestions for the betterment of your study. It is so much better if
there will be more qualified people that can proof-read your paper.
In-text Citation and Referencing Styles
Source: https://bit.ly/3pyM8gb

Citation is a reference to a literature being used in your study. It is a way of giving

acknowledgement to the authors whom you have referred their intellectual works and creativity as a
support or foundation of your research. Typically, citations include author’s name, date, publisher
information, journal information and/or DOI (Digital Objective Identifier) if present (Literature Review:
Citation Styles, nd).

From the name itself, an in-text citation is a reference made within the body of text in the
paper. It leads the reader to a source where a particular information has been taken of. An in-text
citation should be reflected when you refer, paraphrase, summarize, or quote from another author. A
corresponding reference list must be provided at the end of the study as references or bibliography.

A reference typically includes only the sources that you have mentioned or cited intext in your
paper, while a bibliography is generally a list of all the sources you use to generate your ideas about
your research even if you have not mentioned or cited them in your paper.

There are different citing and referencing styles that are being used depending on the specific
requirements of different filed of disciplines. Please refer to your Practical Research 1 (PR1).