Unit III Working with Command BSc. III Sem. V Prepared by Dr. U. S. Junghare Introduction: ‘A command is an instruction given to our computer by us to do whatever we want The Linux command is a utility of the Linux operating system. All basic and advanced tasks can be done by executing commands. The commands are executed on the Linux terminal. The terminal is a command-line interface to interact with the system, which is similar to the command prompt in the Windows OS. Commands in Linux are case-sensitive, Commands are executed by typing in at the command line followed by pressing enter key, ‘This command further passes to the shell which reads the command and execute it. Shell isa method for the user to interact with the system. Default shell in Linux is called bash (Bourne- Again Shell). Linux provides a powerful command-line interface compared to other operating systems such as Windows and MacOS. We can do basic work and advanced work through its terminal. We can do some basic tasks such as creating a file, deleting a file, moving a file, and more. In addition, wwe can also perform advanced tasks such as administrative tasks (including package installation, user management), networking tasks (ssh connection), security tasks, and many more. Directory Commands: Directory Description Command pwd ‘The pwd command stands for (print working directory). It displays the current working location or directory of the user. It displays the whole working path starting with /. It is a built-in command. Is The Is command is used to show the list of a folder. It will list out all the files in the directed folder. cd ‘The cd command stands for (change directory). It is used to change to the directory you want to work from the present directory With mkdir command you can create your own directory. ‘The rmdir command is used to remove a directory from your system,pw The ‘pwd,’ which stands for “print working directory”. In this article, we will delve into the ‘pwd’ command, exploring its functionality, usage, and various examples. It prints the path of the working directory, starting from the root. pwd is shell built-in command(pwd) or an actual binary(/bin/pwd). The basic syntax of the ‘pwd’ command pwd [options] This command doesn’t have any arguments or options, but it can accept flags for specific behavior How to Display the Current Working Directory in Linux: a, Displaying the Current Working Directory Using Built-in pwd (pwd): To print the current working directory, simply enter: file Edit View Terminal Tabs Help Pe eae) Rites year: Perea ea eee Ariryeieec ATs Par iecc cL eaC ree me etoats Beene Se EAC Ee 3.1 Display the Current Working Directory ‘* The output will be the absolute path of your current location in the file system. In the given example the directory /home/shital/logs/ is a symbolic link for a target directory /var/logs/ b. Displaying the Current Working Directory Using Binary pwd (/bin/pwd): file Edit View Terminal Tabs Help Serre Stree yr) ~/Logs$ /bin/pwd /var/Log shital@debian:~/logs$ /bin/pwd cya res OAT shital@debian:~/logs$ Fig. 3.2 Display the Current Working Directory* The default behavior of Built-in pwd is the same as pwd -L. Using “pwd -L” to obtain the symbolic path of a directory containing a symbolic link © The default behavior of /bin/pwd is the same as pw -P. Utilizing “pwd -P” to display the actual path, ignoring symbolic links. ¢. The $PWD Environment variable. The SPWD environment variable is a dynamic variable that stores the path of the current working directory. It holds the same value as ‘pwd -L’ — representing the symbolic path file Edit View Terminal Tabs Help Str Sen revatrry Cy rac eAtl ts Eipee Ce eu reac es Fig. 33 $PWD ‘* Executing this command prints the symbolic path stored in the SPWD environment variable Is command: The command “Is” is a Linux shell command that lists directory contents of files and directories. It provides valuable information about files, directories, and their attributes. Syntax of “Is' command in Linux 1s [option] [file/directory] « ‘Is’ will display the contents of the current directory. © By default, ‘Is’ lists files and directories in alphabetical order. ‘Commonly Used Options in “Is command in Linux [Options Description F) known as a long format that displays detailed information about files and directories. “a Represent all files Include hidden files and directories in the listing t Son files and directories by their last modification time, displaying the most recently modified ones first. known as reverse order which is used to reverse the default order of listing. ‘Sort files and directories by their sizes, listing the largest ones first. List files and directories recursively, including subdirectories. known as inode which displays the index number (inode) of each file anddirectory, “i known as group which displays the group ownership of files and directories, nstead of the owner. ch Print file sizes in human-readable format (e.g., IK, 234M, 2G). -d List directories themselves, rather than their contents ed command: The ‘ed’ command allows users to change their current working directory within the file system. The basic syntax of the “ed” command is as follows: ed [directory] Here, replace [directory] with the destination directory path you want to navigate to. If no directory is specified, ‘ed’ will take you to your home directory by default, To move inside a subdirectory in Linux we use the CD Linux Command. Here, replace [directory_name] with the desired directory you want to move in. cd [directory_name] For Example: If we want to move to a subdirectory named “Documents” cd Documents raghvendra@raghvendra-Inspiron-15-3567: ~/Documents ee Cae are By using */ as an argument in “cd we can change the directory to the root directory. The root directory is the first directory in your filesystem hierarchy, cd/Following command is used to move inside a directory from a directory. Here, replace “dir_l/dir_2/dir_3” with the subdirectory name or location you want to move in. ed dir_U/dir_2/dir_3 *~ This argument is used in the “ed command to change the directory to the home directory from any location in the Linux System. cd~ We can also pass the “cd command with no arguments, which will eventually land us in our home directory. cd We use *... this as an argument in the *cd* command which is of the current directory, or the directory one level up from the current directory. parent directory. ed. used to move to the parent directory “. represents the ‘This command is used to navigate to a directory with white spaces. Instead of using double quotes, ‘we can use single quotes then also this command will also work. Here, replace “dir name” with the directory name you want. cd "dir name" For Example: If we want to move to “dir name “My songs”. We use the following command. ed "My songs" We can also use *\ in between if we don’t want to use double or single quotes. ed My\ songs mkdir Command:The ‘mkdir’ command is like a magic wand for creating folders super easily. ‘mkdir’ stands for “make directory,” and it helps you organize your computer stuff by creating folders with just one command. This command can create multiple directories at once as well as set the permissions for the directories. Syntax of ‘mkdir* Command in Linux mkdir [option [directory_name] Here, replace [directory_name] with the desired name of the directory you want to create. Options and their Practical Implementation in “mkdi 1) “-help* Option in “mkdir Command in Linux It displays help-related information and exits. Syntax: mkdir --help 2)*-version’ Option in “mkdir Command in Linux It displays the version number, some information regai Syntax: ing the license and exits, mkdir --version 3) -¥ or verbose” Option in to Create Directory in Linux It displays a message for every directory created. Syntax: mkdir -v [directories] Here we have used “Is* command to display all files and directories, 4) *-p* Option to Create Directory in Linux A flag which enables the command to create parent directories as necessary. If the directories exist, no error is specified. Syntax: mkdir -p [directories] ‘Suppose you execute the following command: mkdir -p first/second/third If the first and second directories do not exist, due to the -p option, mkdir will create thesedirectories for us. If we do not specify the -p option, and request the crea parent directory doesn’t exist, ion of directories, where If we specify the -p option, the directories will be created, and no error will be reported. Following is the output of one such execution, We've also provided the -v option, so that we can see it in action Sen 5) “-m’ Option to Create Directory in Linux This option is used to set the file modes, i.e. permissions, etc. for the created directories. ‘The syntax of the mode is the same as the “chmod” command. Syntax: mkdir -m =rwx [directories] The above syntax specifies that the directories created give access to all the users to read from, write to and execute the contents of the created directories. You can use ‘ar’ to only allow all the users to read from the directories and so on. rmdir command: The “rmdir” command in Linux is specifically designed to remove empty directories. Unlike the rm command, which can delete both files and directories, rmdir focuses solely on directories. It is a straightforward tool but nonetheless crucial for maintaining a tidy directory structure on your system. Basic Syntax‘The basic syntax of the rmdir command is: rmdir [option] directory_name “rmdir” Command in Linux With Examples ‘mmdir” command is similar to the rm command, but “rmdir” only removes empty directories. So first, we will use the help flag to list down all the available options for the “rmdir” command: rmdir —help ‘The above command displays the various options such as: Understanding Options ‘© -p, parents: This option enables the removal of parent directories as well if they become empty after removing the specified directory. It essentially removes the directory along with its parent directories if they become empty. erbose: When used, this option displays a message for each providing feedback on the action being performed. ‘+ ~ignore-fail-on-non-empty: By default, “rmdir” fails if the directory is not empty. However, this option forces “rmdir” to ignore such failures and proceed with the removal. ‘+ -version: This option displays the version information and exit. irectory processed, ‘we will remove LINUX, INFO, and DETAIL directories through the following command: rmdir LINUX INFO DETAIL. You can use the -p option with the “rmdir” command to delete a directory, including all thesubdirectories: For example, we will delete the LINUX directory, following command: ncluding all its all ancestors, through the rmdir -p LINUX/mydirl/mydir2/mydir3 If you want the terminal to display the message after removing the directory, you can use the -v option with the rmdir command: Let’s now delete the LINUX, INFO, and DETAIL directories and display the message after their successful removal: rmdir -v LINUX INFO DETAIL, This command is removing directory, ‘LINUX’ Also removing directory, INFO’ Also removing directory, DETAIL! You can delete multiple directories if they have the same expressions by using the * in the rmdir command. For example, let’s remove all those directories which contain LINUX in their name: rmdir -v LINUX* Renaming directory (my, find, rename): In Linux, the renaming process of a folder or directory is not done with a traditional rename command; instead, it is done through the 'my' command. The ‘mv' command is a multi-purpose command. It is not just limited to move files and directories, but it can also be used for renaming the files and directories. It is important to keep the file system structured to ease access to the data. Sometimes, we create some temp files, and later we need to rename them. In such cases, it is a handy tool However, the directories can be renamed using various commands and utilities such as mv command, find command, rename command, using Bash, and more. Renaming directories using “mv” command: Basically, the “my” command is used to move files, but we can also rename the folders and directories by it. We can simply rename the folders by executing the mv command, followed by the old folder name and new folder name, respectively. For example, T ‘To rename a folder named as 'Old_folder' to 'New_folder,’ execute the command as follows:my Old_folder New_folder ‘The above command will rename the folder Renaming directories using find command In some cases, we don't know exactly where the required directories are located. The find command assists us in finding and locating the directories in the Linux system. To find the directories use the find command with the ‘type’ option to look for directories from the file system, ‘We can rename them by executing the mv command with the '-exeedir" option. For example, ‘To rename the 'New_folder’ directory, execute the below command to find i find . depth -type d -name "New_folder" The above command will locate the directory from the file system. If you don’t remember the exact directory name, you can type the matching directory name. Consider the below output Irind . depth -type d -nane "New folder’ Now, to rename the directory, execute the mv command with '-execdir’ option as follows find . -depth -type d -name New_folder -execdir my {} Directory \; Renaming directories using the rename command The rename command is a built-in utility to rename the files and directories for the most Linux distribution. However, it may not be directly available for all the Linux distribution Instead of the “my” command, we can rename files using the rename command, It allows us to rename multiple files and directories We can rename multiple directories together, such as rename all the text directories into any other format, rename all the directories which are in lowercase to uppercase, and more. Syntax: rename File Commands: “file” command: “file” command is used to determine the type of a file. File type may be of human-readable (e.g. ‘ASCII text’) or MIME type (e.g. ‘text/plain; charset=us-ascii’). Filesystem Test: This testis based on the result which returns from a stat system call. The program verifies that if the file is empty, or if it’s some sort of special file. This test causes the file type to be printed. Magic Test: These tests are used to check for files with data in particular fixed formats. Language Test: This test search for particular strings which can appear anywhere in the first few blocks of a file. Linux “file” Command Options Option Funetion file-s Used for special files. file* Used to list types of all the fies. Mie faieeeongy Used to list types of all the files from mentioned directory. feetNoger lo al he ls starting Fo pbs preset wine en Syntax: file [option] [filename] Example: Command displays the file typefile email.py file name.jpeg file Invoice.pdf file exam.ods file videosong.mp4 Options of “file” command: 1) -b, -brief: This option is used to display just file type in brief mode. Syntax: file -b filename file -b email. py file -b input.txt file -b os.pdf Here, we can see that file type without filename. 2)* option: This option is used to display the all files’s file type. file * ‘The output shows all files in the home directory 3) Directory name/* option: This option is used to display all files filetypes in particular directory. ‘Syntax: file directoryname/* Example: file work/* ‘The output shows all files in a particular directory 4) [range]* option: To display the file type of files in specific range. Syntax: file [range]* Example: file [a-z]* 5) -s option: This option is for special files. Syntax: file -s filename Example: file /dew/sdafile -s /dew/sda file /dev/sdaS file -s /dev/sdaS6) filenames: This option Displays file types of multiple files Syntax: file filenames Example: file input.txt.local Desktop “touch” command: The “touch command” is a standard command used in the UNIX/Linux operating system which is used to create, change and modify the timestamps of a file. Basically, there are two different commands to create a file in the Linux system which are as follows: “touch” command: Itis used to create a file without any content. The file created using the touch command is empty. This command can be used when the user doesn’t have data to store at the time of file creation. Using touch Command Initially, we are in the home directory and this can be checked using, the pwd_command. Checking the existing files using the command Is and then long listing command({l) is used to gather more details about existing files. As you can see in the below figure there are no existing files. Create an Empty Files by Using “touch” Command: You can create a single file at a time using touch command. ‘The basic syntax of the “touch” command is: touch [options] file_name The file which is created can be viewed by Is command and to get more details about the file you can use long listing command II or Is -1 command. Here file with name ‘File1” is created using touch command. Create Multiple Empty Files “touch” command can be used to create multiple numbers of files at the same time. These files would be empty while creation, ‘Syntax: touch Filel_name File2_name File3_name Multiple files with name Doel, Doc2, Doc3 are created at the same time using touch command here.Options and Pratical Implementation of How to Create an Empty File in Linux: Options Description “a This option changes the access time only. Ea Suppresses file creation if the file does not exist. -d Sets the access and modification times using the specified STRING. -m This option changes the modification time only. 7 Uses the access and modification times from the reference file. 1)’-a° option in “touch” Command to Only Update Access Time This command is used to change access time only. To change or update the last access or ‘modification times of a file touch -a command is used. Syntax: touch -a fileName 2) Creating an Empty File Using *-c’ option in “touch” Command This command is used to check whether a file is ereated or not. If not created then don’t create it, This command avoids creating files, Syntax: touch -c fileName 3)-€ -¢° option in touch’ Command ‘This is used to update access and modification time. syntax: touch -c-d fileName4)-m* option in touch’ Command to Only Update Modification Time This is used to change the modification time only. It only updates last modification time. jyntax: touch -m fileName 5)-d° ”” option in ‘touch’ Command ‘This command is used to change only modification date. Syntax: touch -d "17 Mar 2023" Geek.txt * option in ‘touch’ Command for Copying Timestamps from Another File This command is used to use the timestamp of another file. Here Doc? file is updated with the time stamp of File 1 oy Syntax: touch -r second_file_name first_file_name 7) Creating an Empty File Using °-f option in “touch” Command ‘This is used to create a file using a specified time. Syntax: touch -t YYMMDDHHMM fileName “rm” command: “tm” stands for remove here, “rm” command is used to remove objects such as files, directories, symbolic links and so on from the file system like UNIX. To be more precise, “rm removes references to objects from the filesystem, where those objects might have had multiple references (for example, a file with two different names). By default, it does not remove directories. This command normally works silently and you should be very careful while running rm command because once you delete the files then you are not able to recover the contents of files and directories. 1m [OPTION]... FILE, sider 5 files having name a.txt, b.txt and so on till ext. Sis a.txt b.txt c.txt d.txt e.txt Removing one file at a time Srmatxt Sls bitxt caxt ditxt etxtRemoving more than one file at a time Sim bit e.txt Sls datxt ectxt Options with “rm” Command: 1) -i (Interactive Deletion): Like in “ep”, the -i option makes the command ask the user for confirmation before removing each file, you have to press y for confirm deletion, any other key leaves the file un- deleted. $rm -i d.txt ‘1m: remove regular empty file 'd.txt? y Sis eatxt 2) -£ (Force Deletion): “tm” prompts for confirmation removal if a file is write protected. The -f option overrides this minor protection and removes the file forcefully. cp command: ‘The “cp” command is used to copy directories and files. The command contains three primary operation modes, represented by the argument types shown to the program to copy a file to other files, multiple files to any directory, or to copy the whole directories to other directories. The basic syntax for copying a file using the cp command is as follows: ep source_file destination ‘This command creates a copy of the “source_file’ at the specified “destination’. If the destination is a directory, the file is copied into that directory. 1. Copying Between Two Files in Linux If the “ep’ command contains two file names, it copies the contents of the first file to the second file. If the second file doesn’t exist, itis created, and the content is copied into it. However, if the second file already exists, it is overwritten without warning. ep Ste_file Dest_file IfDest_file’ does not exist, itis created. IfDest_file” already exists, itis overwritten without any warning. Example:* Initially, there is only one file Ca.txt’) in the directory. The “cp* command is used to copy the contents of “a.txt™ to “batxt® * After the command execution, both “a.txt’ and the newly created “bx coexist in the directory. ep atet btxt 2. Copy files to a Directory in Linux When the cp command has one or more source file arguments and is followed by a destination directory argument, it copies each source file to the destination directory with the same name. If the destination directory does not exist, it is created. If it already exists, the files are overwritten without warning. ep Sre_filel Sre_file2 Sre_file3 Dest_directory Example: Suppose we have to copy three files name “a.txt*, “b.txt” and “c.txt” to a directory name “new” ep att batxt e.txt new! 3. How to Copy Directories in Linux In this mode, if the cp command contains two directory names, it copies all files from the source directory to the destination directory. The *-R° option is typically used to indicate recursive copying for directories. ep -R Sre_directory Dest_directory Options Available in ep Command in Linux: ‘There are many options of cp command, here we will discuss some of the useful options: Option | Detail ai Interactive copying with a warning before overwriting the destination file. b Creates a backup of the destination file in the same folder with a different name and format. Forces copying, even if the user lacks writing permission; deletes destination file if necessar -ror -R_| Copies directory structure recursively. Preserves file characteristics (modification time, access time, ownership, permission-bits). * ‘Uses the * wildcard to represent all files and directories matching a pattern 2 “my” command: Use the “mv” command to move files and directories from one directory to another. ‘The Basic Syntax for “my” command in linux is mentioned below.my [options(s)] [source_file_name(s)] [Destination_file_name] Here, source_file_name(s) = The name of the files that we want to rename or move. Destination_file_name = The name of the new location or the name of the file. Examples of “my: Command: 1, How to Rename a fil in Linux Using “my” Command Syntax: my [source_file_name(s)] [Destination_file_name] Enter your source file name in place of [source_file_name(s)] and your destination file name in place of [Destination_file_name] For Examph If we have a file “name = jayesh_gfa” and want to rename it to “name = abed”, my jayesh_gfg abed 2. How to Move a File in Linux Using “my” Command yntax: my [source_file_name(s)] [Destination_path] Enter your source file nam of [Destination_path] place of [source_file_name(s)] and your destination path in place For Examp! If we have a file “name = abed” and want to move it to location “name = /homeljayeshkumar kj”, my abed /home/jayeshkumarzjkj/ 3. How to Move Multiple files in Linux Using mv Command syntax: my [source_file_name_l] [source_file_name_2] [source_file_name_ [Destination_path] Enter your source file names in place of [Source_file_name_l.....] and your destination path in place of [Destination_path]. For Example: If we have a file “ /home/jayeshkumanijkj”” ame = gfg_l , gf 2” and want to move it to location “name =mv gfg_l gfg_2 /home/jayeshkumar/jkj/ 4, How to Move Multiple files in Linux Using my Command Syntax: my [source_file_name_1] [source_file_name_2] [source_file_name_ [Destination_path] Enter your source file names in place of [source_file_name_l.....] and your destination path in place of [Destination_path]. For Examp! If we have a file “name = gfg_1 , gf 2” and want to move it to location “name = home/jayeshkumarijkj”” my gfg_t gfg_2 /homeljayeshkumar/jkj/ rename command: Changing the names of files in Linux is done using the “rename command”. It’s a tool you use on the command line in Linux to change the names of lots of files all at once. How to install the ‘rename Command in Linux The availability of the rename command can vary across different Linux distributions. In this article, we are using Debian-based systems (e.g., Ubuntu) To install “rename” Command on Debian-based systems (e.g., Ubuntu) sudo apt-get install rename ‘The basic syntax of the rename command is as follows: rename [options] expression files hese are additional flags that modify the behavior of the rename command. Expression: This is the regular expression or Perl code that defines the transformation to be applied to the filenames, Files: These are the filenames or patterns of filenames that match the files to be renamed. 1) Renaming a Single File Using ‘rename’ Command in Linux When you want to rename a single file in Linux, the rename command comes in handy. Let’s consider an example where you have a file named “file.txt” and you want to replace it with “name newfile.txt” ‘The basic syntax of the rename command is: rename 's/old_pattern/new_pattern/' filename,s/old_pattern/new_pattern/: This is a Perl-style regular expression that defines the substitution pattern. It instructs the rename command to replace occurrences of old_pattern with new_pattern. filename: This is the name of the file you want to rename. rename ‘sfile/newfile/"file.xt In this example, sffile/newfile/: This part of the command specifies that it should substitute the first occurrence of “file” with “newfile” in the filename, file.txt: This is the name of the file that you want to rename. 2) Renaming Multiple Files Using *rename’ Command in Linux When dealing with the task of renaming multiple files in Linux, the rename command becomes an indispensable tool. Let’s explore an example where several files with the “txt” extension need to be changed to *.sh’, demonstrating the command’s syntax and execution. Basic Syntax: ‘The syntax of the rename command for renaming multiple files is: rename ‘s/old_pattern/new_pattern/" * extension s Ignores symbolic links when renaming files. v Displays which files are being renamed. n Performs a dry run, showing the final changes without actually renaming files. “0 Prevents overwriting existing files during the renaming process, WV Shows version information and exits. help Displays the help message and exits. 1) rename *-s* option: ‘This option renames the files ignoring the symbolic links. Example: rename -s 's/root/new/' sym.png 2) rename *-v" option This option is used to show which files are being renamed, if there are any. Example: rename -v 's/jpeg/png/'*jpeg 3) rename *-n’ option‘This option comes into play when the user wants to see only the final change. Example: rename -n 's/png/jpeg!" *.png 4) rename *-o° option ‘This option will not be going to overwrite the existing files. Example: rename -0 's/jpeg/png/" *.jpeg 5) rename *-V° option This option will show the version information and exit. Example: rename -V 's/jpeg/png/' *,jpeg Printing Commands: In Linux, the print command can refer to various commands that send text to the standard output (usually the screen) or send documents to a printer. Below are some commonly used commands in Linux for printing text or files, along with their syntax and examples: 1, “echo” Command The “echo” command is used to display a line of text or a string on the standard output, Syntax: echo [option] [string] Examples: © Display a simple string: echo "Hello, World!" + Display the value of a variable: name="John" echo "Hello, Sname! * Use the -n option to prevent a newline character: echo -n "This is without a newline." “print? Command ‘The “printf” command is similar to echo but offers more formatting control. It follows the syntax similar to the C programming language's “printf()” function. Syntax: printf format [arguments...] Examples: + Print a formatted strin, printf "Hello, %s!\n" "World" + Print numbers with specific formatting: printf "96-10 %-8s %-4s\n" Name Age Gender printf "%-10s %-8d %-4s\n" Alice 30 F 3. “Ip” Command ‘The “Ip” command sends files to a printer.Ip [options] [file] + Printa text file Ip document.txt + Specify the number of copies to print: Ip -n 2 document.txt 4. Ipr Command The Ipr command is another way to send files to a printer Syntax: Ipr [options] [file] Examples: + Printa file using default printer: Ipr document.txt + Specify a printer and print multiple copies: Ipr -P myprinter -#3 document.uxt 5. “cat” Command (with Redirection) The “cat” command can display the contents of a file to the standard output or be combined. with redirection to print the content. Syntax: cat [file] Examples: + Display the content of a file: cat filewwxt + Redirect the output to a printer: cat file.txt | Ip Shell &Types of Shell: In Linux, a shell is a command-line interface that allows users to interact with the operating system. It acts as an intermediary between the user and the kernel, enabling users to execute commands, run scripts, manage files, and perform various administrative tasks. The shell interprets the commands typed by the user and passes them to the operating system for execution. ‘Types of Shells in Linux: ‘There are several types of shells available in Linux, each with its own features, syntax, and. use cases. Below are some of the most commonly used shells: 1. Bourne Shell (sh) + Developer: Stephen Bourne + Location: /bin/sh + Features: © Itis the original Unix shell, developed in the 1970s.© It provides basic command execution, scripting capabilities, and control structures (loops, conditionals). © Itis simple, lightweight, and widely used in scripting. + Usage: © Itis commonly used for shell scripting due to its compatibility across different Unix systems. 2. Bourne Again Shell (Bash) + Developer: Brian Fox, Free Software Foundation + Location: /bin/bash + Featur © Bash is an enhanced version of the Bourne Shell (sh) with added functionalities. © It supports command-line editing, job control, shell functions, and aliases. © It has advanced scripting capabilities with features like arrays, command substitution, and arithmetic operations. © Bash is the default shell in many Linux distributions (e.g., Ubuntu, CentOS), + Usage © Widely used for interactive login shells and shell scripting. © Its popularity makes it a standard shell for Linux users 3. C Shell (sh) + Developer: Bill Joy + Location: /binvesh + Features: © C Shell's syntax resembles the C programming language, making it familiar to C programmers. © It supports features like aliasing, job control, and command history. © Ithas built-in arithmetic expressions, which are useful in scripting. + Usage © Less commonly used today but still found in some Unix environments. © Preferred by some users who are familiar with C syntax. 4. TENEX C Shell (tesh) + Developer: Ken Greer + Location: /binvtesh + Features: © tesh is an enhanced version of the C Shell (csh), with additional features Tike command-line editing, filename completion, and spell checking. © It provides a user-friendly command-line interface with better scripting support compared to csh + Usage © Popular among users who prefer C-like syntax with modern features. © Used as an interactive login shell. 5. Korn Shell (ksh) + Developer: David Korn + Location: /bin/ksh + Features: © Kom Shell combines features from both the Bourne Shell (sh) and C Shell (csh).. It includes advanced scripting capabilities, including associative arrays, stringmanipulation, and floating-point arithmetic. © Supports job control, command-line editing, and a history mechanism. Usage: © Used in both scripting and interactive use, © Commonly found in commercial Unix systems like AIX and Solaris, 6. Z Shell (zsh) Developer: Paul Falstad Location: /bin/zsh Features: © zsh isa powerful and flexible shell that incorporates features from bash, ksh, and tesh. © Itoffers advanced features such as theme support, plugins, spelling correction, and improved tab completion. © Highly customizable and user-friendly, making it popular among developers and power users. © Preferred for its interactive features and customizability. © Commonly used with frameworks like Oh My Zsh to enhance functionality. The choice of shell depends on user preference, scripting requirements, and the specific features needed. While ‘bash’ remains the most widely used and standard shell in Linux distributions. Shell Commands: Linux shell commands are used to interact with the operating system by issuing commands via a shell (command-line interface). Below is a list of commonly used shell commands in Linux, along with their syntax and examples: 1. Is (List Directory Contents) The “Is” command is used to list files and directories in the current directory. Syntax: Is [options] [directory] Examples: + List files in the current directory: Is + List all files, including hidden files (starting with Is-a + List files with detailed information (permissions, owner, size, etc.): Is + List files in a specific directory: Is /ete 2. ed (Change Directory) The “cd” command is used to change the current working directory. Syntax:cd [directory] Examples: + Change to the home directory: cd~ + Change to a specific directory: cd /var/log + Move up one directory level: ed. 3. pwd (Print Working Directory) The “pwd” command displays the current working directory. Syntax: pwd Exampl + Display the current directory: pwd 4, mkdir (Make Directory) The mkdir command is used to create new directories. Syntax: mkdir [options] directory_name Examples: + Create a new directory named myfolder: mkdir myfolder + Create a directory with parent directories mkdir -p /path/to/myfolder 5. rmdir (Remove Directory) The “rmdir” command removes empty directories. Syntax: rmdir [options] directory_name Examples: + Remove an empty directory named myfolder: rmdir myfolder 6. rm (Remove Files or Directories) The “rm” command removes files or directories. Syntax: rm [options] file_name Examples: + Remove a file named file.txt: rm file.txt+ Remove a directory and its contents recursively: 1m -r myfolder + Forcefully remove a file (without prompting): rm -f file.txt 7. ep (Copy Files or Directories) The “cp” command copies files and directories. Syntax: cp [options] source destination Examples: + Copy a file to a new location: cp file.txt /home/user/backup/ + Copy a directory and its contents: cp -r myfolder /home/user/backup/ 8. mv (Move or Rename Files or Directories) The “my” command moves or renames files and directories. Syntax: my [options] source destination Examples: + Rename a file: my oldname.txt newname.txt + Move a file to a different directory: my file.txt /home/user/backup/ 9, cat (Concatenate and Display File Content) The “cat” command displays the content of a file or coneatenates files. Syntax: cat [options] file_name Examples: + Display the contents of a file: cat file.txt + Coneatenate two files and display the result: cat file txt file2.txt 10. touch (Create or Update File Timestamps) The “touch” command creates an empty file or updates the timestamp of an existing file. Syntax: touch [options] file_name Examples: + Create an empty file:touch newfile.txt + Update the timestamp of an existing file: touch existingfile.txt 11. chmod (Change File Permissions) The “chmod” command changes the permissions of a file or directory. Syntax: chmod [options] mode file_name Examples: + Make a file executable: chmod +x scriptsh + Change file permissions to read and write for the owner, and read-only for others: chmod 644 file.txt 12. chown (Change File Owner and Group) The “chown” command changes the owner and group of a file or directory. Syntax: chown [options] owner{:group] file_name Examples: + Change the owner of a file to user: chown user file.txt + Change the owner and group of a file: chown user:group file.txt 13. find (Search for Files) The find command searches for files and directories in a directory hierarchy. Syntax: find [path] [options] [expression] Examples: + Find all .txt files in the current directory: find . -name "*.txt" + Find files larger than IMB: find / -size +1M 14. grep (Search for Patterns in Files) The grep command searches for a specified pattern in files. Syntax: grep [options] pattern [file...] Examples: + Search for the word "example" in a file: grep "example" file.txt+ Search recursively for a pattern in all files within a directory: grep -r "example" /path/to/directory + Display disk space usage: Writing & Executing First Script ‘What is Shell Seripting? In Linus, shells like bash and korn support programming construct which are saved as scripts. These scripts become shell commands and hence many Linux commands are script. A system administrator should have a little knowledge about scripting to understand how their servers and applications are started, upgraded, maintained or removed and to understand how a user environment is built A shell script is a type of computer program developed to be executed by a Unix shell, which is also known as a command-line interpreter. Several shell script dialects are treated as scripting languages. Classic operations implemented by shell scripts contain printing text, program execution, and file manipulation, A script configures the environment, executes the program, and does necessary logging or clean-up is known as a wrapper. Steps to write the shell seript in: Step-1: Open the terminal. Go to the directory where you want to create your seript. Step-2: Create a file with .sh extension. Step-3: Write the script in the file using an editor. Step-4: Make the script executable with command chmod +x . Step-5: Run the script using /. In the last step you have to mention the path of the script if your script is in other directory. Executing Fi t Script 1. First of all, create a simple script in any editor or with echo. 2. Then we'll make it executable with chmod +x command. 3. To find the script you have to type the script path for the shell Beene Breas Breas Seu 4, Look at the above snapshot, script echo Hello World is created with echo commandas hello_world. 5. Now command chmod +x hello_world is passed to make it executable. 6. We have given the command “./hello_world” to mention the hello_world path. And output is displayed. Shell Variables A shell variable in Linux is a variable that is defined and used in a shell script or the command-line interface. It holds a value that can be referenced and manipulated within the shell. Shell variables are typically used to store data such as user input, command output, or configuration settings, which can be reused throughout a script or session. Shell variables can be either local (visible only within the current shell or script) or environment variables (available to the shell and any child processes). They are often used to make scripts more flexible and easier to maintain by allowing users to change values without modifying the entire script ‘Types of Shell Variables 1, Local Variables: These are only available to the current shell. They are defined without the export keyword. 2. Environment Variables: These are available to the current shell and any child processes. They are defined using the export keyword, Examples of Shell Variables 1. Local Shell Variable Here's an example of a simple script that uses a local shell variable: #U/bin/bash # Define a local variable greeting="Hello, World!" # Print the value of the variable echo $greeting + Inthis example, the variable greeting is defined and assigned the value "Hello, World! + The echo command is used to print the value of the greeting variable. 2. Environment Variable Environment variables are set using the export command and are available to any child processes. Here's how you might use one: #Y/bin/bash 4# Define and export an environment variable export PATH="/usr/local/bin:$PATH"# Print the value of the PATH variable echo $PATH + Inthis example, the PATH variable is updated by prepending /usr/local/bin to its value + export makes this change available to any child processes. + The echo command prints the current value of the PATH variable. Example Program Using Shell Variables Here’s a simple script that uses shell variables to perform a basic arithmetic operation and display the result: #Y/bin/bash # Define shell variables num1=10 num2: # Perform arithmetic operation and store the result in a variable (num + num2)) # Print the result echo "The sum of $num! and $num? is: $sum" Explanation: + numt and num? are shell variables storing integer values, + sum is another shell variable that stores the result of the arithmetic operation. + The echo command outputs the result.