Form 2 Social Studies Notes

SOCIAL STUDIES
FORM 2
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UNIT 1 - AFRICAN CULTURE
Africa is a continent which has many ethnic groups with different cultural backgrounds
Various cultures in Africa
1. Egypt
• It is situated in North East Africa sharing boundaries with countries such as Libya, Sudan,
Palestine and Israel
• The most notable ethnic groups in Egypt are Bedouins, Berbers, Nubians and a few
Greeks
• Arabic is the most dominant language apart from other minor languages such as Domari,
Bedawi, Greek and Nubian languages (Nobiin and Kenuzi-Dongola)
• They believe in Nuclear and extended family systems
• Most people in Egypt are muslims with few Christians
• Handshakes are customary greeting among people of same sex. But for the people of the
opposite sex, the woman must extend her hand first. If she does not, the man should bow
his head in greeting the woman
2. South Africa
• Is located at the Southern tip of Africa bordering countries like Namibia, Botswana,
Zimbabwe, Swaziland and Mozambique
• South Africa comprises may races (multi-racial) with blacks in majority
• Major ethnic groups are Zulu, Xhosa, Basotto, Swazi, Venda and Tswana
• English and Afrikaans are mostly spoken by the majority of whites and coloureds
• Christianity is the major religion with few muslims and Hindus
• Others believe in Ancestral spirits (African Traditional Religion)
• Most black South Africans have their own dressing which shows their culture
• Polygamy and payment of bride price is common among the Zulu, Swazi and Ndebele
The popular traditional food is maize meal
3. Nigeria
• It is in West Africa and borders Cameroon, Chad and Benin

• It is most highly populated in Africa
• Ethnic groups include Hausa, Fulani, Yoruba, Igbo (Ibo) and Ijaw (Ijo)
• Muslims make up 50% of the population and are found in the North. Christians make up
40% and are found in the South of the country. 10% follow indigenous beliefs (African
Traditional Religion).
• It is often affected by ethnic and religious wars mostly committed by groups such as Boko
Haram.
• English is the official language
• Respect for elders, kindness to others especially strangers, sharing the needy are
considered virtuous
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• Most Nigerians eat pounded yam as staple food
• In terms of dressing, men put on full traditional dress called Agbada.
4. Kenya
• It is in East Africa and shares borders with Somalia, Ethiopia, South Sudan, Uganda and
Tanzania
• It is a multi-ethnic society with major ethnic groups such as Maasai, Kikuyu, Luo etc
• Almost everyone speaks Kiswahili (a mixture of Bantu and Arabic)
• Most people are Christians. There are also muslims and followers of the African
Traditional Religion
• Ugali (nsima) is their staple food
• Each ethnic group has its own traditional practices and symbols that make it unique.
However, Kitenje is more popular among all the ethnic groups
• The Maasai wear dark red garments to symbolise their love for the earth and also their
dependence on it. It also stands for courage and blood that is given to them by nature
5. Democratic Republic of Congo (Formerly Zaire)
• It is located in Central Africa and borders with Central African Republic, Uganda,
South Sudan, Rwanda, Burundi, Zambia and Angola
• Mostly four languages are spoken e.g. Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili
• French is the official language
• Congolese are popular for their rhumba music called soukous, ndombolo and kwasakwasa
• The staple food is Fufu or Ugali (cassava or maize meal)
• Most people are Christians (catholics) while others follow African Traditional Religion
• Arranged marriages and marriages between cousins are practiced. In some cases bride
price is paid
• It has many mineral deposits. However, people are poor due to frequent civil wars and
corruption
Common characteristics of African Culture
• Food and eating habits – food is prepared from maize, millet, cassava, yams and bananas
and is eaten with some kind of relish e.g. vegetables, meat. The food is eaten using bare
hands
• Marriage – polygamy is common. Payment of bride price is also common
• Dressing – most people wear traditional dress. However, western dressing has influenced
the dress code of Africa
• Musical instruments – are made from simple local materials. These are usually easy to
manipulate using hands, mouth and feet. E.g. drums, stringed instruments
• Language – all languages in Africa are related especially in the sub-Saharan Africa. They
speak Bantu language. Bantu uses word stem –ntu or –tu for „person‟ and the plural
prefix ba- for people e.g „munthu‟ in Chichewa , „abanthu‟ in Zulu, „watu‟ in Kiswahili
• Hospitality – it is common in Africa to offer free food, water and accommodation to
strangers
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• Common moral values – Africa shares common values such as respect for elders, using
both hands when receiving things from elders, not to stand when talking to elders
• Initiation rites – both girls and boys undergo such ceremonies to mark transition from
childhood to adulthood
• Extended family system – this provides a safety net for the disadvantaged such as
orphans and the elderly particularly in the absence of state social security
• African Traditional Religion – The common features of this religion are as follows:
o Belief in Supreme Being who is believed to be the creator of the world and all things.
Supreme Being is known as Mwari (Zimbabwe) Chisumphi/Mulungu (Malawi) o
Belief in the role of ancestors as a link between human beings and the spirit world o
Belief that some people have the power to communicate with spirits of the dead.
o Religious beliefs are not written down into a book and preservation is done through oral
transmission
o There are no missionaries to propagate (cause to spread) the religion o Followers do not
limit their worship to specific days of the week
Influence of the African culture on Malawian Culture
• The use of borrowed words from other African language is very common e.g. Ndege
(Swahili), madala and mfana (zulu)
• Certain dressing styles have been adopted e.g. most people in Malawi dress like Nigerians
• Malawian music is being blended with music from Nigeria, South Africa, DRC
UNIT 2 – HUMAN RIGHTS IN THE CONSTITUTION OF THE REPUBLIC OF

MALAWI
Civil and Political rights
These are rights which protect an individual‟s freedom to ensure that he/she participates freely
in the political and civil life without discrimination.
a) Civil rights : The right to
• Life
• Fair trial
• Personal liberty
• Be protected from discrimination
• Freedom of opinion
• Freedom of expression
• Freedom of conscience, religion, beliefs and thought
b) Political rights : The right to
• Form a political party

• Vote
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• Campaign for a political party
• Participate in peaceful political activities
• Freely make political choices
Economic, Social and Cultural rights
These are rights that guarantee citizens equal conditions and treatment
a) Economic rights : These are rights to
• Freely engage in an economic activity

• Work and earn a living anywhere in the country
• Fair and safe work
• Fair wages and equal remuneration for work of equal value
b) Social rights: The right to
• Education
• Not to be forced to enter into marriage
• A given name
• Personal privacy
c) Cultural rights : The right to
• Use the language of one‟s choice

• Participate in the cultural life of one‟s choice Environmental and Developmental
rights
a) Environmental rights : The right to
• Live in an environment that is clean and free from pollution and other forms of destruction
b) Developmental rights: The right to
• Enjoyment of economic, social, cultural and political development
Rights of children
• Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) was adopted by the United Nations
organisation on 20 November 1989
• Malawi, which is a signatory, included the following rights in its constitution : The right to
o Equal treatment before the law
o Be given a name and a family name and the right to a nationality o Know and
be raised by their parents
o Be protected from economic exploitation or any work that is likely to pose
danger or interfere with their education, health, physical, mental or social
development
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Rights of women
They have right to :
• Enter into contract

• Acquire and maintain property independently or in association with others acquire and retain
ownership and nationality
• Acquire and retain custody of children
• Fair disposition of property on the dissolution of marriage
Human rights with regard to HIV/AIDS
People living with HIV/AIDS are entitled to enjoyment of all rights just like any person
Rights of people with disabilities
These people are also entitled to enjoyment of rights just like any other person and where need
be they should be given special treatment so that they are not put at a disadvantage.
Ways of applying human rights democracy
• Vertical Application – it involves citizens enforcing their rights against government only
e.g. a citizen can sue government when his/her rights are violated.
• Horizontal Application – it involves enforcement of human rights by citizens against both
the government and private individuals or companies
Elements of Success of Democracy
• Observance of human rights – this can allow the citizen to vote in an election, stand as a
candidate, join or form a political party, campaign for a political party etc
• Holding regular, free and fair elections – elections that are not free and fair make citizens
to lose trust in their ability to participate in any future elections. Citizens should vote for
whosoever they want without fear of punishment
• Citizens participation – citizens should be willing to take part in decision as well as
developmental activities
• Free press (media) – journalists should have the power to report anything whether positive
or negative. This helps the public to be educated about their choices and government
activities.
Human rights violations
Violation of human rights is an infringement or breach of a person‟s rights. Cases of human

rights violations are very common in schools, homes, work places, and elsewhere. This calls
for concerted efforts to campaign for and defend human rights for all. Some human rights
violations are as follows :
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• Refusing to employ someone because she is a woman
• Revealing somebody‟s HIV status without their consent
• Teasing and bullying
• Vendors undressing women in the streets for wearing trousers
• Property grabbing
• Making noise during lessons
• Government banning a newspaper for carrying anti-ruling party messages
• Adopting one party system of government
• Preventing a child from going to school because of household work
• Preventing people from holding prayers because you do not like their religion Sexual
cleansing (kusasa fumbi)
The role of citizens and opposition parties in monitoring and eradicating human rights
violations
• Reporting cases of human rights violations to police

• Campaigning for vulnerable groups (those who cannot speak for themselves)
• Forming groups which can carry out civic education campaigns about human rights
• Lobbying for the introductions of human rights in the curriculum
• Opposition parties should ensure that oppressive laws are not passed in parliament
Rights and responsibilities of citizens
Human rights cannot be enjoyed without fulfilling their corresponding responsibilities as per
the table below : (try
Rights Responsibilities
Right to education • Attending lessons and observing punctuality
• Doing all the work assigned by teachers
• Observing school rules and regulations
Freedom of expression Not insulting others
Freedom of association Not to join groups of criminals
Right to economic activity Not to engage in economic activities that endanger
others
Right to life • To protect and defend the lives of others
• By not acting recklessly
Right to food Undertaking activities that enable you to have access to
food
Freedom of assembly Holding peaceful meetings and demonstrations
UNIT 3 – CIVIL SOCIETY
• These are organisations and associations which are formed by citizens to give voice to
various sectors of the society so that they participate in democracy.
• They are formed at both local level (Community Based Organisation) and at national level
(National Civil Society Organisations)
• They act as an intermediary between the individuals and the state
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Community Based Organisation (CBO)
• Area Development Committees

• Village Development Committees
• Village Health Committees
• Parents-Teachers Associations
• Farmers Clubs
• Co-operatives
• Neighbourhood Watches
• Orphanages
• Students‟ Clubs and Associations
National Civil Society Organisations
• Malawi Red Cross Society

• Consumer Association of Malawi (CAMA)
• Centre for Human Rights and Rehabilitation (CHRR)
• Malawi Congress of Trade Union (MCTU)
• Civil Servants Trade Union (CSTU)
• Civil Liberties Committee (CILIC)
• Tobacco Association of Malawi (TAMA)
• Civil Society Education Coalition (CSEC)
• Catholic Commission for Justice and Peace (CCJP)
• Centre for Social Concern (CSC)
• Public Affairs Committee (PAC)
• Malawi Healthy Equity Network (MHEN) Girls Empowerment Network (Genet)
Functions of Civil Society Organisations
• Presenting interests and demands of citizens to appropriate authorities

• Defending citizens‟ rights
• Providing goods and services on behalf of government
• Raising public awareness to citizens about abuse of power
• Lobbying for good governance reforms
• Mediating and helping to resolve conflicts between groups through contact and dialogue
• Monitoring the conduct of elections by deploying neutral monitors at different polling
stations to ensure that the voting and vote counting is entirely free, fair, peaceful and
transparent
• Providing relief assistance to people affected by natural disasters
• Solving social problems such as rising crime, inadequate class rooms
Importance of Civil Organisations
• It reduces citizens‟ dependence on government for financing local development projects

• It creates awareness among citizens about their rights and responsibilities
• It ensures peace through its involvement in resolving conflicts
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• It serves as a reminder to government that citizens are watching its actions by voicing out
public concern
• It acts as a bridge between people and government as well as employers and employees It
provides future leaders with training
• It is an agent of change management through its involvement in civic education programs
• It consolidates democracy through grass root participation
Ways in which citizens can actively participate in Civil Society
• By taking part in public debate

• By becoming active members of civil organisations
• By donating materials or money towards civil society activity
• By initiating formation of civil society organisations
• By taking part in community development projects initiated by civil society organisations
By accepting leadership positions in civil society groups when asked to do so
UNIT 4 – EMPLOYMENT
• Employment is the condition of having a regular paid work. The two types of employment
are formal and informal
Formal employment (where one works for an employer).
• Formal employment originates from a business or firm that is registered with the state
• Examples of formal employment : Teaching, nursing, journalism, driving, lawyers etc
Advantages of formal employment
• receives a regular wage or a salary

• is assured of certain benefits e.g. pension
• medical aid
• paid holidays
• has prospects of promotion,
• Informal employment (Self-employment) – it refers to working for oneself
• These require little or no capital, use traditional methods of production and provide
subsistence wage
• They are usually not registered with the state Advantages of Self-employment :
• income is on a daily basis depending on produce

• proprietor is in direct control employs other people in terms of need
Disadvantages of Self-employment :
• business depends on demand

• climatic changes can affect some business
• income may be small
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• chances of getting bankrupt are high
Contributions of different types of employment to the economy of the country
• It leads to production of goods that meet demands of people

• It produces goods which can be sold to other countries thereby allowing the country to buy
goods that it cannot produce on its own
• It leads to provision of services which everyone needs through such institutions such as
schools, hospitals, banks etc
• It provides money for workers which enables them to support their families in various ways
• It promotes tax collection which enables government to carry out development projects
• It reduces evils that come as a result of unemployment e.g. drug abuse, crime, destruction of
the environment
• It allows children of employed parents to return to school or complete more years of
schooling
• It leads to increased financial security (rising income) and spending which promotes higher
living standards
Citizens Contributions to the economy of the country
• They make more capital available in banks and other money lending institutions when they
save
• They provide tax which is used to provide a wide range of services e.g. health care, education
• Some citizens create business which allow other people to get employed
• They reduce people‟s heavy dependence on government for assistance
• Employed citizens earn money which assists families and relatives
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Importance of Education and training towards employment
Education and training are important tools for one to be employed in the sense that once youths
have acquired education and training they will :
• Acquire knowledge and develop skills necessary for future jobs

• Assist them to set up their own businesses and create employment
• Help them to get employed in a company or government department
• Assist them so that they train other
• Improve their capacity and willingness to keep on learning to meet new challenges
effectively
Conditions of service /employment
These are rules which one must agree to abide by them and that they will apply to him/her
while on the job.
All these things are set out in a contract (a formal agreement between the employer and the
worker). Conditions of service include:
• Remuneration/wage or salary
• Reasonable hours of work Location of work/distance
• Terminal benefits e.g. what you should expect while working or after retirement
• Job termination e.g. under which circumstances you can be dismissed from the job
It is important to study these conditions of services before taking up any job because:
• You are able to understand what the employer expects from you
• It will assist you to decide whether to accept the job or not
• It will help you to know in advance what your remuneration will be
UNIT 5 – LABOUR LAWS IN MALAWI
Labour laws were enacted to protect the workers‟ rights and working environment. Labour
laws are also known as employment laws. They cover :
• Industrial relations e.g. collective bargaining (or negotiations) on unfair practices Work
place health and safety e.g. is the working environment safe for the workers?
Employment standards e.g. working hours, minimum wages, unjust dismissals
Types of labour laws in Malawi
• Individual labour laws

• Collective labour laws
Individual labour laws
• These refer to body of regulations between the employer and employee

A.K. Ndacheredwa (Mrs) Page 10
• They mainly deal with the contract that the individual employee signed with his/her
employer
• It focuses on terms of contract such as wages, working hours, discipline, dismissal
procedures, health and safety training, child labour, pension and payment of gratuity,
promotion, as well as termination of employment etc
o The Malawi Employment Act of 2000 – it regulates minimum standards of
employment, it establishes fair employment standards such as minimum wage, hours
of work, weekly rest, forced labour and employment of children, discipline and
procedures of dismissal etc
o The Malawi Government Workers compensation Act of 2000 – sets out
compensation for injuries or diseases contracted by workers in the course of duty or
death resulting from the injuries or the disease.
o The Malawi Child care, protection and justice Act 2010 – it highlights issues of not
employing children under 14 years of age
o The Malawi Pension Act of 2011 – set out plans for mandatory pension to provide
income for employees who leave employment and lead a better life thereafter
o The Occupational safety and welfare Act of 1997 – they look at the safety, health and
welfare for employees while at work
Collective labour laws
• These laws establish the relationship between employees, employers and trade unions.
Trade unions are organisations or groups of workers which deal with resolving conflicts
between employers and employees
• Trade unions ensure that interactions between the employer and the employees are fair to
both sides e.g. labour contracts, fair wages, fair rules
• The Malawi Congress of Trade Unions (MCTU) is the national trade union centre in
Malawi.
• Collective labour laws allow trade unions to organise strikes for workers if all possible
negotiations have failed.
• During a strike, workers may employ a picket which is a tactic involving employees in a
strike to convene outside their place of work, make the presence known to officials while
preventing other workers from breaking or crossing the picket line to work
• The Malawi Labour Relations Act of 1996 promotes effective collective bargaining
• Ministry of Labour and Vocational Training is responsible for administering and reviewing
employment related standards through enforcement of labour laws
Importance of labour laws in Malawi
• They help to maintain peace between employees and employers by guiding both parties on
options for resolving conflicts
• They help to increase living conditions of workers by negotiating for better wages
They assist business owners to follow fair employment practices e.g. equal employment
opportunities regardless of disability, national origin, sex, race
• They give peace of mind to both union and non-union workers in terms of job security
• They protect the right of employees to voice out their concerns collectively about their
working conditions
• They assist businesses to focus on productivity and profitability rather than constant energy
and resources to problem solving
UNIT 6 – POPULATION AND RESOURCES
Responsible and Irresponsible human practices towards the environment
Responsible human practices are those activities of people that protect environmental
resources. E.g. re-afforestation, proper waste disposal, practicing crop rotation etc
Irresponsible human practices are those activities that cause damage to environmental
resources. E.g. overgrazing and overstocking, deforestation, pollution of the environment etc
Responsible practices on the environment
Responsible practices on the farmland
• Use of manure to improve soil fertility

• Planting legumes such as peas, ground nuts between crops to restore fertility
• Practicing agro-forestry e.g. growing of trees that improve soil fertility alongside other
crops
• Rotating crops in order to conserve soil fertility
• Leaving fields fallow e.g. leaving a field uncultivated for a while so that the ground regains
fertility
• Preventing soil erosion by planting trees and grass
• Constructing terraces on sloping land and box ridges between ridges
• Keeping recommended number of livestock so as to avoid overgrazing
• Afforestation and re-afforestation to prevent soil erosion
Responsible practices on forestry
• Afforestation which refers to planting trees where trees do not exist such as marginal lands
(places that are not suitable for cultivation such as river banks and hill slopes)
• Planting water-holding trees and grasses to control siltation of rivers
• Constructing fire-breaks around planted woodlots
• Re-afforestation which means planting trees where some have been cut or damaged
Responsible practices to conserve and keep water, air and our surrounding clean
• Proper disposal of wastes and sewage matter to prevent them from contaminating water
sources such as rivers and dams
• Conserving forests so that air and water are clean
• Reducing air pollution which results from burning garbage, plastics and other materials

• Practising good land husbandry practices in order to reduce surface run-off, siltation
Building dams to conserve water
Responsible practices on fish and wildlife
• Observing the closed season (time when fish are breeding)

• Using appropriate fishing tools e.g. nets with large mesh
• Advising fishing communities to start fish farming or rearing animals so that they reduce
dependence on fish
• Encouraging fishing communities to engage in alternative business opportunities
• Establishing village beach communities to control fishing season
• Culling (killing wild animals that have increased much in protected areas) to control
overpopulation of the animals
• Establishing game reserves and national parks to protect wildlife
• Preventing poaching (unlawful killing of animals in protected areas)
Irresponsible practices on the environment
Bad practices on soil/land resources
• Cultivating on steep slopes without preventive measures

• Cultivating in marginal areas which results in erosion, flooding, siltation
• Overstocking and overgrazing resulting in soil erosion, poor pasture and deforestation
• Mono-cropping where land is cultivated by the same crop every year
Environmental pollution
• Careless disposal of industrial, domestic wastes e.g. plastic bags

• Catching fish by using poisonous herbs or plants
• Smoking in public places, burning tyres and plastic materials
• Excessive emission of gases and fumes from motor vehicles, factories, fossil fuels and fuel
wood
• Urinating along the road, behind trees and walls including defecating in water
• Loud noise from construction works, social centres, industrial areas
Irresponsible practices on fish resources
• Non-compliance with the breeding season

• Inappropriate fishing methods e.g. use of small holed nets, poisonous herbs
• Introduction of non-indigenous fish and water weeds
Destruction of fish breeding areas
• Fishing non-targeted species such as frogs
Irresponsible practices on wildlife and vegetation
• Deforestation due to need for firewood, charcoal, opening land for settlement
• Encroaching in protected areas such as Game reserves, National parks, Forest reserves
which destroys habitats for wild animals
• Setting bush fires in forests
• Establishment of unplanned settlements leading to deforestation Poaching which may lead
to extinction of animal species
Importance of Natural resources to individuals and the community
• Land is a habitat for people as well as animals and plants

• Forests are sources of firewood, charcoal, timber, and poles for domestic and industrial use.
They also provide the oxygen we breathe as well as protecting the soil from erosion
• Water resources are sources of water for domestic, agricultural and industrial use
• They are sources of tourist attraction e.g. lakes, national parks
• They provide water ways which facilitate transportation
• Some wildlife are sources of food in form of meat and honey
• They are sources of income for an individual as well as the nation through employment and
exports
• They are sources of raw materials
Effects of population growth on natural resources
Forestry resources
• It leads to depletion of resources through clearing of forests for settlements, road projects,
housing projects
• The land is left bare and this leads to increased soil erosion and loss of soil fertility
• Loss of vegetation brings about climate change e.g. untimely and erratic rains It leads to
energy crisis e.g. scarcity of firewood and charcoal
Land resources
• It leads to scarcity of land as people divide the small fields available

• It leads to overuse and exhaustion of land
• It leads to soil erosion due to bad practices such as mono cropping
• It leads to over grazing due to scarcity of pasture land
Water resources
• It makes water supplies drier due to increased demand for water

• It leads to increased water pollution due to poor sanitation e.g. open defecation

It may lead to lowering of the water table to practices such as deforestation
Wildlife resources
• It leads to encroachment of protected areas such as game reserves and national parks. This
forces animals out of their natural habitats
• Increased poaching leads to scarcity and even extinction of wild animals
Fish resources
• It makes people to fish even during the breeding season which makes future fish supplies
not available
Air resources
• It causes air pollution through the use of fuel wood in rural areas and car exhaust fumes in
urban areas
UNIT 7 – MORAL VALUES
Moral values are rules or standards that guide our behaviour
These are the basis on which we make decisions – right or wrong, evil or good
Moral values are derived from culture, laws of the country, religious teachings, education,
peers, family values, rules of organisations and personal values
Moral values expected of boys and girls in interpersonal relationships in the society
• Society expects boys and girls to maintain the moral values and to behave in a responsible
manner in order to avoid negative effects that come due to loss of moral values
• Most often boys and girls stop respecting moral values due to the negative influence of their
friends (peer pressure)
Moral values that are required in interpersonal relationships among girls and boys may include:
• Saying „NO‟ to smoking and beer drinking

• Abstaining from premarital sex
• Respecting elders and those in authority
• Being trustworthy
• Compassion (feeling deep sympathy and sorrow) for the sick, weak and elderly
• Saying „NO‟ to corruption, violence, vandalism and other forms of crime
• Respecting life, property and the environment
• Tolerating (accepting other people‟s views) in society Working hard
Refraining from stealing and cheating

• Being honest
• Humility
• Being responsible in whatever we are doing
Causes of breakdown of moral values in the society
Moral breakdown is a situation in which there is total disregard and loss of moral values. The
following are some of the causes of moral breakdown:
• Influence of the media

• Influence of drugs and alcohol
• Peer pressure
• Lack of decision-making and problem solving skills among people
• Lack of sound moral and ethical code of conduct
• Lack of self-discipline an assertiveness Lack of guidance and counselling
Effects of breakdown of moral values
The effects that come with breakdown of moral values do not only affect the individual but also
others in the society. These effects include :
• Many young people get involved in premarital sex

• Contraction of STIs including HIV and AIDS
• It leads to teenage pregnancies
• It can lead to infertility (sterility in males and barrenness in females)
• It can lead to poverty especially when a family member spends a lot of money on beer
drinking or drug and substance abuse
• It can also lead to accidents since one loses sense of judgement when drunk
• One can die due to excessive beer drinking, abortions as a result of unwanted pregnancies
from premarital sex
• Destruction of the environment through lack of respect for the environment
• Killing fellow human beings for money and other things due to lack of respect for life
• Retarding development due to corrupt activities
Ways of avoiding moral breakdown in the society
People should maintain moral values in order to avoid the negative effects that arise due to loss
of moral values.
Moral values promote understanding, co-operation, co-existence and development in society
They also help young people to set realistic goals and to achieve them and become reliable
citizens. Breakdown of moral values can be avoided in ways such as :
Seeking guidance and counselling
• Setting goals in life
• Respecting elders and those in authority

• Applying moral principles when making decisions
• Exercising self-control and assertiveness
• Respecting human rights
• Learning to protect your integrity
• Seeking peaceful ways of resolving conflicts
• Make use of problem solving and decision making skills when in a difficult situation
UNIT 8 – VITAL CITIZENSHIP REGISTRATION
Vital Registration
• This is a record of very important acts and events that countries keep about their citizens.
Vital acts and events have something to do with an individual‟s entrance and exit from life
e.g. birth, death, marriage etc
• Vital registration is also referred to Civil registration
Vital registration and their importance
1. National identity registration
This is registration of citizens for the purposes of issuing National identity cards so that they
can be easily identified as a genuine citizen. Some information that is included on the
National identity card is date and place of birth, sex, ethnic group, race, religion,
language(s), fingerprints, nationality and photograph. The body which is responsible for this
is the National Registration Bureau (NRB). It is important because:
• Helps to prevent the entry of illegal immigrants

• It provides authenticity (truthfulness) of citizenship of a person
• It helps to identify real beneficiaries of relief items during disaster
• It helps to identify beneficiaries for national programs such as a Farm Input Subsidy
Program (FISP)
• It provides every citizen with an identification to access services in bank and other
institutions
• It provides identification in circumstances such as death and accidents
• It makes it easy to prevent foreigners from unfairly benefiting from national social
services such as health and education

2. Marriage registration
Registering of marriages is done at the church, mosque, Magistrate court, Registrar General‟s
offices, District Councils. The newly-weds are issued with a marriage certificate. The
importance of this are :
• It makes it easy to know the number of households to receive relief items

• Government is able to estimate the number of household to benefit from its programmes
• Government can easily plan for national development e.g. additional schools, clinics etc
3. Birth registration
This is registering newly born babies in hospitals, clinics etc. The information is sent to the
District Commissioners office to issue a certificate of the child. The information recorded
includes : sex, date and place of birth, religion, etc. When a birth certificate is lost or
destroyed in fire, one can be issued with an affidavit of birth upon request from magistrate
or District Commissioner. An affidavit of birth is not a birth certificate. An affidavit is a
legal document given to an individual who lost her or his original birth certificate. It is
important because :
• It provides evidence which helps to curb cheating cases in activities such as sports
• It helps with information which can help to curb child trafficking
• It provides evidence of one‟s citizenship when applying for other important documents
such as passport or national identity
• It provides important information on population changes for government to
appropriately plan for national development.
4. Death registration
Deaths are registered in the hospitals, mosques and churches. It contains information such as
date and place of death, cause of death etc. This is important because:
• It provides information on major causes and frequency of death in society

• It helps government to know the types and quantities of drugs to be supplied in hospitals
• It helps government and other stakeholders to find ways of dealing with the causes of
death in society
5. Voter registration
It is a requirement by law that a person eligible to vote, registers before he/she is entitled or
permitted to vote. A registration certificate is issued to the person who has registered as a
voter. It is important because :
• It helps to prevent those who do not qualify

• Helps to ensure that all eligible voters cast their votes
• It helps to ensure that nobody votes more than once in an election
6. Business registration

Once a business is registered with a government department responsible for registration of
business, a business licence or permit is issued. It is important because:
• Government is able to keep a record of type and sizes of business operations in the
country
• It is easy for government to estimate the amount of tax revenue to be collected
• It helps government to protect local businesses from competition with foreign investors
UNIT 9 – TAXATION
• Taxation is the compulsory financial contribution to support government

• A tax is a legally imposed financial contribution to government revenues
• It is charged on people, property, income and transactions
• Payment of taxes is one way in which a citizen can help financing public services
Types of Taxes
• Direct taxes
• Indirect taxes
1. Direct taxes
• These are paid directly to government by the individual taxpayer

• They are levied on individual taxpayers incomes and charged at source (where the money
is earned
• E.g income tax, estate duty
2. Indirect taxes
• These are taxes which are collected by intermediaries who turn over what they have
collected to government.
• They are levied on traders e.g. wholesalers, retailers, exporters, importers who in
turn direct the proceeds to government. E.g. Value Added Tax (VAT)
• They are imposed on expenditure e.g. customs and excise duty
• Indirect taxes are not actually paid by the traders but by the consumers. E.g. The
trader increases commodity price to include duty or VAT which they have been
charged in the first place and pass on this to the final consumer
Taxes levied in Malawi
• Income tax – it is paid by a citizen on the income that they earn through employment
or business
• Property tax – it is paid by anyone who owns property such as land, house
• Value Added Tax (VAT) or Surtax – it is charged on goods and services for their
value addition

• Capital gains tax – it is charged on the profit realised on the sale of a non-inventory
asset that was bought at a lower price such as real estate, bonds, stocks
• Payroll tax – it is charged on salaries and wages of employees
• Estate duty – it is imposed on the wealth of an individual after his or her death. It
is the only tax that becomes due as a result of death
• Fringe benefits – it is charged on fringe benefits paid by the employer to its
employees such as soft loans. When an employee gets a soft loan from employer at
a interest lower than the commercial rate the resulting interest difference is
considered to be a saving and therefore a fringe benefit.
• Provisional tax – it is an advance tax estimated at the beginning of the year of
assessment and payable by every business person
• Assessment tax – it is paid by limited companies, sole traders and partners at the
end of the year and it is determined by tax assessments made after the end of the
year of assessments on persons in business to show the balance of tax payable.
• Withholding tax – an advance tax deducted from any payments on persons who
cannot be traced after payment is done. It is applicable on royalties, rents,
commissions, payment to contractors, bank interest etc
• Non-resident tax – it is final tax payable by persons not resident in Malawi on any
income arising from a source within Malawi
• Business profit tax – it is payable on profits made in a business. Where the business
makes a loss, the laws in Malawi allows carry forward of the loss (the tax is claimed
when business makes profit)
• Customs duty – it is paid on goods that are imported into the country. In some cases
it is paid on exported goods
• Excise duty – it is imposed on selected goods to discourage their consumption such
as cigarettes, alcohol, gambling, airtime
Reasons why excise duty is levied
• To control consumption and prevent abuse of certain substances such as tobacco and
alcohol
• To punish those spending on luxuries e.g. excise duty on gambling
• To raise money needed for extra healthcare on which excise duty is charged. E.g.
treatment for lung cancer as a result of smoking
• To raise money needed for the rehabilitation of the environment as a result of
pollution or damage caused by activities on which excise duty is charged e.g. mining
Non-Tax Revenues
These are revenues or receipts obtained by the government from other sources other than tax.
Sources of non-tax revenues
• Foreign grants
• Loans obtained from lending institutions and other governments

• Revenue from state owned enterprises such as ESCOM, Water Boards, ADMARC
• Profits or interests from funds invested by the state
• Revenues from sale of state assets
• Fees from issuance of licences or permits
• Receipts from court fines
• Revenue collected from payments for the use of public services
• Levies (charges imposed to raise money for specific activities) e.g. Road levy (for
construction and maintenance of roads), Malawi Bureau of Standards levy (to
support operations of MBS) etc
Malawi Revenue Authority (MRA)
• It is an agency of Malawi government responsible for assessment, collection and

accounting for tax revenues
• It was established by an Act of Parliament of 1998 to carry out functions formerly
done by
Department of Customs & Excise and Income Tax
MRA Revenue Divisions
Customs & Excise Division : responsible for
• Administration and enforcement of Customs & Excise Act

• Collection of import and excise duty and import VAT (Value Added Tax)
• Protection of the community from entry and exit of prohibited goods and facilitates
trade
Domestic Tax Division: responsible for
• Collection of direct income taxes from individuals and corporations

• Collection of domestic Value Added Tax (VAT) and domestic taxes
Functions of Malawi Revenue Authority
• Assessment, collection and receipt of specified revenue

• Promoting voluntary compliance to tax payment
• Improvement of the standard of service given to taxpayers with a view to improving
efficiency and effectiveness and maximising revenue
• Countering fraud and other forms of fiscal evasion
• Advising the Minister of Finance on matters of revenue policy
• Performing any other duties as directed by the Minister of Finance
Principles of taxation
These are values and responsibilities that guide how a tax system should operate

• Principle of adequacy – it emphasises on the fact that taxes should only be enough
to generate revenue required for provision of essential public services
• Principle of broad basing – taxes should be spread across the population to
minimise heaping taxes on few individuals
• Principle of convenience – taxes should be deducted in such a way that the
deduction does not cause any disturbance to the taxpayer
• Principle of earmarking – tax from specific source should be dedicated to a specific
purpose only when there is a direct cost and benefit link between tax source and
expenditure e.g. use of fuel tax for road maintenance
• Principle of efficiency – tax collection costs should not exceed the revenue obtained
• Principle of equity and fairness – taxes should be related to the ability of the
taxpayer
e.g. people with same economic circumstances should pay the same tax.
• Principle of neutrality – taxes should not give special treatment to any group of people
• Principle of certainty – a taxpayer has to know how much tax he or she has to pay, when
it is to be paid and how it must be paid.
• Principle of restriction or non-exemption – tax exemption must only be for a specific
purpose (such as to encourage investment) and for a limited period. The poor should not e
exempted (excluded) from taxation because there is dignity in paying taxes
• Principle of simplicity – a tax code must be formulated in simple language to be understood
by an average taxpayer
• Principle of impartiality – all persons in the same position should pay the tax. E,g
nonimbibers do not have to pay tax on beer, but all those who drink beer should
• Principle of adjustability – a good tax system should be capable of variation that is both
up and down according to changes in policy
• Principle of productivity – a good tax system should encourage productivity. Rates of tax
should not discourage people from working overtime in fear of being taxed more.
Main Purposes of taxation (Four R’s of taxation)
• Revenue – to raise money which is spent on public services such as health, education,
security etc
• Re-distribution – taxes help to transfer money from the rich to the poor
• Re-alignment – taxes are levied to address externalities e..g taxing beer to discourage its
consumption, removing tax on animal fees to encourage animal production
• Representation – taxes are levied to encourage citizens to demand accountability and better
representation from their leaders
Importance of Taxes
1. Redistribution of wealth

To make the poor benefit from the wealth of the rich
2. Encouraging or discouraging certain activities
• Protecting local business from foreign competition

• Discouraging consumption of certain undesirable good e.g. cigarettes
• Facilitating trade by removing certain taxes
3. Expenditure control
If government feels that the level of spending is high it can deliberately increase taxes to
curb inflation.
4. Raising revenue for government for
• Provision of infrastructural development

• Provision of safe drinking water
• Provision of public security
• Serving both domestic and foreign debts
• Payment of civil servants salaries
• Financing elections
Problems/challenges facing the taxation system in Malawi
• Lack of adequate taxpayer civic education which results in many people not
accepting to pay tax
• Small tax base resulting in high tax rates
• Lack of taxation in the informal sector
• Some traders evade and avoid paying tax e.g. not issuing receipts to customers to
avoid payment of VAT
Taxpayers rights
• Be informed and assisted at voluntary compliance so that tax can be assessed, settled
on time
• To know your tax obligations in advance
• To pay correct amount of tax and be refunded for any excess amount paid
• Taxpayer information be treated as confidential
• To complain, object and appeal where not satisfied with your tax liability
• To be treated with respect
• To apply for help if you cannot pay in full
• To challenge decisions/actions made by MRA
• To seek relief from a spouse‟s debt
Taxpayers responsibilities
• To register and obtain a tax identification number and notify MRA of any change in
your tax details

• Be honest and truthful in declaring your tax liability.
• Co-operate and assist MRA officers in tax matters
• Provide relevant documents e.g. receipts, profit and loss statements etc as the law
requires
• Understand and appreciate the risks of non-compliance or tax evasion To report
about tax evasion to MRA
Penalties for failure to pay tax
• Goods may be seized

• Goods may be forfeited
• Imprisonment
• Detention and disposal of seized goods
UNIT 10 – GOVERNMENT
Government is a machinery for running the welfare of the country, headed by one person or a
group of people.
Types of Government
1. Dictatorship
• This is a type of government in which only one person or group of people rule with
absolute power (without limits to what the person or the group of people can do)
• Decisions are made without consulting anyone
• Laws in dictatorship are made without any regard to the people that are governed
• Dictators rule for life e.g. they hold on to power as long as they can
• Dictators do not allow any criticisms and this makes them to violate human rights of their
subjects e.g. censoring the press, banning other political parties, imprisoning or even
killing political opponents
2. Autocracy
• This type of government is ruled by one person or group of people with strong powers
• The ruler might be legally elected but as time passes by, she or he does not allow others
to challenge him or her in elections
3. Monarchy
• This type of government is where rulers acquire their positions through inheritance from
their father, mother or other relative
• In traditional or absolute monarchies, the monarch exercises ultimate governing
authority as head of state and head of government and their powers are not limited by
constitution/law and turn out to be autocrats.

• In traditional monarchy, the parliament (if one exists) merely stamps the monarch‟s
decrees.
• Examples of traditional or absolute monarchies are : Brunei, Qatar, Oman, Swaziland,
Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates
• In Constitutional or Limited monarchies, the queen or king is head of state but does
not run the government. The government is run by a parliament and cabinet elected by
the people.
• Examples of constitutional monarchies are : Great Britain, Lesotho, Sweden, Japan
• Monarchies stop ruling when they die or give up the throne or position (abdication)
4. Military Government
• This refers to the type of government that takes power by force

• They do this by overthrowing legitimately elected leaders in what is referred to as
Military coup or Coup d’etat
• E.g. in Guinea after the death of president Lansana Conte in 2008 a coup which was led
by captain Moussa Camara took place
• E.g. in 2013, Egypt‟s first democratically elected president, Hosni Mubarak was also
overthrown
5. Republic
• This is a form of government in which the affairs of the state are open to all citizens of
the country and that the people are actively involved
• A republic is controlled by people through their elected representatives through
parliament
• There is a constitution which remains the most important tool for both rulers and their
subjects
• The head of state is referred to as president and heads the executive arm of government.
E.g. United States of America, Malawi, France
6. Democracy
• This is a type of government in which supreme authority is with the people who have
power to determine their own affairs
• The rulers are put in positions through a popular vote and exercise their authority on
behalf of those that elected them
• The leaders continue to rule based on the trust and confidence from those that elected
them
• In democracy, leaders make decisions based on peoples‟ wishes while in a republic,
leaders can make some determinations on their own on the needs and interest of the
country
Types of Democracy
• Direct democracy Representative

a) Direct democracy
• This is a type of democracy in which every citizen has a chance to participate personally
in the process of government
• In this type, decision making is based on equality among the participants at each and
every stage
• This system ensures that people do not hold office for a long time to become corrupt
• However, it is disadvantageous since it does not allow people to become experienced
• It works better in countries where the population is usually small thereby allowing all
members to voice their opinions and vote for or against an opinion.
b) Representative democracy
• To „represent‟ means to speak or act for someone.

• In this type, the elected leaders carry out the day to day running of the government on
behalf of a citizens that elected them
• Citizens in Malawi elect representatives at national and local levels called Members of
parliament and councillors respectively. At the next election the citizens can decide to
vote for a different representative based on performance of representatives
• Malawi is an example of a country which follows this type of democracy
Types of representative Democracy
1. Parliamentary democracy
• In this type, elected representatives form part of the legislative body called parliament or
congress
• The MPS elect one of them to be the Prime Minister who runs the Executive branch of
government
• In this type, the prime minister and the cabinet stay in power until the next election or
may resign from their position before an election through vote of „No confidence‟ if they
lose support of parliament
• E.g. India, Spain, Israel, Italy
2. Presidential democracy
• In this type, the president who is head of the executive and members of the legislative
body are elected at once.
• E.g. Malawi, Botswana, Zambia, Mozambique, USA, Kenya, South Africa
3. Combined Parliamentary and Presidential democracy
• In some countries there is a president elected by the people and a prime minister chosen
by a legislative body e.g. France
Capitalist and Socialist Governments

These terms are not actually types of government but rather a set of ideas of how to develop a
country
a) Capitalist
• Capitalism/Free Market economy emphasises on individual or private ownership of

property
• This means that owners of the capital own trade and means of production with emphasis
on making profits
• This system of government does not impose heavy taxes on its citizens but promotes
individual initiative
• It also promotes and protects individual rights and this leads to economic success
• However, this system exploits workers and leads to increase in poverty, crime rate and
inequality
b) Socialist
• This system is where there is a belief that government should play an important part in
the economic development of the nation
• It emphasises on state ownership of firms which is referred to as nationalisation of
industries
• The government provides adequate social services to its people and this results in the
people being heavily taxed
• This system is advantageous in the sense that there is equality in the provision of needs
to the people such as medical care, housing, education free of charge
• It also reduces unemployment and poverty
• However, socialism reduces creativity among people as they wait for government to do
everything on their behalf. It also follows a long chain (bureaucracy) in communication
from the grassroots to the top management
c) Mixed Economy system of government
• This system strikes a balance between capitalism and socialism

• It allows private ownership
• E.g. Blantyre Water Board, ESCOM
Role of political parties in a democracy
• Ruling party‟s role is to govern the country

Ruling party comes up with policies on how to deal with political and socio-economic
issues e.g. food insecurity, poverty, climate change, HIV/AIDS etc
• Opposition parties promote good governance
• Opposition parties act as watchdogs of politics by monitoring actions of government
• Opposition parties make sure government respects rule of law, constitution and
human rights
• Opposition parties act as critic of the ruling party by pointing out mistakes of ruling
party
• Opposition parties are the mouthpiece of the people as they express the opinions of
those who elected them
• Opposition parties provide people with a choice from among many parties, policies
and candidates
Good governance
Good governance is a system of rules, processes and structures that brings about efficiency
equity and prosperity. It also about representatives doing a good job of which they were elected
for. The main principles of good governance are actually the values or features of democracy
and include the following :
Transparency
• Transparency implies openness through sharing and exchanging information, views

and opinions on various dissenting views necessary and it demands tolerance of such
views and opinions.
• it requires unrestricted access to public information and includes free circulation of
and acceptance of diverse views and opinions
• one sign of transparent government is the holding of public meetings which citizen
can attend and have a chance to voice out their opinions.
• The leaders must also explain what decisions are being made by whom and why.
Accountability
• Accountability means to be answerable.

• When representatives make decisions they express the will of the people and
therefore the representatives must be held accountable
• For elected officials (leaders) to be held accountable, the people must be informed
about what is happening.
• This means that the elected representatives have a duty to answer to the public for
their decisions, policies and actions
Observance of human rights

• All genuine democracies strive to respect, promote and protect human rights for its
entire people.
Malawi constitution has a whole chapter on human rights called the Bill of rights which
offers constitutional protection of human rights
• The constitution clearly states that each individual has these rights regardless of
status or condition
• This, therefore, promotes equality (treating every person on an equal basis) which is
at the centre of non-discrimination principle.
Rule of law and predictability (Due process of law)
• It implies that firstly, there is the existence of law and that the law must always rule.
This is called Rule of Law.
• Secondly, the law is the basis of governing it and it states that nobody (not even the
president, prime minister, chief) is above the law and all people are equal before it.
This is called Due process of Law
• Democracy requires that the law must be applied equally, fairly and consistently on
all people without any distinction including their status. This helps to promote the
principle of equality
• When applied impartially, it helps people to know what to expect should something
happen or should they break the law.
Constitutionalism (supremacy of the constitution)
• In democracy leaders also need to observe the supremacy (importance) of the

constitution
• E.g. respecting the law, the human rights of all citizens and terms of the constitution
• Every section of the constitution was written for a purpose and that it needs to be
read, interpreted and applied to reflect that purpose
Free and fair elections
• One way in which citizens participate in democracy and express their views is
through elections when they choose their leaders.
• Elections are supposed to be regular, free and fair. Which means citizens are not
supposed to be intimidated, threatened, forced or bribed before, during and after the
elections
• Elections need to be conducted on periodic basis in order to assess the performance
of the leaders. Based on the performance the leaders, they are voted back or removed
from leadership positions
• Once elections are pronounced free and fair, the loser has to accept and congratulate
the winner and help him or her in serving the nation.
Other principles of good governance include the following :

• Citizen participation in public affairs
• Responsiveness of government
• Multi-party politics system
• Tolerance of views of both the majority and the minority
• Limited terms of office of leaders
Checking abuse of power of the elected officials
• Legitimacy and mandate of leaders to govern
• Separation of powers among the three branches of government; executive,
legislature and judiciary
The role of citizens in promoting good governance
• By standing as a candidate in national or local elections

• By taking part in discussions with fellow citizens
• By attending community or civic meetings
• By learning about important issues through newspapers, radios etc. This helps to
stay informed about important issues that face the country such as climate change,
poverty, conflicts etc. For democracy to work, citizens should have knowledge of
democracy
• By becoming involved in a voluntary organisation and performing volunteer work
aimed at making community and neighbourhood good to live.
• Organising peaceful demonstrations
• Expressing opinions through the news media. Utilise free press to speak out on local
and national issues
• Joining the labour unions, community groups and business associations
UNIT 11 – CONFLICT RESOLUTION
In Malawi conflict resolution institutions operate at both local and national level. These
include:
• Traditional leaders – chiefs, village heads deal with community problems such as
family and land disputes. They also settle minor civil cases.
• Courts of law – courts settle both civil and criminal cases. Criminal cases may
include armed robbery, corruption, rape. The Industrial Relations Court deals
mainly with breach of contract and labour related issues
• Malawi Congress of Trade Union (MCTU) – This is a national organisational
which links all trade unions.
• Public Affairs Committee (PAC) – It is an organisation which comprises
Protestants and Catholic Churches as well as the Muslim community which aims at
improving living standards of the people, advises government on national issues.
• Catholic Commission for Justice and Peace (CCJP) – It promotes peace and
justice by investigating violations of human rights. Causes of Conflicts in Africa

a) Land disputes
• Most countries in Africa quarrel over land or areas of economic benefit such as
minerals.

• E.g. Ethiopia and Eritrea have fought over border issues. In Western Sudan
(Darfur), Kenya and Rwanda there have also been land disputes. In DRC conflicts
spread of their mineral rich land in gold and diamond. Currently, there is a dispute
between Malawi and Tanzania over ownership of Lake Malawi.
b) Ethnic rivalry
• These are quarrels which result from differences in cultural beliefs. Such
differences have a great impact in most African countries where political parties
are aligned to particular tribes.
• E.g. the mass killings in Rwanda and Burundi between the Tutsis‟ and Hutus‟ were
purely ethnic.
c) Class of ideas (or differences in political ideologies)
• This was traced during the cold war between USA and the former Soviet Union.
USA believed in democracy and capitalism while Soviet Union believed in
socialism.
• These countries supported different sides in African conflicts. E.g. the communists
supported FRELIMO in Mozambique
d) Economic and social differences
• In most African countries, there is a big gap between the rich and the poor. This
creates hatred among the poor towards the rich.
• E.g the Xenophobic attacks in South Africa were as a result of foreigners being
hated for prospering while indigenous South Africans were suffering.
e) Outside interference
• Sometimes outside groups have caused problems in countries due to interest for
resources in those countries
• E.g. in DRC and Mozambique
f) Sale of arms
• Countries which produce weapons deliberately promote conflicts in other countries

so that they sell their weapons.
g) Religious differences
• They become serious more especially when religions are dominated by a particular
ethnic groups.
• E.g. in Nigeria Boko Haram (muslim organisation) trying to impose Islamic
religion in the Northern part of Nigeria. Muslims dominate the northern part while
Christians dominate Southern states

h) Racism
• The behaviour that occurs when one group of people considers itself to be more
superior to the other and is often biased on the colour of a person‟s skin.
• E.g. in South Africa there was racial segregation that separated whites from Asians,
coloured and black people. Each racial group lived separately in terms of job
opportunities, housing, education and other services.
• This caused violent racial conflicts Effects of Conflicts in Africa
a) Economic hardships
• Conflicts lead to destruction of property, infrastructure such as bridges, roads,

schools. When this happens, it becomes expensive to reconstruct them.
• It also scares away people who want to open their businesses (investors) and this
negatively affects the economy of the country.
b) Creation of refugees /(displacement of people)
• People become homeless because of conflicts.

• In the host country, create pressure on natural resources as well as social services
(e.g. schools, hospitals)
c) Death and injury of both civilians and soldiers
• During conflicts, many people lose their lives. Others are injured. Even when the
war is over, landmines cause permanent injuries.
d) Epidemics and malnutrition
• Conflicts cause severe shortage of food which eventually results into malnutrition
and epidemics (diseases which spread quickly)
e) Social and political anarchy
• In areas of conflicts, nobody respects the rule of law. As a result there is total
confusion which in other countries makes the army to take over. Strategies for
Conflict Resolution
a) Negotiation
• In this process, the groups that are in conflict directly talk to each other about their
problem so that on their own they can find a solution
b) Mediation (assisted negotiation)
• In this process, a third person is invited to facilitate the resolution process.

• The mediator, however, does not say who is right or wrong. He/she remains neutral

• The mediator should therefore be trusted by both parties with a great deal of
influence.
c) Arbitration (adjudication or conciliation)
• In this process, the disputing parties choose someone to be a judge. The arbitrator
in this case acts as a decision maker on behalf of the disputing parties.
• Arbitrators are mostly legal institutions and the arbitration process is mainly a legal
process although not always.
• The chosen person must be accepted by both parties
Conflict Resolution process
1. Setting up conditions for resolving the conflict such as :
• Identifying an arbitrator or mediator

• Choosing the place for discussion
• Choosing whether the discussion will be in public or private
2. Introduction/ opening remarks
• The mediator or arbitrator needs to create a friendly atmosphere so that the disputing
parties can talk freely.
3. Telling the story
• Both parties should be allowed to tell their story without any interruptions. During
this time, the mediator/arbitrator needs to summarise the main points after which
he/she should give an opportunity for question time in order to clarify their
statements.
• Arguments should be expected during the questioning period.
4. Identifying facts and issues
• At this stage, skills such as paraphrasing, outlining and clarifying points are
necessary so that they arrange the points to be resolved in order.
5. Identifying alternative solutions
• The mediator/arbitrator should ask the disputing parties to suggest possible solutions
so that he/she avoids imposing anything on them.
6. Discussing and Revising solutions
• At this stage, various options are evaluated so that the most workable ones are
identified.
7. Reaching an agreement

• This is the final stage of conflict resolution. This is often written down with details
about what to do if either party fails to uphold its part in the agreement.
Conflict Handling Skills
a) Active listening - This is the ability to hear with understanding. One needs to be alert and
attentive so that he/she shows interest in the issue.
b) Feedback and ability to summarise - Feedback means reacting to the situation in which
the listener is seeking clarification and summarising involves taking down important points.
These should not be judgemental but be based on what disputants say.
c) Adopting to the disputing parties - This means that the mediator/arbitrator should use the
language that is simple to both parties.
d) Impartiality (not taking sides) - The person handling the dispute should look at the case
on the basis of facts and not side with any group.
e) Empathy - This means putting yourself in the shoes of the other party
f) Non-judgemental attitude - Let both sides see each other as equals and show willingness
to negotiate
g) Demonstrate interest - Concentrate on areas of common interest and areas which can be
addressed easily.
h) Demonstrate patience and respect for both parties - This is done to ensure lasting peace
or permanent solution
Regional organisations that assist in conflict resolution
• Africa‟s Regional Economic Communities (RECs) were established with economic goals
in mind, including trade, developments and enhancing economic integration
• Later, the RECs added peace and security because of pressing and unavoidable matters
• The international community pays attention to the roles and contributions of RECs in peace
maintenance.
• Regional organisations include :
 African Union (AU)
 Economic Community for West African States (ECOWAS)
 Southern Africa Development Community (SADC)
 Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA)
The regional Economic Communities are able to forge peace because of the following reasons:
• Geographical and political proximity (nearness)

• They have capacity to respond quickly
• They understand better the actors at play

• They can put up acceptable ways of resolving conflicts because of having a better
understanding of cultural sensitivities
Strategies that are used by these organisations to solve conflicts
• Contact and dialogue – this involves engaging the parties in conflict to sit down together
with the facilitator who will assist how to end the conflict.
• Embargo – this is a partial or complete prohibition (ban) of trade with a particular country
• Sanctions – these are forceful measures adopted by a country or a group of countries against
another country or individual in order to influence change of behaviour
• Peace Keeping – it refers to activities which ensure that long lasting peace is achieved.
Peace making – it is the last strategy after the peace keeping
Importance of peaceful conflict resolution
• It establishes and maintains long lasting peace or genuine reconciliation

• It helps to avoid war and outside interference
• It reduces loss of life, suffering as well as destruction of infrastructure
• It promotes co-operation and unity among people It promotes a culture of tolerance among
people
Ways of Avoiding National conflicts
• Transparency and accountability - People should be made aware of whatever is

happening in their society
• Inclusion - Everyone must participate in the political life of the society
• Mutual respect and tolerance - Views of other people need to be considered
• Contact and dialogue – people should always negotiate whenever there is a disagreement
• Making laws that guarantee equal rights and freedoms for all – it helps to minimise
discontent among people
• Promoting good governance that ensures equal distribution of resources – government
needs to put the welfare of people first in provision of basic needs
• Electing effective democratic leadership – people should suggest ways of managing the
society and electing leaders that are responsible
• Controlling/restricting the sale of arms – it should be done because fire arms threaten the
peace and security
• Definition of borders – when two nations share a common border, agreed by both parties,
it assists in preventing border disputes which may lead to armed conflicts.
UNIT 12 – INVESTMENT
Investment refers to the production of capital goods which are not consumed but instead used
in future production. Examples of investment include :
• Putting money in the bank so that it earns interest
• Lending money to someone so that it earns interest

• Buying a building, renovate it then sell it at a profit
• Buying shares to be sold later at a profit
• Buying commodities such as precious minerals like gold or farm products such as maize to
be sold later when prices have increased
• Buying collectibles e.g paintings, coins to resell at a profit
Investment aims at making profitable returns. e.g. interest, income, appreciation (increase in
value)
Types of Investment
1. Physical investment
This includes items such as Real estate (e.g. land, house) and precious stones. Precious
objects are items which are generally small in size but highly valuable in monetary terms
2. Financial Investment
These are further divided into :
• Marketable investments – these include shares, bonds and government securities

• Non-marketable investments – these include bank deposits, pension funds, insurance
certificates etc
Financial Market
• This is a specialised market that is responsible for transferring financial resources from
surplus units (savers) to deficit units (those who need additional funds) so that they carry
out some economic activities.
• The financial market is divided into Money Market and Capital Market.
Money Market
• This is a segment of the financial market in which short term funds are traded. It assists
in borrowing and lending short term funds
• E.g. Treasury Bills, Reserve Bank of Malawi Bills, Commercial papers, Repos
Treasury Bills (TBs) and Reserve Bank of Malawi Bills (RBM Bills)
These are money market instruments which represent short term borrowings of government. a)
Treasury Bills
• TBs are issued only by the Reserve Bank of Malawi

• They are transferrable
• They have high degree of liquidity (easily changed into cash)
• Issued at a discount from par (face value)
• Have nil credit risk
• They mature in 91 days, 182 days and 364 days

b) Reserve Bank of Malawi Bills
• They are sold at a discount

• They are redeemable at face value on maturity
• They mature in 63 days and 91 days
Certificate of Deposits (CDs)
• This refers to short term deposits which are transferable from one party to another
• They are issued by banks and financial institutions to raise sums of money for their
economic activities. They are :
 Issued at discount to face value
 Repayable on fixed date without grace days
 Offer higher rate than TBs
 Risk free
Commercial papers
• it is a short term money market instrument

• it is used at a discount to face value and has a maturity of 90 to 180 days
• can be issued with maturities tailored to match the cashflow of the company (flexibility)
provide higher return
REPOs
• REPO (Repurchase Agreement) involves “sale and repurchase” agreement in which

securities are sold to lender and agrees to repurchase them at an agreed future date and price.
• The cost of borrowing is called “Repo Rate”
Capital Market
• These are institutions which are involved in the buying and selling of long term debts.
• These markets transfer surplus funds to those who can put in long term productive use.
E.g. stocks, Treasury Notes, Bonds
Stocks
• These are shares (equal parts into which the capital of a business company is divided, giving
the holder the right to a portion of the profits) in the company
• When one buys shares in a company, it means that he/she owns the company
• He or she bears the risk and enjoy the rewards of ownership
• Stocks increase in value when the company makes money
• Shareholders have a right to cast vote and elect Board of Directors at the Annual General
Meeting (AGM)
• Shareholder has a right to additional (bonus) shares if they are issued
Treasury Note

• Have maturity of over 1 year but up to 10 years
• Are transferable and negotiable
• Holder receives half yearly interest
Treasury Bonds
• Have maturity of 10 – 30 years

• Holder receives half yearly interest
• They are risky due to default or bankruptcy
• Interest rate is called “coupon rate”
Key Players in the Capital and Money Markets
1) Stock brokers/dealers
• A stock broker is an agent who buys and sells securities on behalf of investors
• He or she charges a fee for carrying out this task of selling or buying
• A dealer on the other hand enters the market as a buyer or a seller of securities using
his/her own financial resources
• In a situation where an individual or an institution can act as a broker and a dealer,
it is caller a dealer-broker
2) Registrar
• These are a group of operators in the money and capital market that keep records on
ownership of a company‟s securities
3) Mutual funds/ Investment Managers
• These reduce the risk of investors by diversifying investment from a pool of funds
into various securities
4) Accountants (Auditors) and Solicitors
• Accountant and auditors authenticate financial statements of an organisation

• Solicitors interpret the legal implications of some of the rules of organisations
5) Investing Public
• The investor can be an individual or institution that buys financial securities in order
to make financial returns
• An investor buys securities through the stock broker
6) The stock exchange
• It is a licenced non-bank financial institution involved in buying and selling of

security in the secondary market e.g. Malawi Stock Exchange
• It guides investors in choosing securities by supplying daily quotations for the
securities

7) Mutual funds (collective investments schemes)
• A form of mobilising investment from small investors. The investment is managed

by a qualified organisation It is popular because :  It has high return
 Has lower cost
 Has diversified risk
Investment opportunities
• They are favourable circumstances that can allow investors to make more money from their
investment
• Investors look for ways of making attractive returns without risking their money
• E.g. shares, commercial papers, REPOs, Treasury notes, Treasury bonds, Treasury bills etc
Terms and Conditions of various investment opportunities in capital and money markets
• Investment maturity period – the time for which a financial instrument ceases to exist ad
the principle is repaid with interest
• Interest rate – the amount that is charged on top of the money that is borrowed
• Investment yield – the interest that a person receives from an investment
• Management fees such as Withholding Tax (WHT) – the fees that an investor pays to his
investment advisor for service rendered
Importance of Capital Markets and Money Markets in economic development
• Creates strong incentives and also fosters trade and business linkages
• Stimulate investment in human resources
• Channel resources to more productive uses
• Help to finance long term development projects in a country e.g. construction of buildings,
introduction of new technology
• Provides reasonable access to users of short term funds to meet their requirements quickly.
UNIT 13 – ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
Economy
• the different ways a family or community or a country earns money

• the state of a country‟s poverty or wealth
Economic development
• It is the improvement in the living standards of the people

• It is the change for the better in the lives of citizens and that the people can afford a higher
standard of living

Economic development leads to greater access of goods and services produced in their own
country
Sectors of the Economy
These are ways in which people or a country earns money. People and countries earn money
differently. The sectors are as follows :
1. Agriculture
• The biggest sector of Malawi economy

• Agricultural crops e.g. tobacco, tea are important for exports
• Most people work in this sector to grow crops for food and cash crops
• Offers employment to people e.g. in the farms or to process cash crops such as tea
in factories
2. Transport
• Crops and animal products or manufactured goods are transported within and to
outside countries
• Common transport in Malawi is road. It is supplemented by rail, air and water
transport
• People work in transport sector e.g driving bus, taxi, trucks
3. Power
• Provides electricity to homes and factories

• Electricity is produced using fast flowing water
• E.g. in Nkula, Tedzani
4. Forestry
People work in forestry sector to plant and care for trees for timber production
Others work in saw mills (plank production) for building and furniture making.
Others work in pulp mills (turning wood to paper)
5. Fishing
• People living near lakes or rivers are engaged in fishing

• Others are engaged in fish selling in markets
• Others work in fish processing industries
6. Industry
• Are involved in producing, processing or manufacturing of products

• People work in industries where raw materials are processed
• Others work in factories
a) Primary industry
• Involves production of goods with the help of nature

• It involves producing, retrieving or harvesting or drawing out goods from
soil, air, water e.g. quarrying, hunting, mining, forestry, fishing
b) Secondary industry
• Manufactures raw materials from primary sector into finished and usable
products with the help of machines and manpower.
• Construction, manufacturing, processing lie within the secondary industry
• Things manufactured include cosmetics, books, paints, bicycles etc
• In Malawi this industry is small but growing
7. Tertiary or Service
• Provision of services to people and to businesses It is a growing industry in

Malawi.
• It includes media, tourism, banking, insurance, healthcare, law, education
Contribution of different sectors to the economic development in Malawi Every
sector is important to the development of Malawi.
• Production of goods needed by everyone and the country e.g. from agriculture,
fisheries, forestry, industries
• Foreign exchange when other goods are exported
• The country uses foreign exchange to import other goods e..g cars, medicine
• Provision of services e.g. schools, banks, hospital
• Employment to people in the various sectors
• Improved living conditions for those employed which leads to economic
development
UNIT 14 – SOCIAL SKILLS
• These are abilities necessary to get along with others and to create and maintain
satisfying interpersonal relationships
• It is also about making sound judgement and taking appropriate courses of action for
your life
• They are attributes that a person needs to have in order to deal with everyday life
challenges
• Social skills can be taught, practices or learned.
The following are some of the important social skills:
1. Cultural competence
Ability to interact effectively with people from different cultures

It is mostly learnt rather than acquired from birth It comprises
:

1. Awareness of one‟s culture
2. Having positive attitude towards cultural differences
3. Having knowledge of different cultural practices
4. Cross cultural skills
Its advantages are :
 It is easy to work with people from other cultures
 Better chances of securing a good paying job
 One is able to comfortably work in a multicultural environment
2. Assertiveness
• It means knowing what you want and why and being able to take necessary steps to
achieve it.
• It involves being able to say your feelings without being aggressive or getting
personal
Characteristics of an assertive person include :
• Expressing one‟s views freely

• Disagreeing without being angry
• Resisting peer pressure
• Asking for help when in need
• Setting realistic goals and striving to achieve them
3. Self- esteem
• The way we value and feel about ourselves

• High self esteem makes you confident, optimistic, determined to achieve what you
want.
• High self esteem is important because:  It makes you value your safety
 It helps you feel good about yourself
 It gives you courage to try new things
Low self esteem causes :
 Depression
 Poor performance in school
 Vulnerability to peer pressure
4. Decision Making and problem solving
• It is a process of making choices from a list of options

• It involves weighing alternative solutions to a problem based on advantages and
disadvantages
• It helps in dealing with challenges such as HIV/AIDS, abortion, premarital sex, drug
and substance abuse, peer pressure among adolescents
Steps to be followed in decision making and problem solving :

• Identifying the problem
• Defining the problem
• Explore possible solutions and their outcomes
• Selecting one alternative that best addresses the problem and implementing the
choice
• Evaluate the decision e.g. if chosen alternative has yielded desired results
5. Empathy
• Putting oneself in somebody‟s position

• Empathetic skills include : noticing other people‟s feelings, expressing concern at
other‟s distress, ability to recognise what others are feeling in a given situation
• Empathy helps in building relationships, motivating us to assist others, in giving
proper guidance and counselling, communicating effectively with others.
6. Conflict resolution skill
• Helps resolve conflicts peacefully

• Helps to discuss a conflict calmly and come to an agreement
• Helps to avoid fighting and war
• Helps to preserve or keep friendships
7. Conversation skill
• Helps to make a conversation which enables one to make friends easily

• It involves :
 Taking turns when talking
 Listening and showing interest in what the other person has to say
 Nodding and smiling to show that you are following
 Knowing when to disclose personal information and when not to
8. Stress and anxiety management
• Stress is natural human response to pressure when faced with challenging and
sometimes dangerous situations
• Anxiety is a feeling of worry and uneasiness in response to stress
• The following may lead to stress and anxiety : poverty, poor health, examination,
job interview, unplanned pregnancy, rape, death of loved one, teasing, hunger etc
How to manage stress and anxiety
• Using problem solving and decision making skills to deal with the issue
• Doing physical exercises to reduce stress
• Seeking guidance and counselling
• Sharing the problem with trusted friend/relative
• Having prayers to renew hope

• Seeking medical attention Characteristics of social skills They are :
• Goal oriented
• Interrelated – one can use more than one social skill for same goal
• Taught, practiced and learnt
• Situational – use of appropriate skill for a given situation
Advantages of having well developed social skills
• One has more and better relationships and friends

• Better communication is developed
• One is able to make informed choices in life
• It is easier to get a better job
UNIT 15 - CORRUPTION
• The misuse of official power or position for illegitimate personal gain

• The act of offering or receiving money or some other thing in return for the receiver
to take or not to take a particular action
• A bribe is something of value given to somebody with the hope of a future benefit
or influence
• A gift is something of value given to somebody without expecting a benefit
Forms of Corruption
1. Bribery
• Giving or offering money or something of value in order to obtain favour

• E.g. giving a bribe in order to allow illegal goods to pass through a police check
point
2. Extortion
• It involves getting money or other resources using force, violence, threat

• E.g. police may use force in order to release a suspect on bail yet police bail is free
3. Embezzlement
• It is theft by those entrusted with resources

• E.g. a treasurer of an association stealing money meant for membership fees for his
own personal needs
4. Abuse of office (or abuse of power)
• Using official position for personal gain, to exploit others or oppress others.

• E.g. a boss harassing a junior, a teacher asking for sex from a student
5. Conflict of Interest
• Happens when a person in charge of deciding on a specific mater has some interest
in the same matter.
• E.g. a person in approval committee applying to supply text books using his
company
• In this case he may favour his company to supply text books even when it does not
meet requirements
6. Influence peddling
• Where a person in an influential position uses his or her powers to change the manner
in which decisions are made.
• E.g. a politician may use his position to influence which magistrate judges a court
case in which the politician has an interest
7. Nepotism
An office holder prefers to give undue advantage to friends, relatives and people of
the same ethnic group by giving them good jobs, better services
8. Favouritism
• The practice of giving special treatment to a person or a group of people

• E.g. promotion, giving a contract a friend who drink with you, opportunities for
further education
Factors that promote corruption in a community
• Absence of strong institutions of accountability (e.g. media, anti-corruption body) to

control abuse of authority by public officials
• Administrative delays – people may be encouraged to pay bribes for quicker services
if it takes longer to make decision in a company
• Desire to live an expensive lifestyle – a lifestyle that doesn‟t match one‟s income
• Greed and selfishness – wanting to have more and the best for themselves without
caring of others
• Lack of moral values e.g. the values for hard work, honesty etc
• Lack of stiff punishment for those involved in corruption
• Poverty – when people can‟t support themselves they engage in corruption in order
to survive
• Having leaders who are corrupt – ordinary people may think corruption is a normal
way of life.
Consequences or effects of corruption

• It endangers public security e.g. if illegal immigrants are corruptly allowed entry it
can increase armed robberies.
• It may lead to political instability e.g strikes, protests
• It increases poverty by denying the poor access to economic opportunities
• It leads to loss of government revenue for social services
• It leads to low productivity because competent people are left out
• People lose confidence in public social services
• It discovered, corruption leads to arrest, dismissal from work
• It retards development due to loss of public money meant for development projects
• Death of many people as a result of scarcity of drugs due to corruption
• It demoralises hard workers, thus promoting laziness
Ways of eradicating (uprooting) corruption in the community
• Providing civic education to the public on the evils of corruption and how to detect
and report corruption to the ACB
• Encouraging people to form anti-corruption groups to check corrupt practices at the
local level
• Teaching anti-corruption messages in schools in order to mould a future generation
that will not condone corruption
• Giving heavy punishment to those found guilty of corruption(according to the laws)
• Simplifying bureaucratic (administrative procedures to speed up decision making
processes to ease access to services. This can discourage payment of bribes
• Encouraging people to report all corrupt practices and protecting the identity of those
that have reported
• Strengthening the anti-corruption agency, the media and civil society groups to
monitor activities of public officers
• Making public officers more accountable by empowering people through
decentralisation
The Anti-Corruption Bureau (ACB)
It was established in 1995 by an Act of Parliament and its functions are :
• Taking necessary measures for prevention of corruption

• Receiving complaints of alleged or suspected corrupt practices
• Investigating complaints of alleged or suspected corrupt practices
• Prosecuting offences under Corrupt Practices Act
• Investigating any public officer whose conduct is connected or conducive to corrupt
practices
UNIT 16 – LAW AND ORDER
• It refers to the state of society in which people respect the rule of law leading to
absence of violence, theft and others

• It is the state where laws are generally accepted and obeyed so that the society
functions normally
Maintaining law and order is dealing firmly with violence, theft and other forms of crime
The role of citizens in maintain law and order
• Reporting law breakers to police

• Abiding by the laws of the land
• Answering police questions honestly and properly
• Forming neighbourhood watches to work hand in hand with providing local security
(community policing)
• Testifying in a court of law when asked to do so in order to secure convictions for
criminals
• Adhering to police security tips to curb crime Avoid keeping and hiding criminals
The role of the police in maintaining law and order
• Guarding police suspects in police cells

• Tracing stolen property for recovery and using it as exhibition in court
• Testifying in court on behalf of victims
• Providing escort and protection to senior government officials e.g. president

Controlling traffic and enforcing traffic laws
• Aiding people who are in danger of physical attack
• Controlling riots using minimum force
• Assisting accident victims by facilitating their evacuation to hospital
• Resolving conflicts between individuals or groups
• Protecting life and property through daily patrols
• Controlling crowds during social and political gatherings e.g at weddings, matches
• Investigating traffic accidents
• Tracing those reported missing
UNIT 17 – SOCIAL SERVICES
Social service institutions provide various services which members of a community need in
their daily lives.
Social service institution Social service offered
Airtel Malawi Communication
ESCOM Electricity for domestic and industrial use
Hospitals or clinics Healthcare
Water Board Safe water for domestic and industrial use
Day Care centre Provides care to children whose parents work away from
home (they are mostly located in towns)
Malawi Broadcasting Corporation Information, communication, entertainment and
(MBC) education
Schools Education
Police Security
Importance of social services
1. Security
• Encourages foreign investment as investors are assured of their business safety

• People spend time and energy on development because they are not worried about
safety for their life and property
• Protects life and property of citizens in a country
2. Education
• It helps in producing skilled workforce that can contribute to national development

• It helps people to know how to read and write
• Helps people to be well informed and to become active participants in a democracy
Improves living standards of an individual
3. Healthcare

• It is only healthy people who are able to work and earn a living and also contribute
to national development
• Healthy children are active in class
4. Recreation
Enables people to relax and have some fun
5. Guidance and counselling
• Removes stress and anxiety

• Enables individuals to make informed choices in life
6. Communication
• Enables people to be in touch with family and friends

• Enables delivery of messages on health education, counselling etc
7. Transportation
Enables the movement of people, goods and services from place to place
8. Spiritual guidance
• Provides emotional relief when individuals encounter problems

• Encourages moral uprightness
9. Peace, calm, & law and order
• People concentrate on developing their areas due to absence of violence

• Crime rate is very low and people go about their business without fear leading to
more economic development
• Reduction in cases of human rights violation because most of the people respect the
law
Importance of standards in the provision of social services
Standards are the principles and practices or guidelines which define the desired quality for
social services.
Standards are important for the following reasons
Education
• High quality education

• Improved pass rate in national examinations
• Absence of cheating during national examinations
Production of graduates who have expected skills and knowledge
Health

• Most diseases are treated and deaths prevented
• Resources are saved because of absence of disease re-infections in hospitals
Roads
• Resources are saved due to reduced maintenance costs and re-construction

Reduced road accidents
In general, standards are important because:
• Delivery of high quality social services leading to improved standard of living for
people
• The social services are durable hence saving public resources and time for doing
other projects
• The social services are reliable resulting in increased willingness of people to use
them
• It ensures that service providers ensure accessibility of their social services
• It leads to certification that can compete favourably on the international market
• There is efficiency and effectiveness in the delivery of the social services e.g. people
receive timely and satisfactory services
• It ensures that people get services that are valuable
Effects of poor standards in the provision of social services
1. Poor standards in education
• Poor pass rate in national examinations because of low quality teaching

• Increase in cases of cheating in national exams due to lack of confidence in quality
of teaching
• Wastage of resources due to lack of durability of school infrastructure
• Production of half-baked graduates who cannot cope with market demands
2. Poor standards in health
• Death of patients
• Health facilities may turn into places where people get diseases instead of cure
• Wastage of resources due to lack of durability of health infrastructure
3. Poor standards in communication services
• Late delivery of messages

• Loss of information
In general, poor standards in provision of social services result into :
• Delivery of poor quality services

Lack of reliability of the social services
• Lack of efficiency and effectiveness in the delivery of the social services
• Loss of public confidence in the social service
• Wastage of public resources due to poor infrastructure that may need frequent
maintenance or reconstruction
• It leads to certification that cannot compete on international market
Effects of rapid population growth on social services If
not controlled, population growth can lead to :
• Overcrowding in schools and hospitals

• Overcrowding of buses due to increased pressure on public transport leading to
increased risk of accidents and uncomfortability
• Shortage of drugs in hospitals
• Increased pressure on communication system due to congestion of the lines
• Overstretching of security agents e.g. police leading to inefficiency
• Shortage of water and intermittent power supply due to increased demand
Congestion in markets leading to street vending in cities or towns
Importance of caring for social services
• It helps to ensure continued use of the social service (sustainability)

• It reduces further damage to social service therefore reducing maintenance costs
(cost saving)
• It helps to ensure services are accessible when people need them (accessibility)
• Social services that are cared for and in good condition help to improve standards of
living
Roles of citizens in the provision of and care for social services
• Participating in community development work

• Making financial and material contributions towards community development
projects
• Reporting cases of vandalism and theft to authorities
• Paying taxes to government to enable it to provide various social services
• Being responsible for maintenance of the available social services
• Carrying out awareness campaigns on importance of caring for social services
UNIT 18 – GENDER AND SUSTAINABLEL DEVELOPMENT
Gender equity
• It means fairness and principles of justice

• It calls for males and females being treated fairly e.g impartial distribution of
benefits and resources regardless of whether one is male or female
Gender equity leads to gender equality
Gender equality
• It is the state of being equal in opportunity, status and rights Males and females
being treated in the same way This implies that gender equality is having :
 Equal opportunities in education, employment or business world
 Equal status, enjoying the same privileges in society
 Respect, having the same respect as all persons in society
 Rights: no double standards in treatment
 Equal shares and control of benefits for development activities
 Equal access and control of resources
Gender roles, rights and responsibilities in the traditional and modern Malawian society
Responsibilities of family members in traditional families
• Responsibilities of family members in rural families are different among males and females
• E.g females : prepare food, mop the house, wash clothes, bath children E.g. males :
fishing, building a house, digging graves Responsibilities of family members in urban
families
• Usually there is no distinction or separation of activities

• Women can challenge most of the work performed by men
• E.g. women also earn money by working in offices. Men also help in food preparation
Gender rights of family members
• In traditional society, gender rights are influenced by culture. E.g.

• In matrilineal system
 Husband has little control over his children
 Land passes from mother to daughter
 Brothers of woman have authority and rights over her children
• In patrilineal system
 Land and property pass from the father to son
 Males have the control over children
• However, in a modern society it is being realised that all family members have rights
Some gender rights in a family and community are :
• Right to education
• Right to employment

Right to own property
• Right to associate with others
• Right to security
• Right to freedom of choice and decision-making
• Freedom of expression Freedom from torture Gender Bias in Malawi
Gender bias
• It is discriminatory attitudes, practices and policies based on socially constructed beliefs

about male and female roles
• It is when one gender receives better treatment than the other
There are several attitudes about gender roles common in Africa including Malawi that lead to
gender biases, such as:
• Men own land and women work on the land

• Women are weak physically and are not creative
• Only men possess reason, intellect, logic and strong will
• Women should not stand and talk or preach before men
• It is good for a girl to marry early
• It is good for a woman to have many children
• The main aim for a girl is to marry and have children
• The main aim for a boy is to do well at school and earn money
Factors that influence gender bias
a) The family, work place and school
• Males are prepared to be leaders by training them to take risks, be brave

• This makes males to take decision making roles and dominate over females
b) Social and cultural practice
• Communities define gender roles and this affects children‟s behaviour and practices
in society
• E.g. females taught to be submissive to males
c) Education
Education strengthens social norms and values by preparing the future role of boys
and girls.

d) Religions
• Some faith-based practices encourage males to dominate in decision

making situations than females
• E.g. females not allowed to preach, males are heads of families This leads
to males to control decisions in their families.
e) Proverbs
• Some sayings in communities encourage males to take a leading roles in many issues
f) Political
• Government policies and laws for a long time hindered development of women
Effects of gender bias
• Unequal distribution of resources and benefits

• Unequal representation between males and females in decision making positions
• Oppression and unfairness
• Unfair division of labour in the homes, communities and in work places
• Unequal pay for similar jobs
• Persistence of harmful cultural practices e.g. wife inheritance
• Gender based violence e.g. psychological, social, sexual and economic violence
Ways of achieving gender equality in Malawi
a) Gender empowerment
Females should be empowered through the acquiring of knowledge or skills the same
as males. This helps them to make important independent decisions. The following
are also strategies for empowerment  Taking part in income generating activities
 Providing health services in the community
 Participating in political and civic activities
 Participating in development initiatives and faith-based activities
b) Engage men and boys on gender issues
• Men and boys should be involved in new initiatives that promote gender equity and
women empowerment
• This helps to increase men‟s sense of ownership over new initiatives that promote
gender equity and women empowerment
c) Legislation of the rights of women
• This means making laws that protect and promote the rights of women
• Reviewing policies/laws that are gender biased e.g. National Gender Policy, Wills
and Inheritance Act (1998)

• National Gender Policy ensures women have better access to reproductive health etc
d) Normative action or Affirmative action
• This means policies (plan of action) that governments adopt in order to promote
access to education, employment and other opportunities
• It is discrimination which is carried out deliberately to reverse a negative trend
• the underprivileged sex is offered more opportunities in the non-traditional roles
such as bricklaying
e) Education for all
• Education opportunities should be available to all people e.g. males and females
inclusive
• E.g Girls who fall pregnant are encouraged to go back to school after giving birth
f) Eradicating retrogressive cultural practices
• All cultural practices that promote gender bias need to come to an end
• E.g. arranged/forced marriage, kulowakufa, dust cleansing, sex preference
UNIT 19 - INTERDEPENDENCE OF NATIONS
Organisations decide to co-operate through organisations to promote various reasons such as :
• international trade
• world peace
• human rights
• good governance
• development
• poverty eradication
Organisations that promote co-operation among nations
This is done at regional level or international level
Regional organisations
e.g. COMESA, SADC, COSAFA, ECOWAS, AU, EU, ADB
a) Common Market for Eastern and Southern African (COMESA)
• it started in 1994 . It is made up of 19 countries

• the main aim of COMESA is forming a Free Trade Area. E.g countries remove tariff
(duties or taxes) on goods
• Other functions are : improving transport, improving communication, promoting
peace, security and stability

• Its headquarters is in Lusaka, Zambia
• Members are : Burundi, Comoros, DR Congo, Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia,
Kenya, Libya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Rwanda, Sudan, Seychelles,
Swaziland, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe
b) Southern Africa Development Community (SADC)
• It is an organisation of Southern African countries

• It was originally called Southern Africa Development Co-ordination Conference
(SADCC)
• It changed from SADCC to SADC in 1992
• Its headquarters is in Gaborone, Botswana
• The countries that attended the first SADC conference are known as “Frontline
States”. These are Angola, Botswana, Mozambique, Tanzania and Zambia
• Members are : Angola, Botswana, DR Congo, South Africa, Madagascar,
Mauritius, Seychelles, Swaziland, Zambia, Zimbabwe
Main objectives of SADC include
• Encouraging employment opportunities

• Promoting economic growth
• Promoting peace and security
• Strengthening the historical, social and cultural links among people within the region
• Reducing poverty and improving quality of life of the people in the area
• Ensuring sustainable use of natural resources
Sector responsibilities of SADC member states
• Angola – energy
• Botswana – agriculture research, livestock and animal disease control
• Malawi – Fisheries, forestry and wildlife
• Zimbabwe – crop production, food agriculture and natural resources
Weaknesses of SADC include
• Big gap between developed countries and African countries economies

• Continued dependence on international partners
• Inadequate socio-economic infrastructure
• High poverty levels
• Land lockedness
c) Council of Southern Africa Football Associations (COSAAFA)
• COSAFA is an association of football playing nations in Southern Africa

• It is affiliated to Confederation of African Football (CAF) and Federation
Internationale de Football Association (FIFA)
• It organises tournaments in Southern Africa and the most renowned tournament is
COSAFA Cup
• Members of the Executive Committee (except Chief Operations Officer) are elected
among members from football governing bodies of member states
• E.g. Football Association of Malawi (FAM) president Walter Nyamilandu-Manda
was elected a member in 2008.
• Members : Angola, Botswana, Comoros, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius,
Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Seychelles, Swaziland, Zambia, Zimbabwe
Responsibilities of COSAFA include :
• Holding football tournaments for its member states

• Assist its members to develop teams that would qualify for FIFA World Cup
tournaments
• Organise workshops for referees and coaches in the region.
d) The Economic Community of West Africa (ECOWAS)
• It was founded in 1975 by the Treaty of Lagos. It began to work in 1977

• It has 16 member states all from West Africa
• Its secretariat is in Lagos, Nigeria
• It aims at encouraging economic, social and cultural development in West Africa
• It also concentrates on energy, transport, agriculture, natural resources, commerce
and telecommunication
• Members : Benin, Burkina Faso, Cote d‟Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea
Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Togo, Cape
Verde
ECOWAS achievements include :
• Promoting liberalised trade evidenced by reduced restrictions on the movement of

goods, services and people between states
• Improving interregional communication and transport Setting up means to settle
disputes between members
Challenges of ECOWAS
• Conflicts still taking place in some member countries e.g. Ivory Coast (Cote
d‟Ivoire), Nigeria, Mali
e) African Union (AU)
• It was established in 2001 in Addis Ababa (Ethiopia) and launched in 2002 in South
Africa
• The AU replaced the Organisation of African Union (OAU)
• AU‟s secretariat is in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
• It consists of 54 African states except Morocco

• The highest decision making organ is the Assembly. It is made up of all heads of
state of AU states
• The Pan African Parliament is the AU representative body Some of AU objectives
include:
• To promote peace, security and stability of the continent

• To promote democratic principles and institution, popular participation and good
governance
• To achieve greater unity and solidarity between the countries and people of Africa
• To defend the sovereign, territorial integrity and independence of its member states
f) European Union (EU)
• It is an economic and political union of 28 member states in Europe
Achievements of EU
• Introduction of single currency (the Euro) in 2007

• Establishing a Free Trade Area in 1993
• Promoting peace and stability in Europe and throughout the world Common
commercial and agricultural policies
Weaknesses/failures of EU include :
• Economic recession
• Worsening fiscal conditions
• High unemployment in the Euro zone
Importance of EU to developing countries
• Dealing with issues which are critical for all people such as developing liberty,
prosperity, education, peace, justice, protecting the environment
• Provide economic aid to developing countries to meet these human values
g) African Development Bank (AfDB)
• It was founded in 1964

• It comprises three entities : The African Development Bank (ADB), the African
Development Fund (ADF) and the Nigeria Trust Fund (NTF)
• The headquarters of the bank was originally Abidjan, Cote d‟Ivoire but moved to
Tunis, Tunisia during Civil war in Cote d‟Ivoire
• Its mission is to fight poverty and improve living conditions on the continent
• The NTF assists in the development efforts of the poorest AfDB members
• All member countries of the AfDB are represented on the AfDB Board of Executive
• NTF lends at 4% interest rate with 25 year repayment period.
International Organisations
1. The United Nations (UN)
• It was founded in 1945 after World War II

• It replaced the League of Nations
• It believes that all problems that may lead to conflicts (such as violation of human
rights, arm sales, corrupt governments, poverty) should be solved by the world
community
• The UN works to:
 Protect the environment
 Promote development
 Promote respect of human rights and democracy
 Reduce poverty
• The UN headquarters is in New York. Other main offices are in Geneva, Nairobi
and Vienna
• The UN has six main parts or organs as follows:
i. General Assembly – this is where all the member states meet in regularly
yearly sessions under a president elected from among the member states
ii. Security council – this is the most powerful organ of the UN. It tries to
prevent conflicts between member countries.
iii. Secretariat – It is chaired by the UN Secretary General. It looks at
administrative work e.g. organising conferences, writing reports.
iv. International court of Justice – It is a universal court that settles disputes
between states. It is made up of 15 judges
v. Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) – It is responsible for raising the
general standards of living, solve economic, social and health problems,
promotion of human rights etc. It has 54 members elected by the General
Assembly. Members serve a 3 year term.
vi. Trusteeship Council – it administers trust territories. It is currently not
active since 1994
Specialised organisations and agencies of the United Nations
• World Food Programme (WFP) - it provides food and works to help people who
are unable to produce or obtain enough food for their families. It is the largest
humanitarian organisation addressing hunger.
• World Health Organisation (WHO) – it is concerned with international public
health e.g. HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis
• United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) –
It contributes to peace and security through education, science, culture
• The United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) – it provides long-term
humanitarian and development to children and mothers in developing countries
Other UN agencies are :
FAO – Food Agriculture Organisation

UNHCR – United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
IMF – International Monetary Fund
World Bank
ILO – International Labour Organisation
WTO – World Trade Organisation
UNFPA – United Nations Population Fund
2. World Customs Organisation (WCO)
• It was formed in 1952

• The headquarters is in Brussels, Belgium
• It has 180 member customs administrations
• It promotes member customs administration for national development through
revenue collection, collection of trade statistics
3. The Commonwealth of Nations
• It was established in 1949

• It has 53 sovereign states that were mostly territories of the British empire
• Other countries that were not under British empire joined later. E.g, Rwanda,
Vanuatu, Cameroon, Mozambique
• The hade is the British Queen
• Member states are united by language, history, culture and shared values
• Commonwealth games are done once every four years
• They are committed to ;
 Fight racial discrimination
 Promote world peace
 Promote peace and tolerance
 Work against poverty and injustice
4. The Federation Internationale de Football Association (FIFA)
• It was founded in 1904

• Its headquarters is Zurich, Switzerland
• It has 209 national associations
• It is a governing body of football, futsal, and beach soccer
• The laws that govern football are known as Laws of the Game
Ways in which International organisations promote international co-operation
• They strengthen trade e.g. SADC, COMESA, EU, WCO, ECOWAS,

Commonwealth
• They remove tariffs through agreements to create Free Trade or Customs Union e.g
SADC, EU, ECOWAS, COMESA
• Through military assistance e.g. ECOWAS, UN, AU
• Through economic assistance e.g. AfDB, EU, World Bank, IMF, Commonwealth
• Organising sporting activities e.g. COSAFA, FIFA, ECOWAS, Commonwealth
• Dealing with environmental and health problems e.g. HIV/AIDS, Climate change,
environmental degradation
How Malawi benefits from Regional and International organisations
• Economic aid
• Easy access of Malawian goods to world market
• Fair trade
• Security through concerted efforts to combat crime and terrorism
International organisations
e.g. UN,WCO, FIFA,Commonwealth of Nations, IMF, World Bank
Notes taken from :
• Arise with Social Studies Students’ Book 2 by Mkomba & Majamanda (2013)
• Social Studies Students’ Book 2 by Frank Wadi-Betemeni (2014)
ESSAY WRITING
An essay is a short piece of writing on a particular topic or subject. Before you start writing the
essay, understand the question well.
Contents of an essay
• Title
• Introduction
• Body
• conclusion
1. Title or heading
• this is the frame from the question that you have been asked
• a good essay must have a title which is short and centralised and written in capital
letters
• a title if written in small letters must be underlined
• a title must not be a mere repetition of the question to be answered
• e.g. explain four effects of Conflicts in Africa
EFFECTS OF CONFLICTS IN AFRICA
Effects of Conflicts in Africa
2. Introduction
• the essay must be opened by an introduction which can be a definition of the key
words in the question and a simple statement of the objective (main purpose) of the
essay
• An introduction must be kept short (it should be one paragraph only)
• E.g. A conflict is a disagreement between two persons or groups of people. This
essay will explain the effects that arise from conflicts in Africa
• Or A conflict is a disagreement between two persons or groups of people. This essay
will explain the effects that arise from conflicts in Africa such as famine, destruction
of life and property, refugee problem and epidemics.
3. Body
• Here is where you explain all the points you have been asked. Each paragraph must
contain one idea or point
• Once a point has been raised, it should be explained and an appropriate example
must be given to expound it
• Use short and clear sentences as long sentences may distort meaning
• Imagine that you are writing to a reader who is not knowledgeable about the topic at
hand. Be an expert of the topic
• Leave a line between paragraphs
• For proper boundaries of paragraphs use „signalling devices‟. These are used for
logical and thorough flow of information
 Paragraph 1 – use firstly, to begin with, in the first place
 Paragraph 2 – use secondly, apart from point above, in the second place
 Paragraph 3 – use thirdly, in the third place, in addition to points above,
furthermore
 Paragraph 4 – Use finally, lastly (assuming paragraph 4 is the last one)
• e.g. Firstly, conflicts lead to famine. When the conflict has turned violent and there
is fighting in the area, people may not go to their farms for fear of their lives.
Sometimes the crops may also be destroyed by those fighting. This therefore leads
to low or no food production and as a result the area faces famine.
4. Conclusion
• Must be a short statement closing the discussion.

• Do not repeat the points raised in the body
• Use the following devices : In conclusion, In summary, To conclude, To sum up, To
summarise
• E.g. To sum up, the essay has explained the four effects of conflicts in Africa
• Or To sum up, the essay has explained four effects of conflicts in Africa. These
effects include famine, destruction of life and property, Refugee problem and
epidemics.
Note : do not use bullets, dots, colon, numbering, sub titles or sub headings

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SOCIAL STUDIES

Various cultures in Africa

• It is in West Africa and borders Cameroon, Chad and Benin

5. Democratic Republic of Congo (Formerly Zaire)

Common characteristics of African Culture

Influence of the African culture on Malawian Culture

UNIT 2 – HUMAN RIGHTS IN THE CONSTITUTION OF THE REPUBLIC OF

Civil and Political rights

a) Civil rights : The right to

• Form a political party

Economic, Social and Cultural rights

a) Economic rights : These are rights to

• Freely engage in an economic activity

• Use the language of one‟s choice

a) Environmental rights : The right to

b) Developmental rights: The right to

• Enjoyment of economic, social, cultural and political development

They have right to :

• Enter into contract

Human rights with regard to HIV/AIDS

Rights of people with disabilities

Ways of applying human rights democracy

Elements of Success of Democracy

Human rights violations

Violation of human rights is an infringement or breach of a person‟s rights. Cases of human

• Reporting cases of human rights violations to police

Rights and responsibilities of citizens

• Area Development Committees

• Malawi Red Cross Society

Functions of Civil Society Organisations

• Presenting interests and demands of citizens to appropriate authorities

Importance of Civil Organisations

• It reduces citizens‟ dependence on government for financing local development projects

Ways in which citizens can actively participate in Civil Society

• By taking part in public debate

Formal employment (where one works for an employer).

Advantages of formal employment

• receives a regular wage or a salary

• income is on a daily basis depending on produce

• business depends on demand

Contributions of different types of employment to the economy of the country

• It leads to production of goods that meet demands of people

Citizens Contributions to the economy of the country

• Acquire knowledge and develop skills necessary for future jobs

Conditions of service /employment

UNIT 5 – LABOUR LAWS IN MALAWI

Types of labour laws in Malawi

• Individual labour laws

• These refer to body of regulations between the employer and employee

Collective labour laws

Importance of labour laws in Malawi

UNIT 6 – POPULATION AND RESOURCES

Responsible and Irresponsible human practices towards the environment

Responsible practices on the environment

Responsible practices on the farmland

• Use of manure to improve soil fertility

Responsible practices on forestry

A.K. Ndacheredwa (Mrs) Page 12

Responsible practices on fish and wildlife

• Observing the closed season (time when fish are breeding)