Chapter 1 Overview Wireless (5)

Chapter 1
Overview of Wireless Communication
Undergraduate Program
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Sem. II, 2020 Wireless and Cellular Communications - Ch. 1 – Overview 1
Goals of the Chapter
 To give an overview on what and why of wireless

communication
 Assess impacts of wireless communication in our daily life
 Define basic terminologies, historic perspective, and

evolution of wireless communication

Overview
 Introduction
 Wireless communication: merits and challenges
 Frequency allocation
 Types of wireless communication
 Duplexing and multiplexing
 Impact and market
 Brief historical review
 Examples of wireless networking
 Trends in cellular radio communications

Wireless Communication
 Transfer of information (i.e., voice, data, and multimedia)
over a distance without the use of electrical wires
 Distances involved may be:
 Short, e.g., bluetooth or large, e.g., satellite
 Information is transmitted using electromagnetic waves

 Which frequencies are suitable? A couple of slides later!
 Is a broadcast medium
 Multiple access methods are required
 Transmissions are prone to interference
 Wireless channel is unpredictable, e.g., multipath, mobility

 System design is more challenging in wireless than in wired
communication

Wired vs. Wireless
 Attenuation is low  Attenuation is high

 Interference is nil: each wire is  Interference is high (co- and
a separate medium/channel adjacent channel, from engines,
lightning, fading due to
movement)
 Clumsy, costly, no mobility  No knots, no digging to lay
cables, tether free

Merits of Wireless Communication
 Freedom from wires

 No cost of installing wires or rewiring
 No bunches of wires running here and there
 Instantaneous communications without the need for physical
connection setup (Bluetooth, Wi-Fi)
 These same reasons drive the market ….
 Various emerging standards….IEEE 802.15.3
 Global coverage
 Communications can reach where wiring is infeasible or costly –
Rural areas, old buildings, battle fields, outer space, vehicular
communications, RFIDs
 Wireless Ad-hoc Networks

Merits of Wireless Communication …
 Stay connected
 Roaming – allows flexibility to stay connected anywhere and
anytime
 Rapidly growing market attests to public need for mobility and
uninterrupted access
 Flexibility
 Services reach you wherever you go (mobility)
 You don’t have to go to the lab to check your mail
 Connect to multiple devices simultaneously (no need for physical
connectivity)
 Increasing dependence on telecommunication services for business
and personal reasons
 Consumers and businesses are willing to pay for it
Stay connected – anywhere, anytime!

Challenges
 Bandwidth
 Scares spectrum and dictates low data rates
 Efficient use of finite radio spectrum
 E.g., cellular frequency reuse, medium access control protocols,
MIMO systems instead of single TX/RX antenna systems, …..
 Reliability
 Low data rate because of interference
 Need interference minimizing or mitigating techniques
 Power
 Mobility brings about battery operation
 Need efficient hardware, e.g., low power transmitters, receivers,
and signal processing tools
 Saving options: Sleep mode in sensor networks

Challenges …
 Security
 Shared/broadcast medium => low security
 Privacy and authentication needed
 Providing integrated services: Consumer side challenges
 Voice, data, multimedia over a single network
 Service differentiation, priorities, resource scheduling
Voice Data Video
Delay < 100 ms - < 100 ms
Packet loss < 1% 0 < 1%
BER 10-3 10-6 10-6
Data Rate 8-32 Kbps 1-100 Mbps 1-20 Mbps
Traffic Continuous Bursty Continuous
 One-size-fits-all protocols and design do not work well!

Challenges …
 Network support for user mobility
 User location identification
 Handover….
 Fading
 Multipath leads to signal superposition at receiving antennas
 High probability of data corruption: need for diversity schemes
 Quality of service (QoS)

 Unreliable links
 Traffic patterns and network conditions constantly change
 Connectivity and coverage
 Internetworking
 Regulatory issues, cost efficiency, …..

Overview
 Introduction

Frequencies for Communication
twisted coax cable optical transmission
pair
1 Mm 10 km 100 m 1m 10 mm 100 m 1 m
300 Hz 30 kHz 3 MHz 300 MHz 30 GHz 3 THz 300 THz
VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF infrared visible light UV
 VLF = Very Low Frequency

 Basic property of electromagnetic  LF = Low Frequency
waves:  MF = Medium Frequency
 HF = High Frequency
speed c = 3x108m/s
 VHF = Very High Frequency
 Frequency f and wave length :  UHF = Ultra High Frequency
 = c/f  SHF = Super High Frequency
 EHF = Extra High Frequency
 UV = Ultraviolet Light

Frequencies for Communication …
104 102 100 10-2 10-4 10-6 10-8 10-10 10-12 10-14 10-16
Radio Micro IR UV X-Rays Cosmic
Spectrum wave Rays
104 106 108 1010 1012 1014 1016 1018 1020 1022 1024
Visible light < 30 KHz VLF

30-300KHz LF
300KHz – 3MHz MF
3 MHz – 30MHz HF
30MHz – 300MHz VHF
300 MHz – 3GHz UHF
3-30GHz SHF
> 30 GHz EHF

Which Frequency?
 What constitutes a good frequency for wireless
communication?
 Suitable for various environments
 Indoor, outdoor
 Penetration of walls, circumvention of obstacles
 Susceptibility to environmental conditions
 E.g., weather (rainfall, fog)
 Different frequencies attenuated differently

 The higher frequency range, the better the BW available
but the more the attenuation
 As frequency increases, wavelength decreases

Which Frequency? …
 Complexity of circuitry and antenna size

 Circuit design at high frequency is challenging
 Energy consumption of transmit/receive circuits

 Regulatory aspects and money paid to get license
 Some frequencies are reserved for specific usage, some are free
 Available bandwidth
 The more the money, the longer it takes for the operators’ return
 Slows down rate of new technology introduction
 E.g., Total Cost of 3G Licenses in Europe 110bn Euros

Typical Frequencies
 FM radio ~ 88 MHz
 TV Broadcast ~ 200 MHz
 GSM phones ~ 900 MHz
 GSM phone ~ 1800MHZ
 UMTS phones ~ 2.1GHz
 GPS ~ 1.2 GHZ
 PCS Phones ~ 1.8 GHz
 Bluetooth ~ 2.4 GHz
 WiFi ~ 2.4 GHz
 Around 2 GHz is the ISM band
 Is a license-free band

Overview
 Introduction

Types of Wireless Communication
 Radio transmission
 Easily generated, omni-directionally travel long distances, easily
penetrate buildings
 Problems
 Relative low-bandwidth for data communication
 Tightly licensed by governments
 Microwave transmission
 Widely used for long distance communications
 Give a high S/N ratio  relatively inexpensive
 Problems
 Don’t pass through building well – LOS Communication
 Weather and frequency dependent

Types of Wireless Communication …
 Infrared and millimeter waves
 Widely used for millimeter waves – 30 GHz
 Unable to pass through solid objects
 Used for indoor Wireless LANs, not for outdoors – 10m range
 Light-wave transmission
 Unguided optical signal, such as laser
 Connect two LANs in two buildings via laser mounted on the roofs
 Unidirectional, easy to install, don’t require license
 Problems
 Unable to penetrate rain or thick fog
 Laser beam can be easily diverted by turbulent air

Overview
 Introduction
 Wireless communication: Merits and challenges
 Types of wireless communications
 Examples of wireless networks

Frequency Carriers/Channels
 The information from sender to receiver is carried over a

well-defined frequency band
 This is called a channel
 Each channel has a fixed frequency bandwidth and

capacity (bit-rate)
 Different frequency bands (channels) can be used to

transmit information in parallel and independently
 Duplexing and multiplexing techniques are required

Duplexing and Multiplexing
 Duplexing
 Given a single pair of communicating peers, duplexing describes
rules when each peer is allowed to send to the other one
 Using which resource: e.g., FDD
 Mutiplexing
 Given several pairs, multiplexing describes when which pair,
using which resources (e.g., FDMA), is allowed to communicate
 Main resources: Time, frequency, (+ some others)

 Example combinations?

Duplexing
 Variants of duplexing: Simplex, half- and full-duplex
 Simplex: Is a one way communication, i.e., one source
transmits and the other only receives
 E.g., remote control, radio broadcast
 To enable two-way communication, we can use

 Frequency as in FDD or
 Time as in TDD
 Full duplex: Transmission in two way and simultaneously
 Use two different frequency bands, called FDD
 Half duplex: Two way transmission but one at a time

 Use one frequency band but peers transmit one after the other,
called TDD

Full Duplex - FDD
 FDD: Frequency Division Duplex
 In cellular context
 Downlink channel: from BS to MS
 Uplink channel: from MS to BS
 Downlink and uplink channels use different frequency
bands
 Guard band is used to provide sufficient isolation
Mobile Downlink Channel Base Station

Terminal Uplink Channel B
M

Example - Spectrum Allocation in U.S. Cellular Radio
Uplink Channel Downlink Channel
991 992 … 1023 1 2 … 799 991 992 … 1023 1 2 … 799
824 - 849 MHz 869 - 894 MHz
Channel Number Center Frequency (MHz)

Uplink Channel 1 <=N <= 799 0.030N + 825.0
991 <= N <= 1023 0.030(N-1023) + 825.0
Downlink Channel 1 <=N <= 799 0.030N + 870.0

991 <= N <= 1023 0.030(N-1023) + 870.0
Each pair are separated by 45 MHz; each uplink and downlink channel
occupies 25 MHz; and channels 800-990 are unused

Half Duplex - TDD
 TDD: Time Division Duplex
 A singe frequency channel is used
 The channel is divided into time slots
 Mobile station and base station transmit on time slots
alternately
Base Station
B
Mobile
Terminal M B M B M B
M

Virtually shared,
Multiplexing & Shared Resources but exclusively
controlled!
 Multiplexing: Gives a means to
regulate access to a resource that is
shared by multiple users
 The switching element that serves as a
controller
 Another example of “shared

resources”
 Classroom, with “air” as physical medium
 Main resources: Time, frequency, (+ Shared!

some others)?
 TDMA, FDMA, SDMA, CDMA

Overview
 Introduction
 Examples of wireless networks

Global Cellular Subscribers (estimated, 2005)
Country Subscribers, mln. Share, %
398 19.3 Note:
1.China
• 11 Million in 1990
2.USA 202 9.9 • 750 Million in 2000
• Forecasted to reac
3.Russia 115 5.6
3.2 Billion in 2010
4.Japan 95 4.6
5.Brazil 86 4.1
6.India 79 3.8
73 3.5 h
7.Germany
8.Italy 59 2.9
9.UK 58 2.8
Top 15 countries 1,414 68.5
Worldwide total 2,065 100

Sem. II, 2012/13 Wireless and Cellular Communications - Ch
Source:
Sem. II, 2020 Computer Industry
Wireless Almanac
and Cellular Communications - Ch.. 11 –– Overview
Overview 29
Worldwide Cellular Subscribers Growth
1200
1000
Subscribers [million]
800
600
400
200
0
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

Cellular Subscribers per Region (June 2002)
Middle East;
1,6
Africa; 3,1
Americas (incl.
USA/Canada); Asia Pacific;
22 36,9
Europe; 36,4

Global ICT Development
Source: http://www.mocom2020.com/2009/03/41-billion-mobile-phone-subscribers-worldwide/

approx. 1.7 bn
Mobile Phone Subscribers Worldwide
1600
1400
1200
Subscribers [million]
GSM total
1000
TDMA total
CDMA total
800 PDC total
Analogue total
600 W-CDMA
Total wireless
Prediction (1998)
400
200
0
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 year

Growth: Technology take-up time to 50M users
Telephone
75 Years
Radio
35 Years
TV
13 Years
Wireless Communication
12 Years
Internet
4 Years

Example Coverage of GSM Networks (www.gsmworld.com, 2004)
T-Mobile (GSM-900/1800) Germany O2 (GSM-1800) Germany
Advanced Mobile Phone Service

AT&T (GSM-850/1900) USA Vodacom (GSM-900) South Africa

Overview
 Introduction

History of Wireless Communication
 Many people in history used light for communication
 150 BC smoke signals for communication;
(Polybius, Greece)
 Carrier Pigeons
 1794, optical telegraph, Claude Chappe
 Here electromagnetic waves are

of special importance:
 1831 Faraday demonstrated electromagnetic induction
 J. Maxwell (1831-79): theory of electromagnetic fields, wave
equations (1864)
 H. Hertz (1857-94): experimentally
demonstrated the wave character
of electrical transmission through space
(1888, in Karlsruhe, Germany, at the
location of today’s University of Karlsruhe)

History of Wireless Communication …
 1895 Guglielmo Marconi
 first demonstration of wireless
telegraphy (digital!)
 long wave transmission, high
transmission power necessary (> 200kw)
 1907 Commercial transatlantic connections
 huge base stations
(30 antennas, each 100m high)
 1915 Wireless voice transmission New York – San Francisco
 1920 Discovery of short waves by Marconi
 reflection at the ionosphere
 smaller sender and receiver, possible due to the invention of the vacuum
tube (1906, Lee DeForest and Robert von Lieben)
 1928 many TV broadcast trials (across Atlantic, color TV, TV

news)
S em. II, 2012/13

Sem. 2020 Wireless and Cellular Communications - Ch. 1 – Overview 38
 1933 Frequency modulation (FM) introduced by E. H. Armstrong
 FM has been the primary modulation technique for mobile
communication systems until late 80
 1979 NMT at 450MHz (Scandinavian countries)

 1982 Start of GSM-specification
 Goal: pan-European digital mobile phone system with roaming
 1983 Start of the American AMPS (Advanced Mobile

Phone System, analog)
 1984 CT-1 standard (Europe) for cordless telephones

 1991 Specification of DECT
 Digital European Cordless Telephone (today: Digital Enhanced Cordless
Telecommunications)
 1880-1900MHz, ~100-500m range, 120 duplex channels, 1.2Mbit/s data
transmission, voice encryption, authentication, up to several 10000
user/km2, used in more than 50 countries
 1992 Start of GSM

 In D as D1 and D2, fully digital, 900MHz, 124 channels
 Automatic location, hand-over, cellular
 Roaming in Europe - now worldwide in more than 170 countries
 Services: data with 9.6kbit/s, FAX, voice, ...
 1996 HiperLAN (High Performance Radio Local Area Network)

 ETSI, standardization of type 1: 5.15 - 5.30GHz, 23.5Mbit/s
 Recommendations for type 2 and 3 (both 5GHz) and 4 (17GHz) as
wireless ATM-networks (up to 155Mbit/s)
e
S m. II, 2012/13
Sem. 2020 Wireless and Cellular Communications - Ch. 1 – Overview 40
 1997 Wireless LAN - IEEE802.11
 IEEE standard, 2.4 - 2.5GHz and infrared, 2Mbit/s
 Already many (proprietary) products available in the beginning
 1998 Specification of GSM successors

 For UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunication System) as European
proposals for IMT-2000
 1998 Iridium
 66 satellites (+6 spare), 1.6GHz to the mobile phone
 1999 Standardization of additional wireless LANs

 IEEE standard 802.11b, 2.4-2.5GHz, 11Mbit/s
 Bluetooth for piconets, 2.4Ghz, <1Mbit/s
 1999 Decision about IMT-2000

 Several “members” of a “family”: UMTS, cdma2000, DECT, …

History of wireless communication …
 1999 Start of WAP (Wireless Application Protocol) and i-mode
 First step towards a unified Internet/mobile communication system
 Access to many services via the mobile phone
 2000 GSM with higher data rates

 HSCSD offers up to 57,6kbit/s
 First GPRS trials with up to 50 kbit/s (packet oriented!)
 2000 UMTS auctions/beauty contests

 Hype followed by disillusionment (approx. 50 B$ payed in Germany for 6
UMTS licences!)
 2001 Start of 3G systems

 Cdma2000 in Korea, UMTS in Europe, Foma (almost UMTS) in Japan
 2005 Broadband wireless

 First public WiMAx/IEEE 802.16 last mile experiments

Overview
 Introduction
 Cellular systems
 Basic terminologies
 Paging systems
 Wireless PANs (WPANs)
 Wireless LANs, WLL, WMAN, and WAN
 Satellite systems
 Emerging wireless systems

Cellular Systems - Architecture
Radio tower
PSTN
Telephone
Network
Mobile Switching
Center

Cellular Systems - Architecture

Cellular Systems …
 Geographic region divided into cells
 Frequency/timeslots/codes/ reused at spatially-separated
locations
 Co-channel interference between same frequency using cells
 Shrinking cell size increases capacity, as well as networking
burden
 Edges are determined based on

 Link budget: total power emitted and received
 Number of users
 Interference: dictates re-use factor
 There is an overlap of cells at the boundary

 Handoff takes place

Cellular Systems - Basic Terminologies
 Mobile station (MS)
 A station in the cellular radio service intended for use while in
motion at unspecified locations
 They can be either hand-held personal units (portables) or installed
on vehicles (mobiles)
 Base station (BS)

 A fixed station in a mobile radio system used for radio
communication with the mobile stations
 Base stations are located at the center or edge of a coverage
region, consists of transmitter and receiver antennas, and are
mounted on top of towers
 Provides gateway functionality between wireless and wire-line
links, ~1 million dollar
 Base stations coordinate handoff and control functions

Cellular Systems - Basic Terminologies …
 Mobile switching center (MSC)
 Switching center which coordinates the routing of calls in a large
service area
 In a cellular radio system, the MSC connects the BS and MS to the
PSTN (telephone network)
 Mobile Telephone Switching Office (MTSO)
 Subscriber
 A user who pays subscription charges for using a mobile
communication system
 Transceiver
 A device capable of simultaneously transmitting and receiving
radio signals

 Control channel
 Radio channel used for transmission of call setup, call request, call
initiation and other beacon and control purposes
 Downlink (forward) channel

 Radio channel used for transmission of information from the base
station to the mobile
 Uplink (reverse) channel

 Radio channel used for transmission of information from mobile to
base station

 Simplex systems
 Communication systems which provide only one-way
communication
 Half duplex systems

 Communication systems which allow two-way communication by
using the same radio channel for both transmission and reception
 At any given time, the user can either transmit or receive
information
 Full duplex systems

 Communication systems which allow simultaneous two-way
communication
 Transmission and reception is typically on two different channels
(FDD)

 Handoff
 The process of transferring a mobile station from one channel or
base station to another
 Roamer
 A mobile station which operates in a service area (market) other
than that from which service has been subscribed
 Page
 A brief message which is broadcast over the entire service area,
usually in simulcast fashion by many base stations at the same
time

Overview
 Introduction
 Paging systems

Paging Systems
 Broad coverage for short messaging
 Message broadcast from all base stations
 Simple terminals
 Low complexity, very low-powered pagers (receiver) devices
 Optimized for 1-way transmission
 Answer-back hard
 Overtaken by cellular

Overview
 Introduction
 Paging systems

Wireless Personal Area Networks (WPANs)
 Cable replacement RF technology (low cost)
 Short range (10m, extendable to 100m)
 Operates in the unlicensed 2.4 GHz ISM band
 Widely supported by
telecommunications, PC,
and consumer electronics
companies
 Provides an ad-hoc
approach to enable various
devices to communicate
 Wireless Body Area
Networks (read!)
Personal Area Network …
 Network of devices carried by an individual person
 Music player, cell phone, camera in glasses, …
 Wearable computer
 Technologies
 IEEE 802.15 standards
family (Zigbee,
Bluetooth, UWB)
 Possibly infrared

Overview
 Introduction
 Paging systems

Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs)
 Network between devices in close physical proximity
(offices, homes, …), usually stationary or moving at low
speed, provide access to fixed infrastructure
 Good options for coffee shops, airports, libraries, etc.. . to provide
internet connection (connect “local” computers in 100m range)
 The term Wi-Fi is widely used
01011011 0101 1011

Internet
Access
Point

Wireless LANs Standards …
 802.11b
 Standard for 2.4GHz ISM band (80 MHz)
 Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS)
 Speeds of 5.5 - 11 Mbps, approx. 100 m
 802.11a/g
 Standard for 5GHz band (300 MHz)/also 2.4GHz
 OFDM in 20 MHz with adaptive rate/codes
 Rate of 54 Mbps, approx 100 m range
 802.11n (recently approved)

 Standard in 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands
 Adaptive OFDM/MIMO in 20/40 MHz (2-4 antennas)
 Rate up to 600Mbps, approx. 100 m range
 Other advances in packetization, antenna use, etc.

Wireless LAN …
 Channel access is shared and random access (CSMA/CD)
 WLANs provides license-free, low-power short-range data
communication

Wireless Local Loop (WLL)
 Solves the “last mile” problem
 To provide high-speed services to individual subscribers
 Fixed transmitter and receiver
 Time-invariance channel

Wide-Area Network (WAN)
 Network covering country/continent/earth
 Anytime, anywhere connectivity
 Good for even highly mobile users
 Technologies
 Cellular systems (GSM, UMTS, HSDPA)
 Broadcast systems (DVB)
 Satellites

Overview
 Introduction
 Paging systems

Satellite Systems
 Cover very large areas
 Very useful in sparsely populated areas, rural areas, sea, mountain
areas
 Limited-quality voice/data transmission
 Different orbit heights
 GEOs (36000 Km) versus LEOs (2000 Km)
 Optimized for one-way transmission
 Radio and movie broadcasts
 Expensive Base stations (satellite)
 Moving base stations unlike the cellular system

Satellite Systems …
 Traditional Applications
 Weather satellite
 Radio and TV broadcasting
 Military satellite
 Telecommunication applications
 Global telephone connections
 Backbone for global networks
 Global Positioning System (GPS) use growing
 Satellite signals used to pinpoint location
 Popular in cell phones, PDAs, and navigation devices
 Iridium, Globalstar, Teledesic, Inmarsat
 Examples of LEO satellite constellation for satellite phone and data
communications

Overview
 Introduction
 Paging systems

Emerging Wireless Systems
 Ad hoc Wireless systems
 Sensor networks
 Ultra Wideband (UWB) systems

Ad-Hoc Networks
 Peer-to-peer communications with no backbone
infrastructure
 Topology is dynamic
 One challenge: Routing which can be multihope
 Fully connected with different links SINRs

Ad-Hoc Networks …
 Ad-hoc networks provide a flexible network infrastructure
for many emerging applications
 Transmission, access, and routing strategies for these
networks are generally ad hoc
 Crosslayer design critical and very challenging
 Energy constraints impose interesting design tradeoffs for
communication and networking

Sensor Networks
 Nodes powered by non-rechargeable batteries
 Data flows to centralized location, called sink
 Low per-node rates but up to 100,000 nodes
 Data highly correlated in time and space
 Nodes can cooperate in transmission, reception,
compression, and signal processing

Ultra Wide Band (UWB) Systems
 An emerging wireless communication technology that can
transmit data at around 100 Mb/s (up to 1000 Mb/s)
 UWB transmits ultra-low power radio signals with very
narrow pulses (nanoseconds)
 Because of its low power requirements, UWB is very
difficult to detect (hence secure)

Ultra Wide Band Systems …

 Why UWB?
 Exceptional multi-path immunity
 Low power consumption
 Large bandwidth
 Secure communications
 Low interference
 No need for license to operate


Overview
 Introduction

Trends in Cellular Radio Communications
 First Generation (1G)
 Analog systems, mostly FM
 E.g., NMT, AMPS(Advanced Mobile Phone
Service)
 Voice traffic
 FDMA/FDD multiple access
 Second Generation (2G)

 Digital systems
 Frequency reuse
 Digital modulation
 Voice traffic
 TDMA/FDD and CDMA/FDD multiple access

Trends in Cellular Radio Communications …
 2.5G
 Digital systems
 Voice + Low-rate data service
 EDGE/GPRS
 Third Generation (3G)

 Digital
 Voice + high-rate data service
 Also multimedia transmission
 WCDMA/UMTS/CDMA 200
 4G
 Digital system
 OFDMA technology
 LTE/ LTE advanced

Conclusion
 The wireless vision encompasses many exciting systems
and applications
 Existing and emerging systems provide excellent quality for certain
applications but may not be for the other
 However, challenges remain because of limited frequency,

interference, random nature of the wireless channel,
demand for additional services, …
 Multiple approaches are needed to overcome the challenges
 Standards and spectral allocation heavily impact the

evolution of wireless technology
 In emerging technologies, technical challenges transcend
across all layers of the system design
 Cross-layer design emerging as a key theme in wireless networks

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Chapter 1

Overview of Wireless Communication

 To give an overview on what and why of wireless

 Assess impacts of wireless communication in our daily life

 Define basic terminologies, historic perspective, and

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 Information is transmitted using electromagnetic waves

 Wireless channel is unpredictable, e.g., multipath, mobility

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 Attenuation is low  Attenuation is high

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 Freedom from wires

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Stay connected – anywhere, anytime!

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 One-size-fits-all protocols and design do not work well!

 Quality of service (QoS)

 Regulatory issues, cost efficiency, …..

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VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF infrared visible light UV

 VLF = Very Low Frequency

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Visible light < 30 KHz VLF

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 Different frequencies attenuated differently

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 Complexity of circuitry and antenna size

 Energy consumption of transmit/receive circuits

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 The information from sender to receiver is carried over a

 Each channel has a fixed frequency bandwidth and

 Different frequency bands (channels) can be used to

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 Main resources: Time, frequency, (+ some others)

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 To enable two-way communication, we can use

 Half duplex: Two way transmission but one at a time

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Mobile Downlink Channel Base Station

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991 992 … 1023 1 2 … 799 991 992 … 1023 1 2 … 799

824 - 849 MHz 869 - 894 MHz

Channel Number Center Frequency (MHz)

Downlink Channel 1 <=N <= 799 0.030N + 870.0

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 Another example of “shared

 Main resources: Time, frequency, (+ Shared!

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Top 15 countries 1,414 68.5

Worldwide total 2,065 100

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