ALTERNATIVE THEORIES OF CRIME

This passage talks about how big changes in society, like those in the 1960s, can lead to
new ways of thinking about crime. It says that when people who were treated unfairly
started demanding a voice, it made people question old ideas about why people commit
crimes. This led to new theories, like labeling theory, conflict theory. And Marxist theory,
which try to explain crime in a different way.

ORIGIN OF LABELING THEORY

•The intellectual roots of labeling theory can be traced to the post-World War I work of
Charles Cooley (1864- 1929), William Thomas (1863-1947), and George Herbert Mead
(1863-1931). These scholars, who viewed the human self as formed through a process of
social interactions, were called social-interactions theory

•Labeling theory began with the ideas of early sociologists like Charles Cooley, William
Thomas, and George Herbert Mead. They believed that our identities are shaped by how we
interact with others. Mead compared labels to barriers that can separate people from their
communities, suggesting that being labeled as deviant can change how a person sees
themselves. Frank Tannenbaum later argued that normal teenage behavior can be seen as
bad, which creates conflict and leads to someone being labeled a criminal. Once labeled,
the person starts to see themselves as “bad” which can lead to more trouble.

ASSUMPTIONS OF LABELING THEORY

In the 1940s, Edwin Lemert built on Tannenbaum’s ideas by explaining two kinds of
deviance: primary and secondary. Primary deviance refers to the first acts that get
someone noticed, while secondary deviance happens after a person has been labeled.
Lemert pointed out that being labeled can change how someone sees themselves and how
others treat them. This ongoing stigma can trap people into a “delinquent” identity, making
it harder for them to change their behavior.

EVIDENCE OF LABELING THEORY

Research has shown that labeling theory is relevant in many areas. One famous study
involved people pretending to have mental health issues to get admitted to hospitals. Once
they were labeled as schizophrenic, they found it hard to shake off that label, even when
they acted normally. This highlights how powerful labels can stick with people. Similar
results have been found in marginalized groups, where labels like “criminal” or “addict” can
lead to discrimination, making it difficult for individuals to move past those labels.

EVIDENCE OF CONFLICT THEORY

Researchers have tested several conflict theary hypotheses, such as those pertaining to
bias and discrimination in the criminal justice system, differental crime rates of powerful
and powerless groups, and the intent behind the development of the criminal law. The
findings offer mixed support for the theory

•While studies tend to support conflict theory by demonstrating class or racial bias in the
administration of criminal justice, other unexpectedly shows an opposite bias. When
people have evaluated the contributions of control theory y to criminological thought, there
is a need to keep in mind the warning made by Austin Turk (1934-2019) that conflict theory
is often misunderstood.

• The theory does not, he points out, suggest thuat most criminals are innocent of the
powerful persom engage in the same amount of deviant behavior or the police or law
enforcer officer typically discriminate against people without power. It does acknowledge,
however, that behaviors common among society’s more disadvantaged members have a
greater likelihood of being called “crime” that the activism in which the more powerful
typically participate

•Conflict theory does not attempt to explain crime, it simply identifies social conflict as a
bauc fact of life and as a source of discriminatory treatment by the criminal justice system
to groups and classes that lack the power and status of those who make and enforce the
laws. Once recognize this, it may find mipossible to change the process of criminalizing
people, and tis provide the greater pustice Conflict theory anticipates a graded evolution,
not a revolution, to improve the existing criminal justice system.

EVALUATION OF CONFLICT THEORY

•Conflict theory attempts to identify the penser in relation to society and draw attention to
their role in promoting criminal behavior. The aim is to to describe descr how class
differential produce ecology on human behavior that favors the wealthy and powerful over
the poor, weak and disadvantaged.

•To belleve their view, there is a need to reject the consensus view of crime, which states
that law represents the values of majority, that legal codes are designed to create a just
and hutane society, and that by breaking the law, criminals are considered as predators
who are violating the right of others, politically, socially, and economically

• In conflict theory, the criminal law is a weapon employed by the affluent to maintain their
dominance in the class struggle. This view is not without its critics Some criminologists
comider the conflict made by the offenders motivated more by ct view naïve” greed and
selfishness and nati suggesting instead that that crene in a matter of rational choice by
poverty and hopelessness. There is little conclusive evidence that the criminal justice-
process, including police discretion, criminal court sentericing, and correctional policy, is
racially or socially bined. For example, socio-economic status seems unrelated to the
length of prison terms assigned by the courts. Similarly, evidence of race bias sentencing is
inconchnive Evidence that the justice system is not class and race biased refuties conflict
theory and supports comemus of the traditional criminology

• Despite its critics, conflict theory has had an important niche in the criminological
literature. However, more radical versions of the general conflict model have become
predominant, and attention has now turned to these versions of social conflict theory

VIEWS ON ALTERNATIVE THEORIES OF CRIME

• The world of criminology is the world in which everybody’s life. It is a world in which things
can do and go wrong Criminologists want to know why and how things go wrong, they want
to apply scientific methods of research to the study of of social s problems and to their
solutions. They are interested in how and when it is feel safe it is feel safe or endangered,
and why, in what happens to change a situation from harmless or even pleasurable to
terrifying and life-threatening, in how it might predict or even guard the individual persons
or groups of persons against these sudden and severe shifts.

•The problems that particularly challenge criminologists today arise from ever-more rapid
social-change due to ever- more tapid social, political, and economic development very
part of t of the world. Most of these changes bring in eve improvements the lives of human
beings such as better health, more consuaner products, and better communication
through computers and information technology. Yet they also bring danger for society as a
whole, and for individuals. Life has been turned upside down in a nanber of areas, posing
some difficult challenges for criminologists.

•Moreover, labeling theory holds that deviance is not inherent in an act, but instead
focuses on the tendency of majorities to negatively label label minorities or those seen at
deviant froen standard cultural norms Conflict theories draw attention to power
differentials, such as class conflict, and generally contrast historically dominant
ideologies. I It is therefore a macro-level analysis of society. Conflict theories, such as
Marxism, focus on the inaccesibility of resources and lack of social mobility found in
stratified societies. Different developmental theories describe different types of changes

ORIGIN OF DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY

• Psychological and Sociological Foundations Developmental theories of crime emerged

from both psychology and sociology, emphasizing the role of human development in
criminal behavior. Theories such as those proposed by Erikson and Bandura highlight how
early life experiences, social learning, and identity formation contribute to deviant
behavior.

•Life-Course Perspective: The life-course theory, popularized by criminologists like

Sampson and Laub, suggests that criminal behavior is not static but evolves over a
person’s life. It focuses on how early childhood, adolescent experiences, and transitions
(e.g., marriage or employment) can influence an individual’s path toward or away from
crime.

EVALUATION OF DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY

•Strengths: Developmental theories offer a comprehensive understanding of crime,

integrating various factors such as biology, psychology, and social environment. They
emphasize the potential for change, which is crucial for rehabilitation and intervention.

•Criticisms: Critics argue that developmental theories can be overly deterministic,

suggesting that individuals are Inevitably influenced by their early life experiences. They
also sometimes lack clear predictive power or concrete mechanisms to explain why some
individuals desist from crime while others continue.

ASSUMPTION OF CONFLICT THEORY

•The focus of conflict theory is the competition between social groups and their division
over finite resources. According to the theory, social and institutions play important roles in
maintaining inequality amongst social classes through the power of the ruling wealthy
class.

• Here are four main assumptions that may help you understand the theory:

•Competition-Conflict theorists follow the assumption that competition, rather than

cooperation, is predominant in society. Competition arises and exists in the different facets
of society due to finite resources that affect human relationships and interactions. Finite
resources can refer to material goods, such as money, property and commodities. It may
also refer to intangible resources, such as free time, social status and power. The result of
competing for finite resources is constant competition, which creates social classes,
groups and hierarchies.

•Structural inequality The second assumption is that the foundation of all human
relationships and social structures is an imbalance of power. Depending on the history of
an individual or group, some gain more power than others. Possessing more power often
leads to more benefits and the ability to control parts of the societal structure. Individuals
and groups who hold more power typically seek to maintain it or find ways to increase it
and move further up the societal hierarchy. This can relate to their professions, rights or
opportunities.

•Revolution-Conflict theorists believe that conflict inherently exists between social classes
and that it can lead to revolutions. Social inequality can cause a revolutionary effect,
whereby groups with less power find ways to go against the ruling class and take some of it
back. This may cause shifts in the power dynamic between social classes. Revolutions are
typically large-scale events that occur suddenly and result in societal change.

• War-According to conflict theorists, wars can unite or destroy societies. War is typically
the result of a long- standing, growing conflict that exists between individuals and groups in
societies. A society might unite for a cause or belief, but conflicts can arise between
societies with differing views. Wars also occur when societies seek to increase their power
and dominance in the world, thus ending other societies. They may unite societies or
provide ways for new social hierarchies and groups to form.

ORIGIN OF CONFLICT THEORY

•Conflict theory is the idea that society consists of different classes competing over finite
power and resources. It was first proposed by German philosopher Karl Marx and grew out
of his theory on history, notably historical materialism. The idea that a society’s institutions
spring from its economic structure.

EVALUATION OF LABELING THEORY

• An important theory that can be used to explain criminal behavior is labeling theory.
Labeling theory is a theory laid emphasis on the social process through the special
attention devoted to the interaction between individuals and society. This theory assumes
that it is likely that every person can commit criminal acts. Aker & Sellers (2009) Argued
that labeling theory as an explanation of criminal and deviant behavior is derived from the
symbolic interactionism theory in sociology. Symbolic interaction is a theory that asserts
that facts are based on and directed by symbols. The foundation of this theory is meaning.
Symbolic interaction according to Aksan, Kisac, Aydın, and Demirbulken (2008, p.902)
Examines the meanings emerging from the reciprocal interaction of individuals in social
environment with other individuals and focuses on the question of””which symbols and
meanings emerge from the interactior people!"

• According to the labeling theory, a person is more apt to commit acts that go against
what is socially acceptable if that person is labeled in such a way (Bernard, Snipes &
Gerould, 2009), Similarly, from a personal experience, it can be stated without a doubt that
it is not only possible but but also hkely that a person can become what he or she is
labeled. It can also be stated that this theory applies more to children and those with low
self-esteem than anyone with a positive self image hence it has been widely utilized to
explam juvenile delinquency theory that laid emphasis on the social process through the
special attention devoted to the interaction between individuals and society