Agriculture

Industries Based on Agricultural Raw Material:

1. Textile Industry - Uses cotton, jute, and silk.
2. Sugar Industry - Uses sugarcane.
3. Paper Industry - Uses bamboo and wood pulp.
4. Food Processing Industry - Uses fruits, vegetables, and grains.
5. Edible Oil Industry - Uses oilseeds like mustard, sunflower, and groundnut.
6. Rubber Industry - Uses natural rubber.

Importance of Agriculture in India:

(i) Nearly two-third of India's population is dependent on agriculture.
(ii) Agriculture has been the backbone of the Indian economy
(iii) Agriculture accounts for 26% of the gross domestic product.
(iv) Agriculture ensures food security for the millions and raw materials for Industries.
(v) Agriculture's share in providing employments and livelihood to the population continues to be as
high as 63 percent in 2001.

Factors that make India a Unique Country from agriculture point of view:
Physical Factors
1. Relief (Topography)
o Vast plains like the Indo-Gangetic plains support large-scale farming.
o Diverse terrain (hills, plateaus, coastal areas) allows for varied agricultural practices.
2. Climate
o Wide climatic variations enable the cultivation of diverse crops.
o Monsoon dependency is crucial for water supply but makes agriculture vulnerable to
seasonal changes.
o Ample sunshine and long growing season benefit crop growth.
3. Location
o Tropical and subtropical position supports a variety of crops due to favorable weather
conditions.
Human Factors
1. Cultural Background
o Rich traditional farming knowledge passed down through generations.
o Diverse crop preferences based on regional cultural practices.
2. Availability of Irrigation
o Irrigation infrastructure (canals, tube wells) supports agriculture, especially in arid
regions.
o Groundwater usage supplements irrigation but raises sustainability concerns.
3. Agricultural Practices
o Blend of traditional and modern techniques in farming.
o Crop diversification and mixed farming reduce risk and increase income.
o Growing trend of organic farming for environmental sustainability.

Types of farming:
Agriculture in India has a long history, deeply embedded in the country's culture and economy. Over time,
the methods of cultivation have evolved significantly, influenced by various factors such as:
1. Physical Environment: The geographical diversity of India, including different climates, soil types,
and topography, has led to varied agricultural practices across the country.
2. Technological Know-How: Advances in technology, including the use of modern machinery,
irrigation techniques, and high-yielding seed varieties, have transformed traditional farming practices.
3. Socio-Cultural Practices: Cultural traditions, social structures, and local customs have shaped the way
agriculture is practiced in different regions.

Farming Systems in India:

1. Primitive Subsistence Farming:
 Practiced on small patches of land using traditional tools or primitive tools such as hoe, dao,
digging sticks and family/community labor.
 It depends on natural factors like monsoon and soil fertility.
 This type includes slash-and-burn agriculture, where land is cultivated for a short period and
then left to regenerate.
 Land productivity is low as the farmer does not use fertilizers or other inputs.
Types of Primitive Subsistence Farming in India:
1. Jhumming:
o Region: North-Eastern states like Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Nagaland.
o Method: Land is cleared by cutting and burning vegetation; crops are grown on this patch
of land until the soil fertility decreases, after which a new patch is cleared.
2. Pamlou:
o Region: Manipur.
o Method: Similar to Jhumming, practiced in small patches using traditional methods.
3. Dipa:
o Region: Bastar district of Chhattisgarh and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
o Method: Slash and burn technique, where land is cultivated temporarily before moving on
to another area.

2. Intensive Subsistence Farming:

 Common in densely populated areas.
 This system involves the use of more labor and small-scale mechanization on small plots of
land.
 Farmer using high doses of biochemical inputs.
 Farmers grow crops mainly for local consumption, often using fertilizers and irrigation to
increase productivity.

3. Commercial Farming:
 Involves the large-scale production of crops intended for sale in the market.
 It relies on modern inputs such as
1. High-yield varieties (HYVs),
2. Chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and
3. Irrigation systems.
 Examples include plantation agriculture (tea, coffee, rubber) and commercial grain farming.

4. Plantation Agriculture:
(i) A type of commercial farming where a single crop, such as tea, coffee, or rubber, Sugarcane,
Banana is grown on large estates.
(ii) Interface of Agriculture and Industry:
  Covers large tracts of land: Plantation farming typically involves vast areas dedicated to
single crops.
 Capital-intensive inputs: Requires significant investment in machinery, fertilizers, and other
inputs.
 Migrant laborers: Relies heavily on laborers who move seasonally or permanently for work
on these plantations.
(iii) Key Plantation Crops: Tea, Coffee, Rubber, Sugarcane, Banana: These are the main crops
grown in plantation farming in India.
(iv) Role of Transport and Communication: Well-developed networks: Efficient transport and
communication systems are crucial for linking plantation areas with processing industries and
markets, facilitating the smooth operation and profitability of plantations.

Jhumming: The practice of "slash and burn" agriculture, known as Jhumming in India's northeastern
region, is a traditional method where land is cleared by cutting and burning vegetation to make way for
crops. This form of cultivation has various names across the world and in different parts of India:
Global Names for Slash and Burn Agriculture:
1. Milpa - Mexico and Central America
2. Conuco - Venezuela
3. Roca - Brazil
4. Masole - Central Africa
5. Ladang - Indonesia
6. Ray - Vietnam
Names of Slash and Burn Agriculture in India:
1. Bewar or Dahiya - Madhya Pradesh
2. Podu or Penda - Andhra Pradesh
3. Pama Dabi, Koman, or Bringa - Odisha
4. Kumari - Western Ghats
5. Valre or Waltre - South-eastern Rajasthan
6. Khil - Himalayan belt
7. Kuruwa - Jharkhand
8. Jhumming - North-eastern region

Rinjha's family is engaged in Primitive Subsistence Farming, specifically the Jhumming or "slash and
burn" agriculture practiced in the northeastern region of India.
Crops Grown in This Type of Farming:
1. Cereals - Rice, Maize, Millets
2. Pulses
3. Vegetables
4. Tubers - Sweet potatoes, Yams
5. Fruits - Bananas, Pineapples
These crops are typically grown to sustain the family, and the farming relies on natural factors such as soil
fertility and monsoon rains.

Intensive subsistence farming:

1. This type of farming is practiced in high population land.
2. It is labour intensive.
3. Use of high dose of bio-chemicals.
 4. It includes high production from few or limited land.

Here are some of the key states where this type of farming is prevalent:
1. West Bengal:
 Known for its small landholdings and
 high population density, intensive subsistence farming is widely practiced,
 especially for rice cultivation.
2. Bihar:
 With a large rural population dependent on agriculture,
 intensive subsistence farming is common,
 focusing on crops like rice, wheat, and maize.
3. Uttar Pradesh:
 This state has a high population pressure on land, and
 intensive farming practices are used to maximize crop yields,
 particularly in rice and wheat cultivation.
4. Punjab:
 Although known for its mechanized farming,
 small farmers in some parts of Punjab still rely on intensive subsistence farming,
 especially for rice and wheat.
5. Tamil Nadu:
 In southern India, intensive subsistence farming is practiced,
 especially in the cultivation of rice, sugarcane, and vegetables.
6. Kerala:
 Due to small landholdings and high population density,
 farmers in Kerala practice intensive subsistence farming,
 focusing on rice, spices, and coconut.
7. Assam:
 In the northeastern region, intensive subsistence farming is common,
 especially for rice and tea cultivation.

In these states, the fragmentation of land due to the right of inheritance has led to smaller and
uneconomical landholdings. Despite this, farmers continue to maximize output through intensive farming
practices, leading to significant pressure on the agricultural land.

Commercial Farming:
1) In this crops grown on large scale of commercial use.
2) Large land holdings used.
3) Adequate irrigation facilities.
4) Use of high dose of modern inputs or techniques like:
i. High yielding variety seed (HYV)
ii. Chemical Fertilizers
iii. Insecticides and pesticides
iv. Use of modern tools and machines
5) Productivity Focus: Aims for higher productivity and efficiency in crop and livestock
production.
6) Commercialization: Varies by region; regions with better infrastructure and market access tend
to practice more commercial farming.
7) Crop Examples:
 a. Rice in Haryana and Punjab: Grown as a commercial crop with advanced technology
and inputs.
b. Rice in Odisha: Primarily a subsistence crop, grown for local consumption with less
commercial focus.
8) Market Orientation: Products are often sold in markets or processed for profit, rather than for
self-consumption.
9) Infrastructure and Technology: Relies on modern farming practices, including irrigation
systems, machinery, and access to markets.
10) Economic Impact: Helps increase agricultural income and contributes to the overall economy,
though it can also lead to dependency on external inputs.

Here are some examples of crops that can be commercial in one region and subsistence in another:
1. Wheat:
o Commercial: In Punjab and Haryana, where high-yielding varieties and modern farming
techniques are used for large-scale production.
o Subsistence: In parts of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, where wheat is often grown primarily for
local consumption and on smaller farms.
2. Sugarcane:
o Commercial: In Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra, where it is cultivated extensively for sugar
production and related industries.
o Subsistence: In some parts of eastern India where sugarcane is grown on a smaller scale and
primarily for local use.
3. Cotton:
o Commercial: In Gujarat and Maharashtra, where it is grown on large farms for the textile
industry.
o Subsistence: In certain areas of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh, where cotton is cultivated on
smaller plots for local needs.
4. Tea:
o Commercial: In Assam and Darjeeling, where tea is a major cash crop with extensive
plantations.
o Subsistence: In parts of the northeastern states where tea is grown on a smaller scale for local
consumption.
5. Oilseeds (like groundnut and soybean):
o Commercial: In Gujarat (groundnut) and Madhya Pradesh (soybean), where these crops are
produced for oil extraction and export.
o Subsistence: In some regions of Odisha and Bihar, where oilseeds are grown on a smaller scale
for local use and consumption.
6. Fruit Crops (like apples and oranges):
o Commercial: In Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir (apples), and Maharashtra
(oranges), where fruit cultivation is a significant commercial activity.
o Subsistence: In some parts of Uttarakhand and Assam, where fruit is grown mainly for local
consumption with less emphasis on market sales.

Cropping Patterns in India

1. Three Cropping Seasons:
o Rabi Season:
 Sowing: Shown in winter from October to December
 Harvesting: Harvested in summer from April to June
  Key Crops: Wheat, barley, peas, gram, mustard
 Important States: Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir,
Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh
 Influencing Factors: Winter precipitation (western temperate cyclones),
 Green revolution has given an impetus to growth of Rabi Crop.
o Kharif Season:
 Sowing: With the onset of monsoon (June to July)
 Harvesting: Harvested in September to October
 Key Crops: Paddy, maize, jowar, bajra, tur (arhar), moong, urad, cotton, jute,
groundnut, soybean
 Important Regions: Assam, West Bengal, coastal Odisha, Andhra Pradesh,
Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Maharashtra (Konkan coast), Uttar Pradesh, Bihar
 Paddy Varieties: Aus, Aman, Boro (in Assam, West Bengal, Odisha these three
variety of crops grown every year.)
o Zaid Season:
 Timing: Summer months, between rabi and kharif seasons
 Practice in Sandy tracts along river channel.
 Key Crops: Watermelon, muskmelon, cucumber, vegetables, fodder crops
 Special Note: Sugarcane grows almost throughout the year
Major Crops in India
1. Rice:
o Type: Kharif crop
o Importance:
 Second largest producer of rice in the world after China.
 Staple food crop of a majority of the people in India.
o Climatic Conditions:
 A tropical kharif plant, requires high temperature and high humidity.
 Requires high temperature, (above 25°C)
 Rainfall- above 100 cm, irrigation required in areas of less rainfall.
o Production areas:
 Is grown in the plains of north and north-eastern India, coastal areas and the deltaic
regions.
 Irrigation has made it possible to grow rice in areas of less rainfall such as Punjab.
Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh and parts of Rajasthan.
o Notes: Dense canal irrigation and tubewells support rice cultivation in areas with less
rainfall
2. Wheat:
o Type: Rabi crop
o Importance:
 Second most important food crop.
 Main food crop in north and north-western part of the country.
o Climatic Conditions:
 Is a Rabi crop requires a cool growing season and a bright season at the time of
ripening.
 Requires 50-75 cm of annual rainfall evenly distributed over the growing season.
o Production areas:
o Two important wheat - growing zones - the Ganga-Satluj plains, black soil region of the
Deccan.
 o Major producing states: Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Bihar.

3. Bajra:
o Type: Kharif crop
o Requirements: Sandy and shallow black soil
o Regions: Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Haryana
4. Ragi:
o Type: Kharif crop
o Requirements: Dry regions, grows on red, black, sandy, loamy, and shallow black soils
o Regions: Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Jharkhand,
Arunachal Pradesh
5. Maize:
o Type: Kharif crop (also grown in Rabi season in some states)
o Requirements: Temperature between 21°C to 27°C, grows well in old alluvial soil
o Regions: Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana
6. Millets:
o Types: Jowar, bajra, ragi
o Nutritional Value: High nutritional content, e.g., ragi is rich in iron, calcium, and roughage
o Jowar: Third most important food crop; grown in moist areas with minimal irrigation
o Regions: Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh
7. Pulses:
o Importance: Major source of protein in a vegetarian diet
o Types: Tur (arhar), urad, moong, masur, peas, gram
o Growing Seasons:
 Kharif Pulses: Tur (arhar), urad, moong
 Rabi Pulses: Masur, peas, gram
o Characteristics: Need less moisture, leguminous (except arhar), help in restoring soil
fertility by fixing nitrogen
o Regions: Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka
Food Crops Other Than Grains
1. Sugarcane:
o Type: Tropical and subtropical crop
o Requirements: Hot and humid climate, temperature between 21°C to 27°C, annual rainfall
between 75 cm and 100 cm; requires irrigation in low rainfall areas
o Uses: Main source of sugar, gur (jaggery), khandsari, and molasses
o Regions: Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana,
Bihar, Punjab, Haryana
o Labor: Requires manual labor from sowing to harvesting
o Rank: Second-largest producer globally (after Brazil)
2. Oil Seeds:
o Major Types: Groundnut, mustard, coconut, sesame (til), soybean, castor seeds, cotton
seeds, linseed, sunflower
o Uses: Cooking oils, raw materials for soap, cosmetics, and ointments
o Groundnut: Kharif crop, major producer states are Gujarat, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu
o Mustard: Rabi crop
o Sesame: Kharif crop in north India, rabi crop in south India
o Castor Seed: Grown in both rabi and kharif seasons
 o Production (2018): Second-largest producer of groundnut (after China), third-largest
producer of rapeseed (after Canada and China)
o Area Coverage: Approximately 12% of total cropped area
3. Tea:
o Type: Plantation agriculture
o Requirements: Tropical and subtropical climates, deep fertile well-drained soil rich in
humus, warm and moist frost-free climate
o Labor: Labour-intensive, requires abundant, cheap, and skilled labor
o Processing: Tea is processed within the tea garden to maintain freshness
o Major Producing States: Assam, Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri districts (West Bengal), Tamil
Nadu, Kerala
o Additional Producing States: Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Meghalaya, Andhra
Pradesh, Tripura
o Rank: Second-largest producer globally (after China)
4. Coffee:
o Type: Arabica variety, initially brought from Yemen
o Requirements: Grown in Nilgiri Hills (Karnataka), Kerala, Tamil Nadu
o Reputation: Known globally for high quality

Horticulture Crops in India

1. Fruits:
o Mangoes:
 Regions: Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal
o Oranges:
 Regions: Nagpur (Maharashtra), Cherrapunjee (Meghalaya)
o Bananas:
 Regions: Kerala, Mizoram, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu
o Lichi and Guava:
 Regions: Uttar Pradesh, Bihar
o Pineapples:
 Regions: Meghalaya
o Grapes:
 Regions: Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Maharashtra
o Apples, Pears, Apricots, and Walnuts:
 Regions: Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh
2. Vegetables:
o Major Vegetables Produced:
 Peas
 Cauliflower
 Onion
 Cabbage
 Tomato
 Brinjal
 Potato
Production and Demand:
 Global Rank (2018): India was the second-largest producer of fruits and vegetables globally, after
China.
  Demand: Indian fruits and vegetables are in high demand worldwide due to their quality and
variety.

Non-Food Crops in India

1. Rubber:
o Type: Equatorial crop, also grown in tropical and subtropical areas under special conditions
o Requirements: Moist and humid climate, rainfall of more than 200 cm, temperature above
25°C
o Uses: Important industrial raw material
o Major Producing Regions: Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andaman and Nicobar Islands,
Garo Hills of Meghalaya
2. Fibre Crops:
o Types:
 Cotton: Derived from the plant
 Jute: Known as the golden fibre, derived from the plant
 Hemp: Derived from the plant
 Natural Silk: Obtained from cocoons of silkworms fed on mulberry leaves; rearing
is known as sericulture
3. Cotton:
o Importance: Main raw material for the cotton textile industry
o Global Rank (2017): Second-largest producer (after China)
o Requirements: High temperature, light rainfall or irrigation, 210 frost-free days, bright
sunshine; matures in 6 to 8 months
o Major Producing States: Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra
Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh
4. Jute:
o Nickname: Golden fibre
o Requirements: Well-drained fertile soils, high temperature during growth
o Uses: Gunny bags, mats, ropes, yarn, carpets, and other artefacts
o Challenges: Losing market to synthetic fibres like nylon due to high cost
o Major Producing States: West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Odisha, Meghalaya

Technological and Institutional Reforms in Indian Agriculture

India's agricultural sector has faced numerous challenges due to traditional practices and inadequate
technological and institutional support. To address these issues and enhance agricultural productivity,
several reforms have been introduced over the years. Here is an overview of the key technological and
institutional reforms:
1. Historical Context:
o Traditional Practices: Historically, agriculture in India relied heavily on monsoon and
natural soil fertility, with minimal technological or institutional support.
o Need for Reforms: To meet the demands of a growing population and improve agricultural
productivity, significant reforms were needed.
2. Early Reforms:
o Post-Independence Focus: After Independence, land reforms were prioritized to address
issues like fragmentation of land holdings.
o Key Reforms:
 Collectivisation: Encouraged collective farming practices.
  Consolidation of Holdings: Aimed to merge fragmented land holdings into larger,
more manageable units.
 Cooperation: Promoted cooperative farming and institutions.
 Abolition of Zamindari: Ended the zamindari system to reduce exploitation and
improve land tenure security.
3. 1960s and 1970s Reforms:
o Green Revolution: Introduced package technology, including high-yielding varieties of
seeds, chemical fertilizers, and irrigation techniques. It primarily benefited regions with
better infrastructure.
o White Revolution (Operation Flood): Focused on increasing milk production through
cooperative dairy farming, leading to significant growth in the dairy sector.
4. 1980s and 1990s Reforms:
o Comprehensive Land Development: Initiated to address both institutional and technical
issues in agriculture.
o Key Measures:
 Crop Insurance: Provided coverage against natural calamities like drought, flood,
cyclone, and disease.
 Grameen Banks and Cooperative Societies: Established to offer loans to farmers
at lower interest rates.
 Kissan Credit Card (KCC): Offered credit facilities to farmers for agricultural
needs.
 Personal Accident Insurance Scheme (PAIS): Provided insurance against
accidents for farmers.
5. Modern Initiatives:
o Weather Bulletins and Agricultural Programs: Introduced on radio and television to
provide timely information and advice to farmers.
o Minimum Support Price (MSP): Ensured fair prices for crops to protect farmers from
exploitation by speculators and middlemen.
o Remunerative and Procurement Prices: Set for important crops to ensure stable income
for farmers.
Impact and Challenges:
 Development Concentration: Early reforms, especially the Green Revolution, led to development
in select regions, often neglecting others.
 Implementation Issues: Despite the introduction of various reforms, implementation challenges
persisted, affecting their effectiveness.

Technogical Reforms and Institutional reforms

(a) Technological Reforms:
(i) The Persian wheel has now been replaced by the water-pump, plough by the tiller and harrow
drawn by tractors, bullock-carts by trucks.
(ii) All weather roads and faster means of communications have been introduced.
(iii) Flooding of fields are now been replaced by drip irrigation and use of sprinklers.
(iv) Chemical fertilizers, Bio-fertilizers, HYV and early maturing quality seeds have been developed.
(b) Institutional Reforms:
(i) Government abolished the Zamindari system followed with consolidation of small land holdings.
(ii) Widespread use of radio and television for providing knowledge to farmers in new and improved
techniques and special weather bulletins have been introduced.
(iii) Crop insurance to protect the farmers against loses by natural and man-made calamities.
 (iv) Availability of capital or investment through banks and cooperative societies.
(v) Minimum support price for various crops ensures minimum price for the crop grown by the
farmers.
(vi) Kissan Credit Card (KCC) and Personal Accident Insurance Scheme (PAIS) are some schemes
introduced by the government for the benefit of farmers.

Bhoodan – Gramdan Movement

Background:
 Vinoba Bhave: Declared Mahatma Gandhi’s spiritual heir and a prominent follower of Gandhi’s
principles of Gram Swarajya (village self-rule).
 Padyatra: After Gandhi's martyrdom, Bhave undertook a journey across India to spread Gandhi’s
message and promote his ideas.
Initiation of the Movement:
 Event at Pochampalli: During a lecture at Pochampalli in Andhra Pradesh, landless villagers
requested land for their economic well-being. Bhave, unable to immediately promise land, assured
them he would discuss the matter with the Government of India if they engaged in cooperative
farming.
 Bhoodan: A notable moment occurred when Shri Ram Chandra Reddy offered 80 acres of land to
be distributed among 80 landless villagers. This act of voluntary land donation was termed
‘Bhoodan’ (land donation).
Expansion and Impact:
 Gramdan: Following the success of Bhoodan, the concept of 'Gramdan' emerged, where zamindars
(landowners) and village owners donated entire villages or parts of their land to the landless poor.
This was motivated partly by the fear of land ceiling legislation, which aimed to limit land holdings.
Significance:
 Blood-less Revolution: The Bhoodan-Gramdan movement is referred to as a "blood-less
revolution" due to its peaceful nature and the voluntary participation of landowners in redistributing
land.
Objectives and Achievements:
 Promote Equity: The movement aimed to address land inequality and provide economic relief to
landless farmers.
 Encourage Cooperative Farming: Bhave advocated for cooperative farming as a means of
improving agricultural productivity and ensuring equitable land distribution.
Challenges:
 Implementation Issues: While the movement saw some success, it faced challenges such as
inconsistent participation and difficulties in implementing land transfers.
 Land Ceiling Act: Many landowners contributed land to avoid the implications of the land ceiling
laws, rather than out of genuine philanthropic intent.
The Bhoodan-Gramdan movement was a significant effort to address land inequality in post-independence
India through non-violent means and remains an important example of Gandhian principles in action.