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Structure: Key Concepts in Bacterial Genetics

1. Chromosome and Plasmid:

• Chromosome: The primary genetic material in bacteria,

typically a single circular DNA molecule.
 • Plasmid: Extra-chromosomal DNA that can carry additional
genes, such as those for antibiotic resistance.

2. DNA Replication:

• Semi-conservative: Each new DNA molecule contains one

old strand and one new strand.

• Steps:

• Helicase unwinds the double helix.

• DNA polymerase III synthesizes the new strand in the 5’

to 3’ direction.

• Leading strand is synthesized continuously, while the

lagging strand is synthesized in short fragments (Okazaki
fragments).

• DNA ligase joins fragments together.

3. Transcription and Translation:

• Transcription: The process of synthesizing RNA from a DNA

template, carried out by RNA polymerase.

• mRNA: Carries the genetic code from DNA.

• tRNA: Transfers amino acids to the ribosome during

protein synthesis.

• rRNA: Forms part of the ribosome, where protein

synthesis occurs.
 • Translation: The process where the ribosome synthesizes
proteins by reading the sequence of codons in mRNA and
matching them with amino acids delivered by tRNA.

4. Genetic Code:

• The genetic code is composed of codons (three-base

sequences), each coding for a specific amino acid.

• There are 64 possible codons, including start codon (AUG)

and three stop codons (UAA, UAG, UGA).

5. Mutation:

• Base substitution:

• Transition: A purine replaces another purine (A ↔ G) or a

pyrimidine replaces a pyrimidine (C ↔ T).

• Transversion: A purine is replaced by a pyrimidine, or vice

versa.

• Frame shift mutation: Caused by insertions or deletions,

shifting the reading frame of the genetic code.

6. Genetic Transfer:

• Transformation: Uptake of “naked” DNA from the

environment by bacteria.
 • Conjugation: Transfer of DNA between bacteria through a
pili.

• Transduction: Transfer of bacterial genes by a virus

(bacteriophage).

Simplified Explanation of Skipped Sections:

1. Microbial Variation:

• Phenotypic variation: Non-genetic, reversible changes

that occur in bacteria due to environmental conditions (e.g.,
color changes at different temperatures).

• Genotypic variation: Permanent genetic changes passed

on to offspring, usually through mutations or genetic
transfers.

2. Genetic Code Degeneracy:

• The genetic code is degenerate, meaning multiple codons

can code for the same amino acid. This provides flexibility and
reduces the impact of mutations.

3. Protein Synthesis - Termination:

• Protein synthesis ends when a stop codon (UAA, UAG,

UGA) is reached. A release factor binds to the stop codon,
releasing the newly made protein from the ribosome.

Mid-Term Exam Questions (with Answers):

1. Enumeration Questions (with Answers):

 1. List the three main steps of genetic information transfer
in bacteria.

• Replication: DNA makes new DNA.

• Transcription: DNA is transcribed to RNA.

• Translation: RNA is translated into proteins.

2. Enumerate the types of genetic transfer mechanisms in

bacteria.

• Transformation: Uptake of free DNA.

• Conjugation: Transfer of plasmid DNA through pili.

• Transduction: DNA transfer via bacteriophages (viruses).

2. Short Answer Questions (with Answers):

1. What is the difference between genotype and phenotype

in bacteria?

Answer:

• Genotype refers to the genetic makeup or the actual

sequence of DNA in an organism.

• Phenotype refers to the observable characteristics or

traits of an organism, which result from the expression of the
genotype in interaction with the environment.

2. How do mutations affect bacterial genetics?

Answer:
 • Mutations are changes in the DNA sequence, which can
result in an altered protein structure. This can change the
bacterium’s phenotype, such as antibiotic resistance or
virulence, and these changes can be passed on to future
generations if they occur in the genetic material.

3. Multiple-Choice Questions (with Answers):

1. Which of the following best describes bacterial DNA

replication?

a) Conservative

b) Semi-conservative

c) Discontinuous

d) Repetitive

Answer: b) Semi-conservative

2. Which type of mutation results from the addition or

removal of a base, causing a shift in the reading frame?

a) Base substitution

b) Transition

c) Frame shift mutation

d) Silent mutation

Answer: c) Frame shift mutation

3. Which process involves the transfer of DNA between

bacteria via a pili?
 a) Transformation

b) Conjugation

c) Transduction

d) Replication

Answer: b) Conjugation

4. True/False Questions (with Answers):

1. Bacterial DNA replication occurs in only one direction

around the circular chromosome.

Answer: False (It occurs bidirectionally).

2. In transduction, bacterial DNA is transferred from one

cell to another via a virus.

Answer: True

3. A genotype change always results in a phenotype change

in bacteria.

Answer: False (Not all genotype changes result in visible

phenotype changes).

5. Long Answer Questions (with Answers):

1. Explain the process of protein synthesis, starting from

transcription and ending with translation, in bacterial cells.

Answer:
 • Transcription begins when RNA polymerase binds to the
promoter region of a gene on the bacterial DNA. It unwinds
the DNA and synthesizes a complementary strand of mRNA
by matching RNA nucleotides with their complementary DNA
bases (A with U, C with G). The mRNA is then processed and
released.

• Translation occurs when the mRNA binds to a ribosome

(composed of rRNA). The ribosome reads the sequence of
codons (three-base segments) on the mRNA. Each codon
codes for a specific amino acid, which is delivered by a tRNA
with a matching anticodon. The ribosome links the amino
acids together to form a polypeptide chain. Translation
continues until the ribosome reaches a stop codon, where the
newly formed protein is released.

Here are some additional important concepts and questions

with answers based on Lecture 5, covering bacterial genetics.
These include more advanced topics and essential details to
ensure thorough preparation.

Additional Concepts to Know:

1. Plasmids and Their Importance:

• Plasmids are extra-chromosomal DNA molecules that carry

genes beneficial to bacteria but are not essential for survival.

• Types of plasmids:
 • Fertility (F) Plasmid: Involved in conjugation and gene
transfer between bacteria.

• Resistance (R) Plasmid: Contains genes that provide

resistance to antibiotics.

• Virulence Plasmid: Carries genes that make bacteria more

virulent (able to cause disease).

• Plasmids can be transferred between bacteria via

conjugation, spreading traits like antibiotic resistance.

2. DNA Polymerases:

• Different DNA polymerases play roles in DNA replication:

• DNA Polymerase III: Main enzyme for adding nucleotides

during replication.

• DNA Polymerase I: Removes RNA primers and replaces

them with DNA.

• DNA Ligase: Seals gaps between Okazaki fragments on the

lagging strand.

3. Protein Synthesis:

• Start and Stop Codons:

• The start codon (AUG) codes for the amino acid

methionine.

• Stop codons (UAA, UAG, UGA) signal the end of protein

 synthesis.

• Degeneracy of the Genetic Code: Multiple codons can code

for the same amino acid, which provides some tolerance to
mutations.

4. Horizontal Gene Transfer:

• Bacteria can exchange genetic material through processes

like:

• Transformation: Uptake of naked DNA from the

environment.

• Conjugation: Transfer of DNA (usually plasmids) through

direct contact between bacteria.

• Transduction: Transfer of bacterial DNA by a

bacteriophage (virus).

5. Types of Mutations:

• Silent Mutation: A change in the DNA sequence that does

not alter the amino acid sequence.

• Missense Mutation: A base substitution that results in a

different amino acid in the protein.

• Nonsense Mutation: A mutation that results in a stop codon,

prematurely ending protein synthesis.

Additional Questions with Answers:

1. Short Answer Questions:

1. What is the role of a plasmid in bacterial conjugation?

Answer: In bacterial conjugation, a plasmid (specifically the F

plasmid) carries the genetic information required to form a
conjugation pilus. The donor cell transfers a copy of the
plasmid to the recipient cell through the pilus, enabling the
spread of genetic material, such as antibiotic resistance
genes.

2. Why is DNA replication considered semi-conservative?

Answer: DNA replication is considered semi-conservative

because each new DNA molecule contains one strand from
the original DNA molecule and one newly synthesized strand.
This ensures that each daughter cell inherits an accurate copy
of the DNA.

3. Explain the significance of the start codon and stop

codons in protein synthesis.

Answer: The start codon (AUG) signals the beginning of

protein synthesis and codes for the amino acid methionine,
which is the first amino acid in most proteins. Stop codons
(UAA, UAG, UGA) signal the end of protein synthesis,
instructing the ribosome to release the newly synthesized
protein.

2. Multiple-Choice Questions:

1. Which enzyme is responsible for unwinding the DNA

double helix during replication?

a) DNA Polymerase I

b) DNA Ligase

c) Helicase

d) RNA Polymerase

Answer: c) Helicase

2. What is the function of tRNA in translation?

a) It carries the genetic code to the ribosome.

b) It transfers amino acids to the ribosome.

c) It catalyzes the formation of peptide bonds.

d) It provides energy for protein synthesis.

Answer: b) It transfers amino acids to the ribosome.

3. Which of the following is NOT a stop codon?

a) UAA

b) UAG

c) AUG

d) UGA

Answer: c) AUG

4. Which type of horizontal gene transfer involves a

bacteriophage?

a) Transformation

b) Transduction
c) Conjugation

d) Replication

Answer: b) Transduction

3. True/False Questions:

1. Conjugation requires direct physical contact between

two bacterial cells.

Answer: True

2. A silent mutation always results in a functional change to

the protein.

Answer: False (A silent mutation does not change the amino

acid sequence, so the protein usually remains functional.)

3. DNA polymerase III is responsible for joining Okazaki

fragments together on the lagging strand.

Answer: False (DNA ligase joins Okazaki fragments.)

4. Transcription involves copying DNA into RNA.

Answer: True

4. Long Answer Questions:

1. Describe the three types of horizontal gene transfer in

bacteria, and explain their importance in bacterial evolution.

Answer:
 • Transformation: In transformation, bacteria take up
“naked” DNA from their surroundings, which can incorporate
into their genome and express new traits, such as antibiotic
resistance. This process allows bacteria to acquire genetic
material from their environment, contributing to genetic
diversity.

• Conjugation: Conjugation is the direct transfer of DNA

from one bacterial cell to another via a pilus. It usually
involves a plasmid (like the F plasmid), which can carry genes
for antibiotic resistance. This mechanism enables bacteria to
rapidly spread beneficial traits through a population.

• Transduction: In transduction, a bacteriophage (a virus

that infects bacteria) transfers DNA from one bacterium to
another. The viral DNA can integrate into the host bacterial
genome, introducing new genetic material. Transduction is
significant because it allows for the transfer of genes between
bacteria in different environments.

These processes are crucial for bacterial evolution, as they

provide mechanisms for genetic exchange, allowing bacteria
to adapt quickly to new environments, develop resistance to
antibiotics, and acquire new metabolic capabilities.

2. Explain the steps of DNA replication in bacteria,

including the role of enzymes involved.

Answer:

DNA replication in bacteria starts at a specific sequence

called the origin of replication. The enzyme helicase unwinds
the double-stranded DNA, creating two single strands. Single-
strand binding proteins (SSBs) stabilize these single strands
to prevent them from reannealing.

DNA polymerase III then synthesizes new DNA by adding

nucleotides to the 3’ end of the primer in the 5’ to 3’ direction.
The leading strand is synthesized continuously, while the
lagging strand is synthesized in short fragments called
Okazaki fragments. Each fragment is started with an RNA
primer, laid down by the enzyme primase.

After the Okazaki fragments are made, DNA polymerase I

replaces the RNA primers with DNA, and DNA ligase seals the
fragments together, creating a continuous strand. The result is
two identical DNA molecules, each containing one old strand
and one newly synthesized strand.