GOVERNMENT POLYTECHNIC, GAYA

(Approved by AICTE, Govt. of India)

Gaya - Bodhgaya Rd, Ghughari Tand, Gaya, Bihar 823001

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

2002207- INTRODUCTION TO IT SYSTEMS LAB

STATE BOARD OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION, BIHAR
II SEMESTER DIPLOMA IN MECHANICAL ENGG.
(Effective from Session 2020-21 Batch)

LABORATORY MANUAL
Prepared By
Mr. Vivek Kumar,
Lecturer
 INDEX

Sl. No Content Page No

1. Teaching and Examinations Scheme

2. Syllabus -SBTE, Bihar

3. Course Outcomes

Browser features, browsing, using various search engines, writing search

4. queries

Visit various e-govemance/Digital India portals, understand their features,

5. services offered

Read Wikipedia pages on computer hardware components, look at those

6. components in lab, identify them, recognise various ports/interfaces and
related cables, etc.
Install Linux and Windows operating system on identified lab machines,
7. explore various options, do it multiple times

Connect various peripherals (printer, scanner, etc.) to computer, explore

8. various features of peripheral and their device driver software.

Practice HTMLcommands, try them with various values, make yourown

9. Webpage

Explore features of Open Office tools, create documents using these

10. features, do it multiple times

Explore security features of Operating Systems and Tools, try using

11. them and see what happens.

Faculty In-charge HOD/ CSE Principal

Mr. Vivek Kumar/

Mr. Vikas kishore
 TEACHING AND EXAMINATIONS SCHEME

LABORATORY NAME Introduction To IT Systems Lab

LABORATORY CODE 2002207

TEACHING
Periods per Week 04
SCHEME

Hours of Exam. 03

Internal(A) 15
Practical (ESE)
External(B) 35

EXAMINATION-
SCHEME Total Marks (A+B) 50

Pass Marks in the Subject 20

Credits 02
 INTRODUCTION TO IT SYSTEMS LAB

(MECH. ENGG. GROUP) Syllabus -SBTE, Bihar

Practical Skills to be developed:

Intellectual skills:
1. To perform the installation of different operating systems.
2. To perform the internet skills activities.
3. To gain the knowledge of the office tools.

Technical Skills:
1. To understand the practical approach of Internet.
2. To have practical approach of the OS such as LINUX & MS-WINDOWS .
3. To use and operate different tools Open Office & MS Office.
4. To identify the concepts about information security.

Test:

Discuss about various search engines.

Installation of OS and their challanges

List of Practical:

1. Browser features, browsing, using various search engines, writing

search queries
2. Visit various e-govemance/Digital India portals, understand their
features, services offered
3. Read Wikipedia pages on computer hardware components, look at
those components in lab, identify them, recognize various
ports/interfaces and related cables, etc.
4. Install Linux and Windows operating system on identified lab
machines, explore various options, do it multiple times
5. Connect various peripherals (printer, scanner, etc.) to computer,
explore various features of peripheral and their device driver
software.
6. Practice HTML commands, try them with various values, make your
own Webpage
7. Explore features of Open Office tools, create documents using these
features, do it multiple times
8. Explore security features of Operating Systems and Tools, try using
them and see what happens.
 EXPERIMENT 1
Browser features, browsing, using various search engines, writing search
queries

1. Navigation buttons

Refresh button is used to go back and forward while browsing. If you are in a home page of
some site, then you go to contact page – Back button would bring you back to the home page,
if then you would click forward button it would bring you again to the contact page. A small
arrow next to navigation buttons brings up a quick list of all back/forward web
pages available.

2. Refresh button

Refresh buttons is used to force web browser to reload webpage. Most major web
browsers use caching mechanism (store local copies of visited pages to speed up
performance) that sometimes prevents seeing the most updated information; by clicking
refresh, latest version of the page is forcefully reloaded.

3. Stop button

Cancels web browser's communication with a server and stops page loading. Very useful to
stop malicious sites from loading if accidentally entered.

4. Home button

Loads predefined home page. You can select any page as browser's home by clicking on tools
menu and selecting options.

5. Web browser's address bar

Address bar is used to enter website and page names. Address bar works as a dropdown menu
showing all previously visited sites. At the end of address bar you will find go button, that is
not very useful as by simply clicking enter (after typing or selecting a domain name) you will
be directed to the site.
6. Integrated search

Integrated search engine tool is relatively new feature in web browsers. It allows selecting
your favorite search engine and doing a quick search by typing in a search term.

7. Tabbed browsing

Browser tabs allow opening many websites on a single web browser's window - very helpful
when reading several websites at the same time. I.e. if you want to open several links from a
website without losing it, you can right click on each link you want to see, and select open in
a new tab option.

8. Bookmark buttons

Custom user defined buttons that redirect to chosen websites - Very useful to configure web
mail and other often visited sites. Check Mozilla Firefox browser for live bookmarking.

List of Top 12 Best Search Engines in The World

1. Google search engine optimization

Google Search Engine is the best search engine in the world and it is also one of most popular
products from Google. Almost 70 percent of the Search Engine market has been acquired by
Google. The tech giant is always evolving and looking to improve the search engine
algorithm to provide best results to the end-user.

2. Bing SEO | Perth | Web Design | Bing | PPC

Bing is Microsoft’s answer to Google and it was launched in 2009. Bing is the default search
engine in Microsoft’s web browser. At Bing, they are always striving to make it a better
search engine but it’s got a long way to go to give Google competition.

3. Yahoo yahoo | SEO

Yahoo & Bing compete more with each other than with Google. A recent report on
netmarketshare.com tells us that Yahoo have a market share of 7.68 percent. Although a
leader as a free email provider, this is declining significantly though with their recent
acknowledgement that User Details & Passwords where hacked last year.

4. Baidu Baidu - SEO - Perth - PPC

Baidu is the most used search engine in China and was founded in Jan, 2000 by Chinese
Entrepreneur, Eric Xu. This web search is made to deliver results for website, audio files and
images. It provides some other services including maps, news, cloud storage and much more.

5. AOL
Aol.com is also among the top search engines. These are the guys that used to send out CD’s
which you’d load onto your PC to install their browser and modem software. Once the pre-
eminent player they now have a market share of 0.59 percent.

6. Ask.com ask
Founded in 1995, Ask.com, previously known as Ask Jeeves. Their key concept was to have
search results based on a simple question + answer web format. It is a question & answer
community where you can get the answers for your question and it integrates a large amount
of archive data to answer your question.
7. Excite
Excite is not widely known but is one that still gets into the top 10. Excite is an online service
portal that provides internet services like email, search engine, news, instant messaging and
weather updates. This also provides us with the latest trends, topics and search for phrases
such as: What can President Trump actually do?

8. DuckDuckGo
DuckDuckGo is a popular search engine known for protecting the privacy of the users.
Unlike Ask.com they are quite open about who they use to generate search results; they’ve
partnered with Yahoo, Bing and Yummly.

9. wolfram alpha
Wolfram Alpha is a computational knowledge search engine which does not give list of
documents or web pages as search results. Results are based on facts & data about that query.
Their mission statement is to make all systematic knowledge computable and broadly
accessible.

10. Yandex
Launched in 1997, Yandex is most used search engine in Russia. Yandex also has a great
presence in Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Belarus and Turkey. It provides services like Yandex
Maps, Yandex Music, online translator, Yandex Money and many other services.

11. Lycos
Lycos has a good reputation in search engine industry. Its key areas served are email, web
hosting, social networking, and entertainment websites.

12. Chacha.com
Chacha.com is a human-guided search engine and was founded in 2006. You can ask
anything in its search box and you will be answered in real-time. It also provides mobile
search and marketing services. You can also install its mobile apps on iPhone, iPad and
Android.

Write Search Queries

To use the Search feature in Oracle Log Analytics, you must formulate a search query and
enter it in the Search field.

 Specify Entities
 Use Keywords, Phrases, and Wildcards
 Use Comparison Operators
 Use Boolean Expressions
 Understand the Search Commands
 Write Sub-Queries
 EXPERIMENT 2

Visit various e-govemance/Digital India portals, understand their features,

services offered
The guiding principles for reforming Government through technology are:
 Form simplification and field reduction – Forms should be made simple and user
friendly and only minimum and necessary information should be collected.
 Online applications and tracking - Online applications and tracking of their status
should be provided.
 Online repositories - Use of online repositories e.g. for certificates, educational
degrees, identity documents, etc. should be mandated so that citizens are not
required to submit these documents in physical form.
 Integration of services and platforms – Integration of services and platforms e.g.
Aadhaar platform of Unique Identity Authority of India (UIDAI), payment
gateway, Mobile Seva platform, sharing of data through open
 Application Programming Interfaces (API) and middleware such as National and
State Service Delivery Gateways (NSDG/SSDG) should be mandated to facilitate
integrated and interoperable service delivery to citizens and businesses.
 EXPERIMENT 3
Read Wikipedia pages on computer hardware components, look at those
components in lab, identify them, recognize various ports/interfaces and
related cables, etc.
Computer hardware includes the physical parts of a computer, such as the case, central
processing unit (CPU), monitor, mouse, keyboard, computer data storage, graphics card,
sound card, speakers and motherboard.

By contrast, software is the set of instructions that can be stored and run by hardware.
Hardware is so-termed because it is "hard" or rigid with respect to changes, whereas software
is "soft" because it is easy to change.

Hardware is typically directed by the software to execute any command or instruction. A

combination of hardware and software forms a usable computing system, although other
systems exist with only hardware.

The personal computer is one of the most common types of computer due to its versatility
and relatively low price. Desktop personal computers have a monitor, a keyboard, a mouse,
and a computer case.
The computer case holds the motherboard, fixed or removable disk drives for data storage,
the power supply, and may contain other peripheral devices such as modems or network
interfaces. Some models of desktop computers integrated the monitor and keyboard into the
same case as the processor and power supply.
Separating the elements allows the user to arrange the components in a pleasing, comfortable
array, at the cost of managing power and data cables between them.

Motherboard
The motherboard is the main component of a computer. It is a board with integrated circuitry
that connects the other parts of the computer including the CPU, the RAM, the disk drives
(CD, DVD, hard disk, or any others) as well as any peripherals connected via the ports or the
expansion slots.
Random-access memory (RAM), which stores the code and data that are being actively
accessed by the CPU. For example, when a web browser is opened on the computer it takes up
memory; this is stored in the RAM until the web browser is closed. It is typically a type of
dynamic RAM (DRAM), such as synchronous DRAM (SDRAM), where MOS memory chips
store data on memory cells consisting of MOSFETs and MOS capacitors. RAM usually comes on
dual in-line memory modules (DIMMs) in the sizes of 2GB, 4GB, and 8GB, but can be much
larger.
Read-only memory (ROM), which stores the BIOS that runs when the computer is powered on or
otherwise begins execution, a process known as Bootstrapping, or "booting" or "booting up". The
ROM is typically a nonvolatile BIOS memory chip, which stores data on floating-gate MOSFET
memory cells.
The BIOS (Basic Input Output System) includes boot firmware and power management
firmware. Newer motherboards use Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI) instead of
BIOS.
Buses that connect the CPU to various internal components and to expand cards for graphics and
sound.
The CMOS (complementary MOS) battery, which powers the CMOS memory for date and time
in the BIOS chip. This battery is generally a watch battery.
The video card (also known as the graphics card), which processes computer graphics. More
powerful graphics cards are better suited to handle strenuous tasks, such as playing intensive
video games or running computer graphics software.
A video card contains a graphics processing unit (GPU) and video memory (typically a type of
SDRAM), both fabricated on MOS integrated circuit (MOS IC) chips.

Power MOSFETs make up the voltage regulator module (VRM), which controls how much
voltage other hardware components receive.
 EXPERIMENT 4

Install Linux and Windows operating system on identified lab machines,

explore various options, do it multiple times

How to install Linux

Choose a boot option
Here's the overall process in a nutshell:

 Step one: Download a Linux OS. (I recommend doing this, and all subsequent steps, on
your current PC, not the destination system. Although the latter is an option if it's
malware-free and in decent working order, everything will get done faster and more
easily on your primary machine.)
 Step two: Create a bootable CD/DVD or USB flash drive.
 Step three: Boot that media on the destination system, then make a few decisions
regarding the installation.
The first part is easy: Just download Linux from Mint or Ubuntu or whatever site hosts the
version you want. That download will likely consist of a single ISO file. Note: An older
computer may have a 32-bit processor, which won't work with 64-bit versions of Linux.

The second part -- creating boot media -- requires a little thought. The fastest, easiest method
is to use a flash drive, even if the destination system has a CD/DVD drive. Indeed, the only
reason not to go the flash-drive route is if the destination system won't boot (or boot properly)
from one. (I've encountered this problem a few times, even after tweaking the BIOS boot
settings and actually selecting "USB drive" from a pop-up boot menu.)

Build your boot drive

Once you've downloaded your Linux ISO, you'll need a utility that can create a bootable flash
drive. I'm partial to Rufus, which is fast, free and easy to use. Download the portable version;
there's no need to actually install it, because most likely you'll just run it once.

Step 1: Plug in your flash drive (ignoring or closing any prompts that pop up), then run the
Rufus utility.

Step 2: In the Device field, at the very top, make sure your flash drive is the one selected. If
not, click the pull-down and select it.

Step 3: Near the checkbox marked "Create a bootable disk using," click the little disk icon
and navigate to the Linux ISO file you downloaded. It's most likely in your Downloads
folder. Click it, then click Open.

Step 4: If you like, you can change the "New volume label" field to something like "Linux,"
but it's not necessary. Click Start, then wait while the drive is formatted and the ISO
installed.

Get ready to boot

Now it's time to turn your attention to the destination system. It doesn't matter what condition
it's in or even if it's riddled with malware; you just need it to be able to boot from a flash
drive.
That may mean venturing into the BIOS and changing the boot order, which by default
almost certainly puts the hard drive first. Some systems do offer a pop-up boot menu that lets
you choose what device to boot from without having to monkey with the settings. If yours
does, count yourself lucky.

For example, I did some testing with a years-old HP Pavilion dm1z. When you first power it
on, there's no boot menu -- just a blank screen and then the Windows startup screen. So I did
a quick web search for "Pavilion dm1z boot menu" and learned that I need to press either F1
or F10 immediately after powering on the machine. (Turns out it was F10.)

That's pretty common, though based on past experience, it might also be F2, F9, F12 or even
the Delete key. Depends on the system.

Once you've found your way into the BIOS, find the boot or startup menu and make sure
"flash drive" or "USB drive" is first in the boot order. Then save and exit (usually by pressing
F10, but, again, this varies).

One OS or two?

As you probably know already, Linux can boot and run right from the flash drive -- no actual
installation required. That's a great way to test-drive a distro, but this tutorial is about
installing the OS, so let's focus on that option.

The big decision you'll need to make is whether you want to install Linux alongside your
existing OS, which would result in a dual-boot setup, or reformat the hard drive and run only
Linux. The former is worth considering if the system has a large drive and can easily
accommodate both operating systems, or you still have need for Windows.

This following instructions may vary a bit from one distro to the next, but
they're based on my installation of Linux Mint.

Step one: Boot from the flash drive directly into Linux.

Step two: Double-click the Install Linux icon on the desktop.

Step three: Make any requested selections regarding language, installation of third-
party software and so on. Then choose your OS installation preference: alongside the
existing OS or erase-and-install.
After you make your choice, just sit back and wait while Linux does its thing. The installation
might take some time, especially if the computer is on the older, slower side.

Installation of Windows:

1. Check your device meets the Windows 10 system requirements. Below you’ll find the
minimum specs needed to run Windows 10, so check your device is capable:
CPU: 1GHz or faster processor
RAM: 1GB for Windows 10 32-bit or 2GB for Windows 10 64-bit
Storage: 32GB of space or more
GPU: DirectX 9 compatible or later with WDDM 1.0 driver
Display: 800x600 resolution or higher
If your computer is lacking in terms of specs, then check out our roundup of the best laptops.
or get a beastly machine by choosing one of out best gaming PCs.

2. Create USB installation media. Visit Microsoft's Windows 10 download page and select
“Download tool now” under the “create Windows 10 installation media” section. Transfer
the downloaded installer tool to a USB drive.

How to install Windows 10

Before we get into the installation walkthrough, it’s worth noting that installing Windows 10
can be a lengthy process. Make sure you have enough time to wait it out.

1. Check your device meets the Windows 10 system requirements. Below you’ll find the
minimum specs needed to run Windows 10, so check your device is capable:
CPU: 1GHz or faster processor
RAM: 1GB for Windows 10 32-bit or 2GB for Windows 10 64-bit
Storage: 32GB of space or more
GPU: DirectX 9 compatible or later with WDDM 1.0 driver
Display: 800x600 resolution or higher
If your computer is lacking in terms of specs, then check out our roundup of the best laptops.
or get a beastly machine by choosing one of out best gaming PCs.

The Dell XPS 15 is an excellent Windows10 laptop (Image credit: Tom's Guide)
2. Create USB installation media. Visit Microsoft's Windows 10 download page and select
“Download tool now” under the “create Windows 10 installation media” section. Transfer the
downloaded installer tool to a USB drive.
3. Run the installer tool. Open the installer tool by clicking on it. Accept Microsoft’s terms,
and then select “Create installation media for another PC” on the “What do you want to
do?” page. After selecting which language you want Windows 10 to run in, and which edition
you want as well (32-bit or 62-bit), you’ll be asked what type of media you want to use.

4. Use your installation media. Insert your installation media into your device and
then access the computer’s BIOS or UEFI. These are the systems that allow you to control
your computer’s core hardware.
5. Change your computer's boot order. Once you have access to your computer’s
BIOS/UEFI you’ll need to locate the settings for boot order. You need the Windows 10
installation tool to be higher up on the list than the device’s current boot drive: this is the SSD
or HDD that your existing OS is stored on.
You should move the drive with the installer files to the very top of the boot order
menu. Now, when you restart your device the Windows 10 installer should load up first.
6. Restart your device. Save your settings in the BIOS/UEFI and reboot your device.

7. Complete the installation. Your device should now load up the Windows 10 installation
tool on restart. This will guide you through the rest of the installation process.
 EXPERIMENT 5
Connect various peripherals (printer, scanner, etc.) to computer; explore
various features of peripheral and their device driver software.
peripheral device, also known as peripheral, computer peripheral, input-output device,
or input/output device, any of various devices (including sensors) used to enter information
and instructions into a computer for storage or processing and to deliver the processed data to
a human operator or, in some cases, a machine controlled by the computer. Such devices
make up the peripheral equipment of modern digital computer systems.

Peripherals are commonly divided into three kinds: input devices, output devices, and storage
devices (which partake of the characteristics of the first two). An input device converts
incoming data and instructions into a pattern of electrical signals in binary code that are
comprehensible to a digital computer.

An output device reverses the process, translating the digitized signals into a form intelligible
to the user. At one time punched-card and paper-tape readers were extensively used for
inputting, but these have now been supplanted by more efficient devices.

Input devices include typewriter-like keyboards; handheld devices such as

the mouse, trackball, joystick, trackpad, and special pen with pressure-sensitive pad;
microphones, webcams, and digital cameras.

They also include sensors that provide information about their environment—
temperature, pressure, and so forth—to a computer. Another direct-entry mechanism
is the optical laser scanner (e.g., scanners used with point-of-sale terminals in retail
stores) that can read bar-coded data or optical character fonts.

computer keyboard
Output equipment includes video display terminals, ink-jet and laser printers,
loudspeakers, headphones, and devices such as flow valves that control machinery, often
in response to computer processing of sensor input data.

Some devices, such as video display terminals and USB hubs, may provide both input and
output. Other examples are devices that enable the transmission and reception of data
between computers—e.g., modems and network interfaces.

Most auxiliary storage devices—as, for example, CD-ROM and DVD drives, flash
memory drives, and external disk drives also double as input/output devices
(see computer memory). Even devices such as smartphones, tablet computers, and
wearable devices like fitness trackers and smartwatches can be considered as
peripherals, albeit ones that can function independently.

USB
Various standards for connecting peripherals to computers exist. For example, serial
advanced technology attachment (SATA) is the most common interface, or bus, for
magnetic disk drives.
A bus (also known as a port) can be either serial or parallel, depending on whether the
data path carries one bit at a time (serial) or many at once (parallel). Serial connections,
which use relatively few wires, are generally simpler than parallel connections. Universal
serial bus (USB) is a common serial bus.
 EXPERIMENT 6

Practice HTML commands, try them with various values, make your own
Webpage.
HTML Basic Examples

The HTML document itself begins with <html> and ends with </html>.

The visible part of the HTML document is between <body> and </body>.

Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<body>

<h1>My First Heading</h1>

<p>My first paragraph.</p>

</body>
</html>
HTML Headings

HTML headings are defined with the <h1> to <h6> tags.

<h1> defines the most important heading. <h6> defines the least important
heading:

Example
<h1>This is heading 1</h1>
<h2>This is heading 2</h2>
<h3>This is heading 3</h3>
HTML Paragraphs

HTML paragraphs are defined with the <p> tag:

Example
<p>This is a paragraph.</p>
<p>This is another paragraph.</p>
HTML Links

HTML links are defined with the <a> tag:

Example
<a href="https://www.w3schools.com">This is a link</a>
HTML Images

HTML images are defined with the <img> tag.

The source file (src), alternative text (alt), width, and height are provided
as attributes:

Example
<img src="w3schools.jpg" alt="W3Schools.com" width="104" height="142">
 EXPERIMENT 7

Explore features of Open Office tools, create documents using these

features, do it multiple times.
penOffice.org (OOo), commonly known as OpenOffice, is a discontinued open-source office suite. It
was an open-sourced version of the earlier StarOffice, which Sun Microsystems acquired in 1999 for
internal use.

OpenOffice included a word processor (Writer), a spreadsheet (Calc), a presentation

application (Impress), a drawing application (Draw), a formula editor (Math), and a database
management application (Base).
Its default file format was the OpenDocument Format (ODF), an ISO/IEC standard, which
originated with OpenOffice.org. It could also read a wide variety of other file formats, with
particular attention to those from Microsoft Office.

Sun open-sourced the OpenOffice suite in July 2000 as a competitor to Microsoft

Office, releasing version 1.0 on 1 May 2002.

In 2011, Oracle Corporation, the then-owner of Sun, announced that it would no longer offer
a commercial version of the suite and donated the project to the Apache Foundation.

Apache renamed the software Apache OpenOffice. Other active successor projects include
LibreOffice (the most actively developed and NeoOffice (commercial, and available only for
macOS).

OpenOffice.org was primarily developed for Linux, Microsoft Windows and Solaris, and
later for OS X, with ports to other operating systems. It was distributed under the GNU
Lesser General Public License version 3 (LGPL); early versions were also available under the
Sun Industry Standards Source License (SISSL).
Governance
During Sun's sponsorship, the OpenOffice.org project was governed by the Community
Council, comprising OpenOffice.org community members. The Community Council
suggested project goals and coordinated with producers of derivatives on long-term
development planning issues.
Fonts
OpenOffice.org included the Liberation fonts and the Gentium fonts Versions up to 2.3
included the Bitstream Vera fonts. OpenOffice.org also used the default fonts of the running
operating system.

Font work is a feature that allows users to create stylized text with special effects differing
from ordinary text with the added features of gradient colour fills, shaping, letter height, and
character spacing. It is similar to WordArt used by Microsoft Word.
When OpenOffice.org saved documents in Microsoft Office file format, all Font work was
converted into WordArt.

Extensions
From version 2.0.4, OpenOffice.org supported third-party extensions. As of April 2011, the
OpenOffice Extension Repository listed more than 650 extensions. Another list was
maintained by the Free Software Foundation.

OpenOffice Basic
OpenOffice.org included OpenOffice Basic, a programming language similar to Microsoft
Visual Basic for Applications (VBA). OpenOffice Basic was available in Writer, Calc and
Base. OpenOffice.org also had some Microsoft VBA macro support.

Connectivity
OpenOffice.org could interact with databases (local or remote) using ODBC (Open Database
Connectivity), JDBC (Java Database Connectivity) or SDBC (StarOffice Database
Connectivity).

File formats
From Version 2.0 onward, OpenOffice.org used ISO/IEC 26300:2006 OpenDocument as its
native format. Versions 2.0–2.3.0 default to the ODF 1.0 file format; versions 2.3.1–2.4.3
default to ODF 1.1; versions 3.0 onward default to ODF 1.2.

OpenOffice.org 1 used OpenOffice.org XML as its native format. This was contributed to
OASIS and OpenDocument was developed from it.
 EXPERIMENT 8

Explore security features of Operating Systems and Tools, try using them
and see what happens.
Security Features of Ordinary Operating Systems
A multiprogramming operating system performs several functions that relate to security. To
see how, examine Figure, which illustrates how an operating system interacts with users,
provides services, and allocates resources.

We can see that the system addresses several particular functions that involve
computer security:
User authentication. The operating system must identify each user who requests access
and must ascertain that the user is actually who he or she purports to be. The most common
authentication mechanism is password comparison.



Memory protection. Each user's program must run in a portion of memory protected
against unauthorized accesses. The protection will certainly prevent outsiders' accesses,
and it may also control a user's own access to restricted parts of the program space.
 Differential security, such as read, write, and execute, may be applied to parts of a user's
memory space. Memory protection is usually performed by hardware mechanisms,
such as paging or segmentation.
File and I/O device access control. The operating system must protect user and system
files from access by unauthorized users. Similarly, I/O device use must be protected.
Data protection is usually achieved by table lookup, as with an access control matrix.
Allocation and access control to general objects. Users need general objects, such as
constructs to permit concurrency and allow synchronization. However, access to these objects
must be controlled so that one user does not have a negative effect on other users. Again,
table lookup is the common means by which this protection is provided.



Enforced sharing. Resources should be made available to users as appropriate. Sharing
brings about the need to guarantee integrity and consistency. Table lookup, combined
with integrity controls such as monitors or transaction processors, is often used to support
controlled sharing.
Guaranteed fair service. All users expect CPU usage and other service to be provided
so that no user is indefinitely starved from receiving service. Hardware clocks combine
with scheduling disciplines to provide fairness. Hardware facilities and data tables
combine to provide control.
Interprocess communication and synchronization. Executing processes sometimes need
to communicate with other processes or to synchronize their accesses to shared
resources. Operating systems provide these services by acting as a bridge between
processes, responding to process requests for asynchronous communication with other
processes or synchronization. Interprocess communication is mediated by access
control tables.

Protected operating system protection data. The operating system must maintain data
by which it can enforce security. Obviously if these data are not protected against
unauthorized access (read, modify, and delete), the operating system cannot provide
enforcement. Various techniques, including encryption, hardware control, and
isolation, support isolation of operating system protection data.