STAGES AND TEORIES OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

 PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY
Introduction
Erik H. Erikson said that Personality develops in a predetermined order. Instead of focussing
on sexual development, he was interested in how the process of Socialisation affects a
child's sense of self. According to hem, personality unfolds through eight different Stages,
each with two possible outcomes. Each stage involves certain developmental tasks. If a
stage is managed well, we acquire a certain virtue or psychological strength, which will help
us for the rest of our life.
Development of personality from infancy to late adulthood:

Stage:
1. Infancy: (birth to 1 year)

 Psychosocial crisis: Basic trust v/s mistrust

 Developmental tasks: children learn to trust others based on their interactions with
their caregiver. If a child receives consistent care, he/she develops trust, gains
Confidence and is able to feel secure, even when threatened, unsuccessful
completion of this stage can result in mistrust and a world. sense of fear about the

2. Early childhood: (2-3 years)

 Psychosocial crisis: Autonomy vs shame and doubt.

 Developmental tasks: children begin to assert their independence and want to
choose what they wear eat etc. They start learning motor skills. Attaining self-control
is an important lesson to be learnt. Parents must balance between encouraging their
child's autonomy and protecting her from failure.

3. Middle childhood: (4 to 5 years)

 Psychosocial crisis: Initiative v/s guilt

 Developmental tasks: children take the initiative and plan their own activities. It is a
period of inquisitiveness given the right opportunities, children develop a sense of
initiative and feel secure in their ability to bad others and make decision. If they are
 excessively criticised or controlled, they may develop a sense of guilt and fail to
develop initiative.

4. Late childhood (6 to 11 years)

 Psychosocial crisis: Industry v/s Inferiority

 Developmental tasks: children begin to develop a sense of pride in their
accomplishments and gain self-confidence. Attaining academic skills and relating with
peer group becomes important for their self-esteem. Teachers play a crucial role in
helping children reach their potential. Parents must have reasonable expectations
and provide positive feedback so that children do not develop postings of inferiority.

5. Adolescence (12 to 18/19 years)

 Psychosocial crisis: Identity versus Role confusion.

 Development tasks: During adolescence, children are developing their independence
and a sense of self. At this time, adolescent must integrate all the different images of
themselves, i.e. son, daughter, friend, scout and so on into a whole that makes sense.
Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement will develop a strong
sense of self and a feeling of independence and control. Those who remain unsure of
their beliefs and desire will be insecure and confused about themselves and the
future.
 Identity: Erikson defines identity as a "fundamental organizing principal which
develops constantly through out the life span". Indentity involves the experiences,
relationship, beliefs, values, and memories that makeup a person's personality or
subjective sense of self. Identity provides:
1) Self-Sameness: A sense of continuity within the self and interaction
with others.
2) Uniqueness: A frame to differentiate between self and interaction with
others.
3) Psychosocial development: Mental and physical health for
adolescents.
 Role confusion: In early adolescent period, they who are not allowed to explore and
test out different identities might be left with what Erikson referred to as role
confusion, which can result in the following.
1) Being unsure of who you are and where you fit in.
2) Drifting from one activity on relationship to another.
 3) Feeling disappointed and confused about your proper place in life.

 virtue: Fidelity
Those who are successful develop fidelity, a psychological virtue characterized by the
ability to related to others and form genuine relationship. This ability plays an
important role in upcoming stage known as intimacy versus isolation.
During the identity vs role confusion stage, the conflict is centered on developing a
personal identity. Sucessfully completing this stage leads to a strong sense of self that
will remain throughout the life.

6. Young adulthood: (18 to 35 years)

 Psychosocial crisis: Intimacy vs. Isolation.

 Development tasks: This stage covers the periods of 18 to 35 years of age when
people are exploring personal relationships. Erikson believed it was vital to develop
close committed relationships with other people. Those who are successful at this
step will develop relationship that are committed and secure. Studies have revealed
that those with a poor sense of self tend to have less committed relationships son
and more often suffer emotional isolation loneliness and depression.
 Intimacy: Erikson believed that it was vital to develop close, committed relationships
with other people. As people enter yearly adulthood, these emotionally intimate
relationships plays a critical role in a person's emotional well-being.
People who are successful in solving the conflict of the intimacy versus isolation
stage have:
(i) Deep, meaningful connections with other.
(ii) Enduring connections with other people.
(iii) Positive relationships with family and friends.
(iv) Strong relationships, and strong social support in society.
 Isolation: Struggling in this stage of life can result in loneliness and isolation. Adults
who struggle with this stage experience:
(i) Few or no friendship
(ii) Lack of intimacy
(iii) Lack of relationships
(iv) Poor romantic relationship
 (v) Weak social support.

 Virtue: Love The basic virtue associated with intimacy vs isolation is love which
Erikson defines as the ability to give, receive and reciprocate affection..
The major conflict at this stage of the life centers on forming intimate, loving
relationships with other people. Success at this stage. leads to fulfilling relationships.
Struggling at this stage, on the other hand can result in feeling of loneliness and
isolation.

7. Middle adulthood (35 to 55/60 years)

 Psychosocial crisis: Generativity v/s. Stagnation

According to Erikson, "Generativity is primarily the concern for establishing and
guiding the next generation." Raising children, being productive at work, becoming
involved in community activities and perpetuating culture through one's family and
important tasks to be accomplished. Failure in fulfilling these tasks can result in
stagnation, which in turn leads to self-absorption and feelings of being unproductive.

 Generativity: Generativity refers to "making your mark" on the world by caring for
others, as well as through creating and accomplishing things that make the world a
better place. Key characteristics of generativity include :
(i) Developing relationships with family
(ⅱ) Making commitment to other people
(iii) Mentoring others
(iv) Contributing to the next generation.
According to Erikson generativity encompasses procreativity, productivity and creativity.

 Stagnation: Stagnation refers to the failure to find a way to contribute. Stagnant

individuals may feel disconnected or uninvolved with their community or with society
as a whole. Some characteristics of stagnation include:
(i) Being self-centered.
(ii) Failing to get involved with others.
(iii) Not taking an interest in productivity.
 (iv) No efforts to improve the self.
(۷) placing one's concerns above all else.

 Virtue: care Erikson believed that those in middle adulthood should take care of the
persons, the products, and the ideas one has learned to care for."

During this stage, middle-aged adults strive to create or nurture things that will
outlast them, often by parenting children or fostering positive changes that benefits
others, contributing to society and doing things to promote future generations.

8. Old age: (55/60 & + years)

 Psychosocial crisis: Integrity vs. Despair

 Development tasks : This is a period of slowing of one's productivity which comes

with retirement. It is a time to take stock of one's accomplishment and develop a
sense of ego integrity by coming to terms with life. If one sees life as being
unproductive, it may bring feelings, of guilt and result in feeling of despair, of ton
causing depression.

 Integrity: It is also known as ego integrity, refers to a person's ability to Look back on
their life with a sense of accomplishment and fulfilment. Characteristics of integrity
include:
(i)Acceptance
(ii) A sense of wholeness.
(iii) Lack of regret
(iv) Feeling at peace
(۷) A sense of Success
(vi) Feeling of wisdom and acceptance.
 Despair:

According to Erikson, refers to looking back on life with feelings of regret, shame or
disappointment on characteristics of despair include:
(i)Bitterness
(ii)Regret
 (iii) Ruminating over mistakes
(iv) Feeling that life was wasted
(v) Feeling unproductive
(vi) Depression
(vii)Hopelessness.

 virtue: wisdom : At this point in development, people look back on the events of
their lives and determine if they are happy with the life that they lived or if they
regret the things they did or didn't do.

 PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
Introduction
One might consider that Freudian psycho- analytic theory is basically a family theory or
Freud considered how the individual develops overtime within the context of a family,
specifically interacting with mother and father, later siblings. Psychoanalytic theory was
the first of many psycho- dynamic theories to follow many within a direct line form
Freudian thinking. Freud named the level of consciousness unconscious, conscious and
preconscious (not is much use now). He developed a topography of the self - Id, Ego and
superego. He also posited that human behaviour was built up over time through distinct
stages Oral, Anal, Oedipal, Latency and Genital.

3 Levels of Awareness→ Conscious

Preconscious
Unconscious

 Conscious:
Current contents of your mind
that you actively think of.
What we call working memory.
Easily accessed all the time.

 Preconscious :
Contents of the mind you are
not currently aware of.
Thoughts, memories, knowledge, wishes, feelings.
Available for easy access when needed.
  Unconscious :
Contents kept out of conscious awareness.
Not accessible at all.
Processes that actively keep these thoughts from awareness.

Freudian components of Personality -- Id

Ego
Superego

 ID -
i) Resides completely at the unconscious level
ii) Acts under the pleasure principle
iii) Immediate gratification, not willing to compromise
iv) Generates all of the personality's energy.

 Superego –
i) The moralist and idealistic part of the personality.
ii) Resides in preconscious.
iii) Operates on 'ideal principle'
iv) Begins forming at 4-5 yrs of age.
v) Essentially your 'conscience'.

 Ego -
(i) Resides in all levels of Ego awareness.
(ii) Operates under 'reality principle'.
(iii)Attempts negotiation between Id and superego to satisfy both realistically.

Conflicts of Personality Components -

Conflicts between the Id , Superego and ego arise in the unconscious mind, can't be
reached in conscious. Come out in various ways.
~ Slips of tongue (Freudian slip').
~Dreams.
~ Jokes
~Anxiety
 ~Defence mechanism.

Defence mechanism -
The defence mechanisms operate unconsciously to protect the ego from threats from the
id and from external reality.
 Denial -
~Refusal to accept external realities because - too threatening to enter awareness
~ e.g. denying that your physician's diagnosis of cancer is correct and seeking a
second opinion.
 Repression -
~Internal impulses and memories too threatening so based from entering awareness.
~ e.g Forgetting sexual abuse from your childhood due to the trauma and anxiety.

 Projection -
~Attribute unacceptable thoughts on impulses onto others (project these
inappropriate thoughts e.t.c onto others).
~ e.g When losing an argument, you state, "You're just stupid".
 Displacement -
~Shifting attention form one target that is no longer available to a more acceptable
on safer' substitute.
~e.g Slamming a door instead of lifting as person, yelling at your spouse after an
argument with your boss.

 Regression -
~Returning to a previous stage of development.
~eg sitting in a corner and crying after hearing bad news; throwing a temper tantrem
when you don't get your way.

 Rationalizations -

~Supplying a logical or rational reason as opposed to the real reason.

~e.g- stating that you were fired because you didn't kiss up to the boss, when the real
reason was your poor performance.

Psychosexual Development→
 Stages of development in which conflict over Id's impulses play out.
Ego must control these impulses.
If not resolved, psychological issues can emerge later in life.
Freud's Psycho-sexual stages
Stages Focus
1. Oral (0 -18 Pleasure centre on the mouth-sucking, chewing, biting.
months)
2. Anal (18-36 Pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder elimination; coping with
months) demands for Control.
3. Phallic (3-6 Yrs) Pleasure zone is the genitals; coping with incestous sexual peelings.
4. Latency (6.- Dormant sexual feelings.
puberty)
5. Genital Maturation of sexual interest.
(Puberty on)

Conclusion
Psychoanalysis won't conceive or just a method of treatment, but also as a training method
for new analysts. Basically it was an attempt to surface and interpret all material located in
the unconscious. This process was deemed to be curative for the patient.

 TREAT AND TYPE OF THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

Introduction
The trait theory of personality suggest that people have certain basic traits and it is strength
and intensity of those traits that amount for personality difference. The trait approach to
personality is one of the major theoretical areas in the study of personality. Trait theory
suggests that individual personalities are composed of broad dispositions. With its origins in
ancient Greece, type theory was developed and popularised by Carl Jong during the 20th
century. At its cone, type theory suggests that there are only a limited number of
personality types. Generally, type theories are much more restricted than trade theories
and are open to modern criticism as a result.
Trait Theory of Personality
Definition
It defines human personality in terms of trait. Traits are stable persistent and specific way
of behaving. Their strength and combinations very from person to person.

 Trait Approach - Allport's theory

In 1936, psychologist Golden Allport found that one English language dictionary alone
contains more than 4,000 words describing different personality traits. He categorised that
traits into three level
1. Cardinal traits: Traits that dominate an individual's whole life, and of ten to the point
that the person becomes known specifically for these traits. Freudian, Machiavellian, Don
Juan etc.
2. Central Traits: These are the general characteristics that form the basic foundations of
personality. Terms Such as considered intelligent, honest, shy and anxious are considered
Central traits.
3. Secondary Traits: these are traits that are sometimes related to attitudes or performance
and often appear only in certain situations or under specific circumference. Some examples
like getting anxious when speaking to a group or impatient while waiting in line.
 Trait Approach Cattell's Theory
Surface Traits Source Traits

Describe regular behaviour. Underlying trait.

Friend constantly gives in, never takes a Produces behaviours we can see.
stand.
Source trait for example: submissive.
Traits cluster together because of the
underlying trait. 16 total source traits.

 Trait Approach - Eysenck's Theory

Based on Hans Eysenck's Theory, there is a biological basis to personality, and personality
differences arise from genetic heritage. The Eysenck's model has three super factors that
are independent constitutes: Extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism.
Introversion → Extroversion
 Stability ------ Neuroticism
Self-control → Psychoticism
 Traits approach - five factor theory
The Five Factor Theory, also known as the Big Five personality traits, is a widely accepted
framework in psychology that categorizes individual differences into five broad dimensions:
1. Openness to Experience:
- Curious
- Open-minded
- Artistic
- Imaginative
- Liberal
2. Conscientiousness:
- Responsible
- Organized
- Reliable
- Efficient
- Perfectionistic
3. Extraversion:
- Outgoing
- Sociable
- Assertive
- Excitable
- Seek social interaction
4. Agreeableness:
- Cooperative
- Compassionate
- Polite
- Empathetic
- Warm
5. Neuroticism:
- Anxious
- Angry
- Vulnerable
- Sad
- Self-critical
 Type theory of personality
Definition
It defines human personality in a broader sense. According to which personality refers to
one particular type and that type includes some specific behavioural characteristics
 Type approach --- Hippocrates typology
Hippocrates' Typology, also known as the "Four Humours" or "Four Temperaments," is an
ancient Greek approach to understanding personality and behaviour.
The Four Humours:
1. Sanguine (Blood):
- Optimistic
- Sociable
- Impulsive
- Emotional
2. Choleric (Yellow Bile):
- Confident
- Ambitious
- Quick-tempered
- Competitive
3. Melancholic (Black Bile):
- Analytical
- Reserved
- Perfectionistic
- Moody
4. Phlegmatic (Phlegm):
- Calm
- Rational
- Indifferent
- Stubborn
-
 Type approach Charak Samhita (Ayurveda)
People can be classified into the following categories
1. Vatta
 2. Pitta
3. Kapha

 Williams Seldom's type theory

American physician William Sheldom (1942) related the psyche to temperament. Seldom
proposes to the endocrine mesomorphic and ectomorphic typology.
 The endomorphs are fat soft and round. By temperament they are relaxed and
sociable.
 The mesomorphs have strong muscular tone with a strong body build. They are
energetic and courageous.
 The ectomorphs are thin long and fragile in body build. They are brainy, artistic and
introvert.

 Jung's theory of introvert and extrovert

Introvert (Inward Focus):
1. Energized by solitude and reflection
2. Prefer quieter environments
3. Reflective, independent, and reserved
4. Focus on internal thoughts and feelings
Extravert (Outward Focus):
1. Energized by social interactions and external stimuli
2. Prefer lively environments
3. Outgoing, social, and assertive
4. Focus on external world and social interactions
Introversion and extraversion are adaptive strategies. Individuals can exhibit both
introverted and extraverted tendencies. Jung's theory is a continuum, with ambiversion
(balance) in the middle. "There is no such thing as a pure introvert or extravert. Such a
person would be in the lunatic asylum." - Carl Jung

 Friedman and Rosenman Theory

Friedman and Rosenman have classified individuals into Type A and Type-B personalities.
 Type-A personality: Type-A personality seem to process high motivation, lack
patient, feel short of time, be in great hurry and feel like being always burdened with
work
 Type-B personality: Opposite to Type-A is the type-B personality, which can be
understood as the absence of Type-A traits.
  Type -C personality: Marris has suggested a type-C personality which is prone to
cancer. Individuals characterised by the co-operate, unassertive and patient.
 Type-D personality: More recently, a Type-D personality has been suggested, which
is characterized by prone to depression.

Conclusion
Personality psychology are usually very appealing but are too simplistic. Human behaviour
is highly complex and variable. Assigning people to a particular Personality type is difficult.
People don't fit into such simple categorisation neatly.

 HUMANISTIC APPROACHES OF PERSONALITY

INTRODUCTION:
The Humanistic Approach began in response to concerns by the therapist against perceived
limitations of psychodynamics theories especially psychoanalysis. Individuals like Canal
Rogers and Abraham Maslow felt existing (Psychodynamics) theories failed to adequately
address issues like the meaning of behaviour, and the nature of healthy growth.
Maslow's ideas surrounding the Hierarchy of need. Concerning the responsibility of
employers to provide a workplace environment that encourages and enables employees to
fulfil their own unique potential (self- evaluation) are today more relevant than ever

 THEORY OF ABRAHAM MASLOW:

Abraham Maslow developed the hierarchy of Needs Model 'in the 1940-50's in the USA.
And the Hierarchy remains valid even today for understanding motivation, management
training, and personal development
Maslow took this idea and created his famous hierarchy of needs. Beyond the details of ain,
coater, food and Beyond the Sex, he laid out five broader layers. The physiological needy,
Needs for Safety and security, needs for love and belonging, Needs for esteem, Need to
actualise the self.
  Physiological needs: These include the needs we have for oxygen, water, protein,
salt, sugar, calcium and other mineral and vitamins. Also, there's the need to be
active to rest, to sleep, to get rid of waste, to avoid pain, and to have sex.
 Safety and Security needs: When the physiological needs are taken care of, this
second physiological needs come into play. You will becomes increasingly interested
in finding Safe circumstances, Stability, protection
 Love and Belonging needs: When physiological needs and Safety are, by and large,
taken care of, a third layer Starts to show up. You begin to feel the need for friends, a
Sweetheart, children, affectionate relationship in general.
 Self- esteem: Maslow noted two versions of esteem needs, a lower and higher. One,
the lower one is the need for the respect of others, the need for status, fame, glory,
recognition, attention, appreciation, dignity and dominance.
 Self- actualisation: Self- actualization is the ultimate psychological need of reaching
one's potential. Characteristics include:
Self- aware and self- accepting
open, spontaneous, loving, caring
Not paralyzed by others opinions. Focused on a particular task.

 CARL ROGERS - DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY:

Actualising tendency:
The most basic human motive that is the innate drive to maintain and enhance ourselves.
An example of the within us to try actualizing tendency harden and is the little voice never
give up. Some people believe that competitiveness cannot be taught; but rather is
something that resides inside a person. In other words, it is something you are born with on
is innate.
CARL ROGERS - Self Concept:
How you think about yourself affected by: positive regard - Conditional and Unconditional.
The Sense of be loved and valued by other people.
Conditional Positive Regard :
- A person is valued and loved only when he/she behaves in a way that is acceptable to
others. eg - I will love you. If you get good grades.
- Can lead to incongruence - A state in which a child's self - Concept conflicts with their
own experience.
Unconditional positive Regard:
- An attitude of total acceptance toward another person despite their faults and
failings.
- This is needed for one to grow up healthy and be congruent
- Based on genuineness and empathy
- Unconditional positive regard will help to create congruence - A person's Sense of
self consistent with their emotions and experiences.
eg-your self real self is similar to your idealself.

 EVALUATING THE HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE:

- Humanism has influenced therapy, child- rearing, and the workplace.

- Laid the foundation for positive psychology studying what is right about people. -
Difficult to test on validate scientifically.
- Tends to be too optimistic.
- Has a hard time explaining some of the more destructive aspects of human nature.

 LEARNING THEORY OF PERSONALITY (PAVLOV AND SKINNER)

INTRODUCTION
Learning theory of personality presents a model of personality that emphasises observable
behaviour, the relationship between stimuli and responses, and the impact of learning. The
behaviourist position is that personality is no more (or less) than a collection of learned
behaviour patterns. They do not give importance to the internal causes of behaviour.
Personality, like other learned behaviour, is acquired through classical and operant
conditioning, observational learning, reinforcement, extinction, generalisation, and
discrimination. Children can learn things like kindness, hostility, generosity, or
destructiveness. In the present unit we will discuss two important learning theories of
personality. First, we will focus our attention to Pavlov’ theory of learning and then we will
turn to explain the important features of Skinner theory of personality.
OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
• Define learning concepts underlying learning theories of personality;
• Explain the learning theories of personality;
• Deliberate the process of classical conditioning;
• Describe principles of classical conditioning;
• Explain how classical conditioning develops and maintains behaviours; and
• Explain the applications of classical conditioning in the modification of behaviour.

PAVLOV: LEARNING THEORY OF PERSONALITY

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849-1936) was born in Ryazan, Russia, and attended the religious
school and seminary there, where he studied natural science. He did not complete his
studies, but entered St Petersburg University in 1870, where he continued to study natural
science, and decided to make his career as a physiologist. After graduation in 1875, he went
to the Military Medical Academy to pursue his research. He completed his doctorate there
in 1883, and then went to Germany (1884–6), where he studied in Leipzig with Carl Ludwig,
and in Breslau. In 1890 he was appointed professor in the department of pharmacology in
the Military Medical Academy. In 1904 he received the Nobel Prize for his work on the
physiology of digestion. From 1925 to 1936 he worked mainly in three laboratories: the
Institute of Physiology of the Soviet Academy of Sciences (which is now named after him),
the Institute of Experimental Medicine, and the biological laboratory at Koltushy (now
Pavlov), near St Petersburg. Pavlov was a skillful ambidextrous surgeon; using dogs as
experimental animals, he established fistulas from various parts of the digestive tract by
which he obtained secretions of the salivary glands, pancreas, and liver without disturbing
the nerve and blood supply.
 Process of Classical Conditioning
In order to examine the process of classical conditioning in a systematic manner, Pavlov
first performed a simple operation on his dog, in which a rubber tube was inserted into
salivary gland so that the precise amount of saliva secreted during the experiment could be
measured. After making these initial preparations a neutral stimulus (e.g., a bell) was
presented for a brief period of time, followed quickly by a second stimulus known to elicit
salivation response and called unconditioned stimulus (e.g., Meat Powder). Each pairing of
conditioned stimulus (CS) and unconditioned stimulus (UCS) served as conditioning trials,
and a number of such pairings were conducted in rapid succession. As a result of repeated
pairing the CS (bell) acquired the ability to evoke the salivation. Because the salivation to
the bell (CR) began to occur only after the conditioning, it was termed conditioned response
(CR). On the other hand the salivation response to the meat powder which seems to occur
automatically was termed unconditioned response (UCR).
CS ( Bell) Exploratory Response

UCS( Food) CR(Saliva)

Pavlov further stated that a conditioned stimulus can serve as the basis for further
conditioning, which is demonstrated by Pavlov. In the experiment of first-order
conditioning, food was removed from the situation, and a new stimulus (e.g., light) was
paired with bell. This new stimulus (light) also acquired the property of eliciting the
response. Rescorla (1973) suggested that under appropriate circumstances even third order
conditioning can be established.
 Principles of Classical Conditioning
Now we will focus on some of the important principles of classical conditioning which
governs:
i) Acquisition
ii) Generalisation and Discrimination
 Acquisition
There are two important factors which exert strong influence upon the ability of a
conditioned stimulus to elicit a response.
1) First is the number of pairings between this stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus.
As the number of pairings increases, the conditioned stimulus comes to evoke a
conditioned response with increasing strength. The strength of the response is
measured in terms of magnitude, latency and probability of occurrence of the
conditioned response.
2) The second factor which exerts an important effect upon the process of classical
conditioning is the interval, which elapses between the presentation of conditioned
stimulus and unconditioned stimulus. For many different responses, conditioning
appears to be maximal when this interval is 0.50 seconds. However, further
researches suggest that in some cases, it can be much longer and still produce
conditioning.iii) Extinction and Spontaneous recovery.

 Generalisation and Discrimination

Once the organism is conditioned to one stimulus, it is often found that it will respond to
other stimuli, similar in some dimensions to it. This phenomenon is known as stimulus
generalisation. Stimulus generalisation plays a very important adaptive role. For example,
the sounds made by angry bees, wasps, and hornets are highly similar, but certainly not
identical. Because of stimulus generalisation, however an individual who has learned
through painful experience to react with the fear and caution to one of the sound may also
respond in a similar manner to others as well. Opposite to this phenomenon is stimulus
discrimination.
 Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery
When a conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented but is never followed by the
unconditioned stimulus with which it was formerly associated, its ability to elicit
conditioned response gradually decreases, and may fade completely. This phenomenon is
known as extinction. But if the same extinguished stimulus is then presented again at a
later time, its capacity to evoke the response is found to reappear. This phenomenon is
termed spontaneous recovery. Extinction of conditioned response is also very important for
the development of normal personality. If we lack some mechanism for getting rid of
useless reactions to stimuli which no longer serve as reliable cues for the occurrence of
such events, we would become a walking bundle of useless conditioned responses.
 Principles of Behaviour Modification
The principles of classical conditioning are found to be very useful for the modification of
behaviour. The principles of classical conditioning have also been applied in the treatment
of neurosis and phobias. Rather than focusing on the root of the problem like a traditional
psychopathologist, a behaviourist could focus on eliminating the symptom by bringing
classical conditioning into play. By reinforcing the extinction of the symptom, the
psychopathological illness of the patient could be eliminated (Schwartz & Lacy, 1982). For
example, the therapeutic technique, known as flooding which is used to treat phobias relies
on the principles of extinction. Systematic desensitisation is still another important
technique successfully in dealing with a wide range of mal-adaptive behaviours, including
examination anxiety, phobias, nightmares, stuttering, depression, obsession, impotence,
and anorexia nervosa, based on the principles of extinction.

B. F. SKINNER: LEANING THEORY OF PERSONALITY

Burrhus Frederic Skinner was born on March 20, 1904, in a small Pennsylvania town of
Susquehanna. His father was a lawyer, and his mother a strong and intelligent housewife.
His upbringing was old-fashioned and hard-working. He received his BA in English from
Hamilton College in upstate New York. He didn’t fit in very well, not enjoying the fraternity
parties or the football games. He wrote for school paper, including articles critical of the
school and the faculty. Skinner’s theory of personality, like other learning theories of
personality did not grow out of the therapeutic situations, rather it emerged from the
works carried out in laboratory settings. Skinner derived his principles of learning from the
study of individual subjects in precisely controlled condition. He focused on the study of
individual subjects instead of generalised group which reflected his belief that lawful
control can be seen in individual behaviour.
 Operant Behaviour
According to skinner personality of an individual can be understand through the study of his
behaviour. He further stated that behaviour can be distinguished in two types,
(i ) Respondent : Respondent behaviours are those which are elicited by the stimuli of
the environment that are well-known and can be identified easily. These behaviours are
involuntary and automatic in the sense that if the stimuli is presented before the organism,
the behaviour related to that stimuli will occur automatically. The organism has no control
over it. Constrictions of pupil, salivation, sweating etc. are examples of such behaviours.
These behaviours are usually not learned by the organism at simple level, but at complex
level.
(ii) Operant: Operant behaviours, on the other hand, are those behaviours which are not
caused by any specific stimuli of the environment. The stimuli of the operant behaviour are
difficult to identify. These behaviours are performed by the individual voluntarily. Skinner
was of the opinion that behaviours of human beings are predominantly operant in nature.
 Schedules of Reinforcement
Skinner decided to reduce the number of reinforcements he gave his rats for whatever
behaviour he was trying to condition, and observed that the rats kept up their operant
behaviours, and at a stable rate, no less. This is how Skinner discovered schedules of
reinforcement. Following schedules of reinforcement were applied by Skinner:
1) Continuous reinforcement: In continuous reinforcement schedule, every time that the
rat does the behaviour (such as pushing the lever), it gets the food.
2) Intermittent Reinforcement Schedule: In intermittent reinforcement schedule the rat
does not get the reinforcement every time he presses the lever. It is further divided into
two types: (a) The fixed ratio (b) The fixed interval.
 Aversive Stimuli
An aversive stimulus is the opposite of a reinforcing stimulus, something we might find
unpleasant or painful. A behaviour followed by an aversive stimulus results in a decreased
probability of the behaviour occurring in the future. This both defines an aversive stimulus
and describes the form of conditioning known as punishment. If you shock a rat for making
a response, the rat will stop to make that response. If you spank the baby for throwing his
toys he will throw his toys less and less (maybe). On the other hand, if you remove an
already active aversive stimulus after a rat or baby performs a certain behaviour, you are
doing negative reinforcement. If you turn off the electricity when the rat stands on his hind
legs, he will do a lot more standing.
 Secondary Reinforcement
A neutral stimulus presented at the time of delivering the response also tends to acquire
the reinforcing ability. For example in the Skinner box at the time of delivering
reinforcement a sound of click is also produced repeatedly each time. It was found that this
click of sound itself acquires the reinforcing characteristics being associated with the
original reinforcer. The sound of click is now called “secondary reinforcement”.
 Successive Approximation or Shaping
A question Skinner had to deal with was how we get to more complex sorts of behaviours.
He responded with the idea of shaping, or “the method of successive approximations.”
Basically, it involves first reinforcing a behaviour only vaguely similar to the one desired.
Once that is established, you look out for variations that comes a little closer to what you
want, and so on, until you have the organism performing a behaviour that would never
show up in ordinary life. Skinner and his students have been quite successful in teaching
animals to do some quite extraordinary things.
 Superstitious Behaviour
The type of conditioning, in which there is no causal relationship between the response and
the reinforcement, is referred by Skinner as superstitious conditioning. When the
reinforcement happens to occur purely due to chance factor at the time the individual
made a particular response, the individual started to believe that the particular response
made by him was the cause for getting the reinforcement, while there was no functional or
causal relationship between the response he made and the reinforcement he got.
 Abnormal Behaviour
The constructs like repressed wishes, an identity crisis, conflicts between ego and superego,
etc. did not appeal to Skinner for explanation of the abnormal behaviours. He advocated
that the framework on which his theory is based is sufficient to understand and explain the
abnormal behaviour. Abnormal behaviour is assumed to be the same in its principles of
development as normal behaviour.

CONCLUSION
Learning theory of personality presents a model of personality that emphasises observable
behaviour, the relationship between stimuli and responses, and the impact of learning. The
behaviourist position is that personality is no more (or less) than a collection of learned
behaviour patterns. Personality, like other learned behaviour, is acquired through classical
and operant conditioning, observational learning, reinforcement, extinction, generalisation,
and discrimination. In the present unit we have discuss two important learning theories of
personality. First, we focused on Pavlov’ theory of learning and then we explained Skinner
theory of personality.