TAITA TAVETA NATIONAL POLYTECHNIC

LIBERAL STUDIES DEPARTMENT

APPLY COMMUNICATION SKILLS LEVEL 5&6

Hi! Welcome to Communication Skills.

This module unit is intended to equip you with knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary to
process information from a variety of sources and apply communication skills at the work
place and in day to day interactions.

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TOPIC ONE: APPLY COMMUNICATION CHANNELS.
Introduction to communication.

Welcome to the first topic of the unit.

Topic Learning Outcomes

By the end of the topic, the trainee should be able to define/ describe/ discuss/ explain and
apply the following:

1. Communication process
2. Principles of effective communication
3. Channels/medium/modes of communication
4. Factors to consider when selecting a channel of communication
5. Barriers to effective communication
6. Flow/patterns of communication
7. Sources of information
8. Organizational policies

1. Communication process
The communication process facilitates the sharing of meaning between the sender and
receiver of the message. It is through the communication process that an effective
communication and understanding of meaning takes place. Effective communication occurs
when communicators keep their messages concise, clear and accurate through all stages of
the communication process. Thus, it is ultimately necessary for anyone aspiring to become a
good communicator to learn the key elements of each stage of the communication process.

Elements of communication
 Sender/Transmitter
This is the person formulating and sending the message. He originally
conceives or comes up with an original idea and he gives / assigns these ideas
understandable codes e.g., words, symbols, signs etc., with his receiver(s) in
mind.
 Message
Is the content being communicated i.e., the actual information which the
communicator is aspiring to share with his audience.
 Channel/Medium
It is the means through which the message is transmitted from the sender to the
intended audience.
 Receiver/Audience/Recipient
These are intended people who receive and interpret the message.
 Feedback
After receiving and interpreting the message the receiver sends back the response
which the sender would use to judge whether the message was
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 transmitted/received, if the message was understood as intended and if there is
more/extra information needed to reinforce/aid/assist understanding.

A complete communication process undergoes eight key stages as detailed below:

Stages of Communication

The communication process/procedure starts when the sender/communicator has an idea to

communicate to some other person known as the receiver/audience

The stages are as discussed under;

 Conception of the Message (Sender)

The communication process begins with the source if the message, who is the sender
in the communication process. A sender creates/comes up with a message which
consists of information and ideas that he or she wishes to disseminate. Upon coming
up with an idea the sender then translates the idea into understandable codes through a
process called encoding.
Sender's functions make up half the process of communication.

The functions of the sender are:

1. Being clear about the goal/purpose of the communication
2. Finding out about the understanding and needs of the target audience
3. Encoding the required information and ideas with symbols to create the
message to suit the receiver/ audience
4. Selecting the medium to send the message

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 5. Making efforts to get feedback that is, finding out the response of the target
audience

 Encoding of the Message (Sender)

Through encoding the sender translates the idea into suitable words,
signs/symbols, gestures or some other forms which he feels will make the receiver
understand his message easily. (The goal of encoding should be to make the
message understanding easy). The message should be encoded clearly and in a
simple way for it to be understood clearly. For example, the sender should use a
language that the receiver can understand.

 Selection of the Medium/Channel Selection (Sender)

The sender then selects the most appropriate and effective vehicle that will
deliver the message to the receiver considering factors which shall be discussed
later on. The channels of communication may be written, verbal, or use of
gestures. Verbal channels include face-to-face, telephone and videoconferencing.
On the other hand, written channels of communication include emails, reports,
letters, and social media posts. The choice of medium or channel determines the
effectiveness of the message transmission. The channel chosen should be
appropriate so that the message reaches the right receiver(s) in the right form.

 Transmission/Sending (Sender)
The message is then transferred to the receiver through the selected channel

 Reception/Receiving (Receiver)
This is the physical act of receiving the message through any of the five human
senses: hearing, seeing, tasting, smelling and touching.
Receiver's functions complete one cycle of the process of communication. The
functions of the receiver are:
1. Attending to the received message, that is, listening, reading or observing
2. Decoding the received message
3. Interpreting and understanding the meaning of the message
4. Responding to the message
5. Giving feedback to the sender of the message

 Decoding (Receiver)
Decoding of the message involves the receiver trying to assign meaning to the
language used as he relates the language to his past knowledge or experience,
terms of vocabulary, cultural beliefs and the communication environment. It is not
always the case that the receiver understands the meaning the way it was intended
by the sender. This could be due to the wrong choice of communication channel
or inappropriate encoding and decoding. It is also possible that the receiver may
lack sufficient background knowledge to understand the message, or he might not
understand the specific jargon or technical language that you are using

 Comprehension (Receiver)
This takes place when the receiver tries to spend moments to absorb the meaning
and understand the technical jargon used by the sender. In any communication, the

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 sender intends to make the receiver take a specific action or respond to the
message in a certain way. However, the receiver may interpret the message
subjectively. The receiver often brings in their ideas and beliefs which may affect
how they understand the message and respond to it. Misunderstanding between
sender and receiver occurs when the receiver interprets the message in a different
way as intended by the sender. Therefore, the sender should put the ideas and
feelings of the receiver into consideration before sending the message.

 Feedback (Receiver)
After giving/assigning the message meaning, the receiver takes the necessary
action and sends his response to the sender of the message in form of feedback.
The importance of this stage of the communication process is that it shows
whether the message was encoded and decoded accurately, and that the receiver
has understood its meaning. Without feedback, the communication process is not
complete. The message has to be received and acted on for it to be considered a
complete process.

Following are the major advantages of feedback

• It acts as a guideline for the next message to be sent to the receiver. For example,
once a teacher tells his student about how to write or speak. For the next occasion,
it may act as a guideline.
• Feedback enables the sender of the message to have self-assessment. He may see
how well he is accomplishing the objectives.
• Feedback enables employees to develop awareness of their strengths and
weaknesses and help them to improve their performance in future.
• Feedback inspires and motivates people to continue with the good work. It also
de- motivates them from those activities, which others do not appreciate.
• Feedback makes the recipient convinced that the sender really cares about what he
or she has to do or say.
• Interpersonal relationship is strengthened through continuous feedback.
• Openness, trust, and cooperation increases among employees. In personal
relationship too, feedback can be used for development purpose.
• Feedback also makes an individual active, alert, independent and autonomous in
their respective jobs and environment.
• Properly used, feedback in the organizational context can create a vibrant and
creative organization.
• When feedback becomes the organization‘s culture and philosophy, it will attract
high achievers to organizations

 Noise

Noise is any interference in encoding or decoding process that reduces the clarity
of a message. This can occur at any stage in the process of communication.
Noise can be in the form of:
1. Physical noise, which can be in form of distracting sounds or sights. Such noise is
usually easier to prevent in a speaking or listening situation. For example, closing
doors to a noisy room, wearing ear plugs etc.
2. Psychological noise, mental and emotional interferences that distract
communication, such as day dreaming, pain, hunger and the like.

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 3. Semantic noise, which is the use of expressions that are unknown to the receiver
or are too complex in grammatical structure. They include language differences,
inattention and misunderstanding caused by different interpretations of a word or
an expression. Cultural diversity can also lead to semantic noise because people
from different cultures may have different meanings to same words
4. Physiological noise manifests from the inside of either the receiver or sender of
the message and is caused by a physiological process. Physiological processes are
the physical and chemical functions of your body. Examples of physiological
processes include hunger, fatigue, headaches, pain, and physiological effects from
medicine that affects the way you think or feel. The diagram below shows how
noise affects the communication process

2. Principles of effective communication

Effective communication occurs when information is transmitted between individuals and
organizations with the purpose of informing, persuading, and building goodwill.
An effective communication should be clear, complete, correct, save time, and achieve the
intended purpose. Here are some of the essential elements of effective communication:
1) Should have clarity of purpose
2) Be well informed
3) Analyse the audience
4) Avoid jargons
5) Communicate confidently
6) Be consistent
7) Should be simple
8) Should be straightforward
9) Address your target
10) Good listening

THE 7 C’S/PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Effective communication occurs when that which we speak (oral), write (written
communication) or express through our non -verbal body actions or visual symbols achieves
the intended purpose of establishing understanding or transfer of understanding.

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Communication is effective only when both the sender and the receiver are focused on the act
of communication. While the sender must sharpen and improve skills of speaking and
writing, the receiver must improve skills of listening and reading.
The qualities of communication which the sender must achieve are called the Cs of
Communication because they begin with the letter C.
There are 7 Cs of effective communication which are applicable to both written as well as
oral communication. These are as follows:
1) Completeness - The communication must be complete. It should convey all facts required
by the audience. The sender of the message must take into consideration the receiver‘s mind
set and convey the message accordingly. One should organize his message in such a way that
the receiver is not in doubt about anything contained in it e.g. when announcing a meeting,
the announcement should state when the meeting is to be held (date) where it is to be held
(venue), why it is being held (reason), what is to be discussed in the meeting (agenda) and
who is to attend the meeting and maybe how members are expected to reach the venue.

A complete communication has following features:

 Complete communication develops and enhances reputation of an organization.
 Moreover, they are cost saving as no crucial information is missing and no additional
cost is incurred in conveying extra message if the communication is complete.
 A complete communication always gives additional information wherever required. It
leaves no questions in the mind of receiver.
 Complete communication helps in better decision-making by the
audience/readers/receivers of message as they get all desired and crucial information.
It persuades the audience.

2) Conciseness - Conciseness means wordiness, i.e., communicating what you want to

convey in least possible words without forgoing the other Cs of communication. Conciseness
is a necessity for effective communication.
Conciseness means expressing much in a few words; in business communication it means
keeping to the point, using as few words as possible without sacrificing clarity or courtesy. It
does not necessarily mean being brief; it means making every word count.
Concise communication has following features:
 It is both time-saving as well as cost-saving.
 It underlines and highlights the main message as it avoids using excessive and
needless words.
 Concise communication provides short and essential message in limited words to the
audience.
 Concise message is more appealing and comprehensible to the audience.
 Concise message is non-repetitive in nature
.

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3) Consideration - Consideration implies ―stepping into the shoes of others‖. Effective
communication must take the audience into consideration, i.e., the audience‘s viewpoints,
background, mind-set, education level, etc. Make an attempt to envisage your audience, their
requirements, emotions as well as problems. Ensure that the self-respect of the audience is
maintained and their emotions are not at harm. Modify your words in message to suit the
audience‘s needs while making your message complete.
Features of considerate communication are as follows:
 Emphasize on ―you‖ approach.
 Empathize with the audience and exhibit interest in the audience. This will stimulate a
positive reaction from the audience.
 Show optimism towards your audience. Emphasize on ―what is possible‖ rather than
―what is impossible‖. Lay stress on positive words such as jovial, committed, thanks,
warm, healthy, help, etc.

4) Clarity - Clarity implies emphasizing on a specific message or goal at a time, rather than
trying to achieve too much at once. It refers to clarity of thought and expression.
a) Clarity of Thought -The beginning of communication process is the generation of an
idea
in the mind of the sender/transmitter.
At this point, the communicator must be clear about: -
i. What is the objective of communication?
ii. What is being communicated?
iii. What medium is the most suitable for this
process?

b) Clarity of Expression
• It‘s through proper coding of the message that the receiver will understand the
idea in the transmitters mind.
• If encoding is faulty the message may be misinterpreted and vice versa.

As a golden rule, to achieve clarity of expression: -

1. Use simple words i.e. city instead of metropolis, final instead of ultimate etc.
2. Avoid jargon i.e. operation instead of surgery.
3. Avoid ambiguity: when your message means more than one thing, it is
ambiguous, the ambiguity is mainly caused by a careless use of personal
pronouns e.g. John told Peter that he was not being considered for promotion.
4. Avoid Faulty punctuation e.g.‖ the Marketing Manager‖, said the Chairman is
a fool. The marketing manager said, ―The chairman is a fool‖.
5. Use short sentences – whether your communication is oral or written use very
short sentences. As a rule, if a sentence runs beyond 30 words, it is better to
break it up into 2 sentences.

Clarity in communication has following features:

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  It makes understanding easier.
 Complete clarity of thoughts and ideas enhances the meaning of message.
 Clear message makes use of exact, appropriate and concrete words.

5) Concreteness - Concrete communication implies being particular and clear rather than
fuzzy and general. Concreteness strengthens the confidence.
Concrete message has following features:
 It is supported with specific facts and figures.
 It makes use of words that are clear and that build the reputation.
 Concrete messages are not misinterpreted.

6) Courtesy - Courtesy in message implies the message should show the sender‘s expression
as well as should respect the receiver. The sender of the message should be sincerely polite,
judicious, reflective and enthusiastic.
Some simple rules for courtesy are:
i. Use the courtesy words please, thank you and sorry as the situation requires.
ii. Express appropriate feeling according to the situation. For example, sympathy when
someone suffers, good wishes when someone begins something new, and
congratulation when someone achieves something.
iii. Make the other person feel comfortable. This is an important factor of courtesy. Care
and consideration for the reader is reflected in the letter. The opening sentence itself
shows the courtesy of the writer:
 We appreciate your promptness in sending the goods.
 Thank you for sending your quotation so promptly.
 We are sorry to learn that you were inconvenienced. Requests must also be
made courteously:
 We would appreciate it very much if you could send your cheque within three
days of receiving our bill.
 Will you please look into the matter at once?
iv. Be attentive and prompt in responding. Every message, written or oral should be
answered within twenty-four hours. If it is a letter of complaint, the response should
be immediate; a courteous company makes a phone call or sends a fax message
immediately on receiving a complaint or hearing about a problem. Everyone
appreciates prompt attention.
v. Let the tone, the choice of words and the style of the message reflect your
consideration for the feelings and needs of the receiver. This is particularly important
if the message to be 'conveyed is likely to be unpleasant for the reader. A courteous
letter has the best chance of getting a favourable response. Seeing the situation as the
reader sees it, and taking care of his/ her needs, is courtesy. You must have an
awareness of how the words sound to the receiver.

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Courteous message has following features:
 Courtesy implies taking into consideration both viewpoints as well as feelings of the
receiver of the message.
 Courteous message is positive and focused at the audience.
 It makes use of terms showing respect for the receiver of message.
 It is not at all biased.

7) Correctness - Correctness in communication implies that there are no grammatical errors

in communication, correct/appropriate choice of a medium and correct language is used.
Correct communication has following features:
 The message is exact, correct and well-timed.
 If the communication is correct, it boosts up the confidence level.
 Correct message has greater impact on the audience/readers.
 It checks for the precision and accurateness of facts and figures used in the message.
 It makes use of appropriate and correct language in the message.

Awareness of these 7 Cs of communication makes you an effective communicator.

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 3. Channels/medium/modes of communication
Channel is the medium that carries the message from the source to the target audience.
1. Face-to-Face
Face-to-face is still the preferred communication channel if clarity of message is of
primary importance.
Advantages
• Face to face communication allows you to interact with the listener in a
back-and-forth discussion.
• It also allows you to utilize nonverbal gestures, facial expressions and
personal charisma to enhance the message.
• Fast feedback.
Disadvantages
• A drawback is the potential that a conflict could become more heated or
emotional in a face-to-face channel.
• Tension or stress is also more likely if you have personal conflict with the
other person.
• No permanent record. Not admissible in court. Cannot be used as evidence.
• Frequent interruptions.
2. Telephone
Landlines or mobile telephones are useful communication tools in businesses
where distance and travel prevent face-to-face conversation.
Advantages
• The telephone still allows immediate interaction between two parties in the
communication.
• Mobile phones also expand your ability to communicate with distant
workers or offices.
Disadvantages
• There is lack of nonverbal or facial expressions. This can inhibit the ability
to interpret the context or emotion of a message sender.
• The phone is also less personal than a face-to-face meeting.
• No permanent record except in where there is the recording of the
conversation. Prone to disturbances such as static which hinder audibility.
3. E-mail
This is the use of computer hardware and associated software to transmit electronic
mail over a network.
Advantages
• E-mail is a vital communication channel in geographically dispersed
companies.
• E-mail allows for more flexible response times. You can send a message
one day and receive a response in a few hours or the next day. It allows for
conversation that isn't time pressured, but can serve for fast turnaround
times.
• It also allows for the inclusion of files, such as documents or images.
• Permanent record.
• Prior planning before prior.
Disadvantages

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 • E-mail is less personal than either face-to-face or phone.
• Lack of instant clarifications.
• Feedback can be slow.

4.Letters, memos, e-mail, notices, reports etc. (Written communication)

Written communication expresses facts and ideas in writing in a clear, convincing
and organized manner. Some of the various forms of written communication that
are used internally for business operations include memos, reports, e-mail, letter,
bulletins, job descriptions, employee manuals.

5.TV and Radio

4. Factors to consider when selecting a channel of

communication

a) The type of audience you want to reach.

b) The speed with which the message should be conveyed: The pressure of time and the
distance between the sender and the receiver influence the choice of the medium. Some
media are faster and can travel distances rapidly, like the telephone, the fax and the email;
these media also have the advantage of being person to person.
c) Need for confidentiality of the message is an important consideration. The choice will
certainly be influenced by requirement of secrecy; all media do not ensure the same secrecy
of the message. Messages like warning memo, report on a customer's credit standing, demand
for overdue payment, and so on, are confidential. They cannot be sent by media like telegram
or telex or fax even if they are urgent.
d) Need for accuracy in transmission is not the same for all messages. If the content to be
transmitted is mainly data, you make the choice for accuracy and speed in transmitting.
e) Need for reliability of the medium is an important factor. Sending a message by hand
delivery is more reliable than ordinary mail; registered post is more reliable than ordinary
mail.
f) Cost of the medium and its relative importance and urgency.
g) Availability of a particular medium to the sender and to the receiver is obviously an
affecting factor. You can use only those media which both you and the intended receiver can
access. You may have a fax machine but if the receiver does not have one and has no
arrangements for receiving a fax message, you cannot use that medium.

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h) Feedback capacity of the medium: For some messages, you need immediate feedback; you
have to use a medium which will enable you to get it at once, like the telephone.
i) Availability of hard copy for record.
j) Formality of the medium must be suitable to content of the message. A letter of
congratulation is more formal and has a different effect from conveying the same message
orally.
k) Intensity and complexity of the message is a major factor. Many messages in an
organisation have an emotional content, which influences the choice considerably; the
emotional content is not carried equally by all media.

5. Barriers to effective communication

Communication barriers can include anything that prevents or disables communicators to
deliver the right message to the right person at the right time, or a receiver to get the right
message at the right time.
There are many reasons why interpersonal communications may fail. In many
communications, the message (what is said) may not be received exactly the way the sender
intended. It is, therefore, important that the communicator seeks feedback to check that their
message is clearly understood.
The skills of Active Listening, Clarification and Reflection may help but the skilled
communicator also needs to be aware of the barriers to effective communication and how to
avoid or overcome them.
There are many barriers to communication and these may occur at any stage in the
communication process. Barriers may lead to your message becoming distorted and you
therefore risk wasting both time and/or money by causing confusion and misunderstanding.
Effective communication involves overcoming these barriers and conveying a clear and
concise message.

Common barriers to effective communication.

The use of jargon. Over-complicated, unfamiliar and/or technical terms.
Emotional barriers and taboos. Some people may find it difficult to express their emotions
and some topics may be completely 'off-limits' or taboo. Taboo or difficult topics may
include, but are not limited to, politics, religion, disabilities (mental and physical), sexuality
and sex, racism and any opinion that may be seen as unpopular.

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Lack of attention, interest, distractions, or irrelevance to the receiver.
Differences in perception and viewpoint.
Physical disabilities such as hearing problems or speech difficulties.
Physical barriers to non-verbal communication. Not being able to see the non-verbal cues,
gestures, posture and general body language can make communication less effective. Phone
calls, text messages and other communication methods that rely on technology are often less
effective than face-to-face communication.
Language differences and the difficulty in understanding unfamiliar accents.
Expectations and prejudices which may lead to false assumptions or
stereotyping. People often hear what they expect to hear rather than what is actually said
and jump to incorrect conclusions.
Cultural differences. The norms of social interaction vary greatly in different cultures, as do
the way in which emotions are expressed. For example, the concept of personal space varies
between cultures and between different social settings.
A skilled communicator must be aware of these barriers and try to reduce their impact by
continually checking understanding and by offering appropriate feedback.

A categorization of barriers to effective communication

1) Language Barriers
Language and linguistic ability may act as a barrier to communication.
However, even when communicating in the same language, the terminology used in a
message may act as a barrier if it is not fully understood by the receiver(s). For example, a
message that includes a lot of specialist jargon and abbreviations will not be understood by a
receiver who is not familiar with the terminology used.
Regional colloquialisms and expressions may be misinterpreted or even considered offensive.
2) Psychological Barriers
The psychological state of the communicators will influence how the message is sent,
received and perceived.
For example: If someone is stressed, they may be preoccupied by personal concerns and not
as receptive to the message as if they were not stressed.
Stress management is an important personal skill that affects our interpersonal relationships.
Anger is another example of a psychological barrier to communication. When we are angry it
is easy to say things that we may later regret, and also to misinterpret what others are saying.
More generally people with low self-esteem may be less assertive and therefore may not feel
comfortable communicating - they may feel shy or embarrassed about saying how they really
feel, or read unintended negative sub-texts in messages they hear.

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3) Physiological Barriers
Physiological barriers to communication may result from the receiver‘s physical state. For
example, a receiver with reduced hearing may not fully grasp the content of a spoken
conversation especially if there is significant background noise.
4) Physical Barriers
An example of a physical barrier to communication is geographic distance between the
sender and receiver(s).As mentioned earlier, many companies now depend on digital means
of communication due to social distancing and remote ways of working. These physical
barriers are even more evident within organizations with blue-collar employees without
designated working space.
Such barrier can go a long way in causing damage to an organization that doesn‘t know how
to leverage technology to eliminate communication challenges.
Communication is generally easier over shorter distances as more communication channels
are available and less technology is required. The ideal communication is face-to-face.
Although modern technology often helps to reduce the impact of physical barriers, the
advantages and disadvantages of each communication channel should be understood so that
an appropriate channel can be used to overcome the physical barriers.
5) Systematic Barriers
Systematic barriers to communication may exist in structures and organizations where there
are inefficient or inappropriate information systems and communication channels, or where
there is a lack of understanding of the roles and responsibilities for communication. In such
organizations, people may be unclear of their role in the communication process and
therefore not know what is expected of them.
6) Attitudinal Barriers
Attitudinal barriers are behaviours or perceptions that prevent people from communicating
effectively.
Attitudinal barriers to communication may result from personality conflicts, poor
management, resistance to change or a lack of motivation. To be an effective receiver of
messages you should attempt to overcome your own attitudinal barriers to to help ensure
more effective communication.
However, these communication barriers present just a high-level overview of the cause of
inefficient communication. Let‘s take a deeper look into some of the most common
communication barriers.
Communication Barriers
1. Communication skills and styles
People have different communication skills and styles. Often times, these differences in
communication skills can create communication barriers between the communicator and the
receiver of the message.

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For example, while some people may be highly detailed and specific when communicating,
others may tend to generalize. However, even though communication skills are extremely
important, only 18% of employees are evaluated on their communication skills in
performance reviews.
3. Disengagement
Effective communication is about engagement between the parties involved in
communication. When there is no engagement from both parties, this ruins the purpose of
effective communication.
Unfortunately, organizations across the world are fighting the problem of disengaged
workplaces. They are struggling to catch their employees‘ attention and drive the culture of
open, engaged, and transparent communications.
4. Organizational structure
Complex and rigid organizational structure can be the main culprit for inefficient
communication, making it one of the most common communication barriers. Such
organizations may have inefficient information sharing and communication systems,
often resulting in frustrations, lack of engagement, and productivity among employees.
If a company is highly hierarchical, information can easily get siloed, lost or distorted as it
travels through each layer of the hierarchy.
5. Information overload
Too little information is not good, but too much information can cause even more damage.
Yet, information overload has always been one of the biggest communication barriers.
Moreover, information overload has proved to have a very negative impact on employees‘
wellbeing, productivity, and success at work.
6. Lack of trust
When there is no trust, there is no effective communication. In other words, when employees
don’t trust their employers, leaders, or managers, communication suffers.
This is the reason why one of the main goals for organizations across the world has become
to build trust in the workplace. Yet, many employers still have a long way to go to become
more trustworthy.
7. Clarity, consistency, and frequency
Communications professionals need to understand the importance of clear, consistent, and
frequent communication. When messages across different channels are not consistent, trust
gets hurt. When messages don‘t get delivered frequently or in a timely manner, employees
miss out on important information or updates.
According to a Gallup study, employee engagement increases when managers provide
consistent and clear communication. Another study showed that 4 out of 5
employees surveyed wanted to hear more frequently from their bosses about how their
company was doing, and more than 90% of employees surveyed said they would rather hear
bad news than no news.

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8. Listening
Communication should always be a two-way street. Moreover, listening is often much more
important than speaking. Yet, many companies still don‘t understand the importance of
encouraging employees‘ share of voice and the value of their feedback.
Those who drive and nurture the culture of open workplace communication enjoy a happier,
healthier, and more engaged work.
9. Wrong communications channels
There are many different communication channels people use nowadays. The same is true for
companies, especially large enterprises. Such complexity in the communication
ecosystem makes it hard for employers to make sure that they use the right channels to
inform their people and deliver relevant information in a timely manner.
As the result, the average employee spends around 20% of their time searching for
internal information.
10. Demographic and cultural differences
The way people interact with each other can vary depending on the demographic and cultural
differences. If communicators are not aware of these differences, communication barriers will
arise.
Hence, it is important to find a common ground for effective communication and adapt to
the work culture of the organization to communicate effectively.
11. Wrong communication technology
Communication technology can make or break any organization‘s communication strategy.
In the sea of available technology, employers need to be able to find and implement solutions
that best fit their organizational needs and goals.
Luckily, modern internal communications solutions are made to tackle the biggest
communication barriers.
12. Lack of personalization
Lack of personalization is one of the biggest reasons why disengagement happens. When
receivers get information that is not relevant to their nature of work, or messages that are of
no interest to them, they are much more likely to ignore future communications coming
their way.
Content localization has, therefore, become one of the main priorities for communication
professionals whose goal is to improve employee engagement and experience in the
workplace.
13. Grapevine communication
American Management Association estimating that 70% of all organizational
communication emanates through the grapevine. Moreover, most people deem it
trustworthy as well.

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This informal type of communication may have a significant impact on your people, your
business performance, and your ability to build trust with your employees. Therefore, it is
crucial for employers to understand the power of grapevine communication in order to be
able to control and manage it effectively.

Strategies to overcome communication barriers

There are a lot of communication barriers faced these days by all. The message intended by
the sender is not understood by the receiver in the same terms and sense and thus
communication breakdown occurs. It is essential to deal and cope up with these
communication barriers so as to ensure smooth and effective communication.

As, in the previous section we have discussed the major barriers of communication. Let‘s
talk about how to overcome these barriers of communication.

Eliminating differences in perception: The organization should ensure that it is recruiting

right individuals on the job. It‘s the responsibility of the interviewer to ensure that the
interviewee has command over the written and spoken language. There should be proper
Induction program so that the policies of the company are clear to all the employees. There
should be proper trainings conducted for required employees (for e.g.: Voice and Accent
training).

Use of Simple Language: Use of simple and clear words should be emphasized. Use of
ambiguous words and jargons should be avoided.

Reduction and elimination of noise levels: Noise is the main communication barrier which
must be overcome on priority basis. It is essential to identify the source of noise and then
eliminate that source.

Active Listening: Listen attentively and carefully. There is a difference between ―listening‖
and ―hearing‖. Active listening means hearing with proper understanding of the message that
is heard. By asking questions the speaker can ensure whether his/her message is understood
or not by the receiver in the same terms as intended by the speaker.

Emotional State: During communication one should make effective use of body language.
He/she should not show their emotions while communication as the receiver might
misinterpret the message being delivered. For example, if the conveyer of the message is in a
bad mood then the receiver might think that the information being delivered is not good.

Simple Organizational Structure: The organizational structure should not be complex. The
number of hierarchical levels should be optimum. There should be a ideal span of control
within the organization. Simpler the organizational structure, more effective will be the
communication.

Avoid Information Overload: The managers should know how to prioritize their work.
They should not overload themselves with the work. They should spend quality time with
their subordinates and should listen to their problems and feedbacks actively.

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Give Constructive Feedback: Avoid giving negative feedback. The contents of the feedback
might be negative, but it should be delivered constructively. Constructive feedback will lead
to effective communication between the superior and subordinate.

Proper Media Selection: The managers should properly select the medium of
communication. Simple messages should be conveyed orally, like: face to face interaction or
meetings. Use of written means of communication should be encouraged for delivering
complex messages. For significant messages reminders can be given by using written means
of communication such as: Memos, Notices etc.

Flexibility in meeting the targets: For effective communication in an organization the

managers should ensure that the individuals are meeting their targets timely without skipping
the formal channels of communication. There should not be much pressure on employees to
meet their targets.

Make communication more agile

Earlier, we saw that highly hierarchical organizations can struggle with

communication more than those within which information flows more freely. In today‘s
ever-changing world, it is extremely important to implement more agile means and ways of
communication.

Information should always flow both ways, upward communication should continuously be
encouraged, and employers should be able to quickly reach their target audiences.

6. Flow/patterns of communication

Communication patterns can be classified as vertical, horizontal and diagonal.

a. Vertical communication.

It has upward and downward communication:

i. Upward communication
This is communication from subordinates to the management.

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Importance of upward communication

i. Providing feedback

It provides the managers with the necessary feedback from employees. It also enables the
managers to know if directives given to employees have been understood and followed. It
also gives the managers an opportunity to know what the employees think about the
organization and its policies.

ii. Offering constructive suggestions

Employees give constructive suggestions to promote the welfare of the organization. When
employees realize that their suggestions have been implemented, they get motivated and
work efficiently resulting to increase in productivity.

iii. Creation of harmony and cohesion

It brings a conducive environment at the workplace which promotes harmony and oneness
between the management and the employees.

iv. Easy introduction of schemes

It is easy to introduce new schemes in an organization when employees feel part of the
decision-making process. They also ensure the schemes succeed. E.g. of schemes: medical,
education, housing

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v. Release of emotions

Employees are able to express their various emotions to the management. This gives them
relief even if the issues are not solved immediately.

Methods of upward communication

i. Open door policy

The employees are given the feeling that the managers doors are always open to them and
whenever they like, they can go to the manager‘s office and talk to them about their
problems.

ii. Reports

Employees may be required to submit reports about the progress of their work at regular
intervals.

iii. Complaints and suggestion boxes

They are placed at strategic places in the organization. Employees are encouraged to drop
their complaints or suggestions in these boxes.

iv. social gatherings

They include a company fun day, sports days, end of year parties. Such gatherings offer an
informal atmosphere where employees feel free to offer suggestions and talk to the
management about their problems.

v. Letters

Sometimes employees may write to their managers on their own accord about professional
issues affecting them.

vi. Counselling

In organizations, workers are encouraged to seek advice from their managers or the
counselling department when they face professional, health and domestic challenges.
Employees may be discouraged by failure to get promotions or encounters with inhuman and
unprofessional managers. Counselling helps the employees to deal with their problems. The
information they provide can be used to improve the policies of the organization.

Limitations of upward communication

i. Employees are usually afraid to start communication with their managers for fear of
victimization from the management.

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ii. Employees usually feel communicating their problems could be exposing the
weaknesses of the management. E.g., a new secretary may complain about a poor filing
system.

iii. Employees may distort information because they do not want to annoy the managers.
Therefore, they may consciously censor information when speaking to them.

iv. Poor relationships may occur between an employee and the immediate supervisor if
the employee bypasses the supervisor and goes straight to the manager.

Essentials of effective upward communication

i. Managers keep encouraging employees to go to their offices but instead, the managers
should walk to their employees‘ working areas.

ii. Distortion of information can be avoided if the communication lines are kept as short
as possible.

iii. Managers should solve genuine problems from employees and implement employees‘
constructive suggestions if found appropriate.

ii. Downward communication

This is communication from the management to the subordinates. E.g. from the manager to
assistant manager.

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Methods/channels of downward communication

i Face to face

ii Telephone conversations

iii Letters

iv Memos

v Notices

vi Interviews

Objectives of downward communication

i. To praise subordinates of their good performance

ii. Explain organization policies and procedures

iii. To keep employees informed of the importance of their jobs in relation to the
organization goals

iv. To give specific directives to an employee.

Limitations of downward communication

i. Delay in communication

Transmission of information is a time-consuming process as information leaves the managers

and is expected to reach the subordinates. However, the information may delay losing its
meaning.

ii. Loss of information

Unless the information is written down, it may not be transmitted in full.

iii. Resistance to change

Employees see downward communication as authoritative as they are not involved in the
decision-making process. Therefore, they may oppose the decisions made by the
management.

iv. Distortion of information

In long lines of communication, information is twisted /exaggerated so that it loses its

meaning as some facts may be lost.

v. Under communication

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A manager may give too little information for it to be useful to the employees.

vi. Over communication

A manager may speak too much leaking confidential information.

Essentials of effective downward communication

1. Managers should be informed about the policies, procedures and objectives of their
organization. If they have adequate knowledge, they will transmit this information to their
subordinates in an effective manner.

2. Managers should have a communication plan. This will help them decide how much
information should reach the subordinates and at what time.

3. Managements should provide an organization structure that allows all people at

various management levels to give orders and effect decisions. This will ensure delays are
eliminated.

b. Horizontal communication

Occurs between people of the same status /rank/level in organization e.g. departmental
heads/supervisors/directors or others whose work is similar but takes places within different
sections of the organizations.

Apart from letters and reports, horizontal communication can take the following forms: -

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1. Coordinating committees

Sometimes it is valuable to bring together representatives of different departments to discuss

new developments, so that people in that part of the company know what is going on in other
sections.

After such meetings, representatives may well report back to their own sections (another form
of downward communication)

2. Group conference/departmental heads meetings

Are rather similar to coordinating committee meeting except that it takes place between heads
of departments.

Importance of horizontal communication

i. It promotes understanding and co-operation among departments

ii. Employees do not face any communication problem for when the problem crops up, it
is thrashed out through mutual consultation

Challenges Related to Horizontal Communication

1. Some departments feel their work is so superior to another department and may not
cooperate with the others.

2. Empire building can also cause a breakdown in horizontal communication;

Some heads of departments may want to feel their departments are the best and they are also
special in the way they handle department matters.

They may fail to share information freely with other departments out of fear of competition.
This will in the end affect the organization adversely.

3. Horizontal communication may also be affected by the problem of language

especially when specialists from different departments communicate with others.;

The specialist may use jargon which is not familiar to a lay person in another department e.g.,
the language used by people from computer and accounting departments. Recall ‗starter‘-
automotive and hospitality departments.

c. Diagonal communication

This is communication between people of different levels in different departments or

different organizations e.g., an accounts clerk may communicate with a sales manager of the

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same organization or of different organizations. Diagonal communication enhances team
work.

7. Sources of information

Sources of information or evidence are often categorized as primary, secondary, or tertiary

material. These classifications are based on the originality of the material and the proximity
of the source or origin.

1. Primary Sources

Definition: Primary sources are original, first-hand accounts or evidence directly related to
the subject of study. They provide direct or firsthand evidence about an event, object, person,
or work of art.

Examples:

 Historical Documents: Original manuscripts, letters, diaries, and autobiographies.

 Legal Documents: Court cases, statutes, and treaties.
 Research Data: Original research reports, experiments, and surveys.
 Artifacts: Objects such as tools, clothing, and artworks from the time of study.
 Media Records: Original broadcasts, photographs, and videos.
 Interviews and Oral Histories: Direct conversations or recordings with people who
experienced an event or phenomenon.
 Creative Works: Novels, poems, and artworks created by the original artist or
author.

Merits:

 Authenticity: Provides direct, unmediated evidence of the subject matter, offering

firsthand accounts or original data.
 Originality: Contains original content, allowing for unique insights and original
research.
 Detailed Evidence: Often contains rich, detailed information and data that may not
be available in secondary or tertiary sources.
 Historical Value: Essential for studying historical events, cultural artifacts, and
personal experiences directly.

Demerits:

 Contextual Limitations: May lack context or background information that helps

interpret the data accurately.

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  Bias and Subjectivity: Can reflect personal biases or limited perspectives of the
creator.
 Accessibility Issues: Sometimes difficult to access or interpret due to rarity, fragility,
or language barriers.
 Requires Analysis: Requires careful analysis and interpretation, which can be time-
consuming and complex.

2. Secondary Sources

Definition: Secondary sources interpret, analyse, or summarize primary sources. They

provide context and analysis based on primary data.

Examples:

 Books and Articles: Scholarly articles, books, and reviews that analyse or interpret
primary sources.
 Biographies and Histories: Books or articles that describe events or lives based on
primary documents.
 Documentaries and Films: Films or videos that present a narrative or analysis based
on primary sources.
 Critical Essays: Analytical papers or critiques that discuss primary sources or
historical events.
 Encyclopaedias and Databases: Articles that summarize information found in
primary sources.

Merits:

 Contextualization: Provides context, analysis, and interpretation of primary sources,

helping to understand the broader implications.
 Comprehensive Overview: Often synthesizes information from multiple primary
sources, offering a more comprehensive view.
 Accessibility: Generally easier to access and understand compared to primary
sources, as they are often written in a more digestible format.
 Expert Analysis: Often written by experts who provide insightful analysis and
critiques.

Demerits:

 Potential Bias: May include the author's biases or interpretations, which can affect
the objectivity of the information.
 Dependence on Primary Sources: The accuracy and depth of secondary sources
depend on the quality and availability of primary sources.
 Generalization: May generalize or oversimplify complex issues, potentially missing
nuanced details.
 Outdated Information: May become outdated if based on older primary sources or
analyses that are no longer current.

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3. Tertiary Sources

Definition: Tertiary sources compile, organize, and summarize information from primary and
secondary sources. They provide a broad overview of a topic and are often used for quick
reference.

Examples:

 Encyclopaedias: Comprehensive reference works like the Encyclopaedia Britannica

or Wikipedia.
 Dictionaries and Thesauri: Provide definitions and explanations of terms.
 Almanacs and Factbooks: Offer quick facts, statistics, and summaries.
 Bibliographies: Lists of sources and references for further reading on a topic.
 Indexes and Abstracts: Tools that help locate primary and secondary sources.
 Guidebooks and Handbooks: Provide overviews and general information on a
subject.

Merits:

 Quick Reference: Provides quick, easy access to summarized and consolidated

information, making them useful for initial research.
 Broad Overview: Offers general overviews and basic facts, which can be a good
starting point for further research.
 Organized Information: Helps in locating primary and secondary sources through
indexes, bibliographies, and guides.
 User-Friendly: Generally written in an accessible style, making complex information
easier to understand.

Demerits:

 Lack of Depth: Typically lacks detailed analysis and depth, providing only broad
summaries.

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  Risk of Outdated Information: May contain outdated or less accurate information,
especially in rapidly changing fields.
 Potential Bias: Can reflect the biases of the compilers or editors who created the
summaries or compilations.
 Less Original Insight: Offers limited original insight or interpretation, as it mainly
consolidates existing information.

How to Use These Sources

 Primary Sources: Use these to get direct evidence and firsthand accounts. They are
crucial for original research and understanding the context of historical or current
events.
 Secondary Sources: Utilize these to gain interpretations and analyses of primary
sources. They are helpful for understanding the broader context and scholarly
perspectives.
 Tertiary Sources: Refer to these for quick facts, summaries, and general overviews.
They are useful for getting an initial understanding of a topic and locating other
sources.

By understanding and appropriately using these different types of sources, you can ensure a
more comprehensive and accurate approach to research and information gathering.

 Primary Sources are invaluable for their originality and detailed evidence but require
careful analysis and may have limited context.
 Secondary Sources provide context and expert analysis but may introduce biases and
depend on the quality of primary sources.
 Tertiary Sources are useful for quick references and broad overviews but often lack
depth and may contain outdated information.

Choosing the right type of source depends on your research needs, the depth of information
required, and the context in which you are working. Balancing these sources ensures a well-
rounded approach to gathering and understanding information.

8. Organizational policies
There are three organizational policies of communication:

(a)Internal vs external communication

Internal communication occurs within the organisation while external communication is
between an organisation and other organisations, customers or individuals who are external to
the particular organisation. Internal communication networks are patterns of relationships

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through which information flows in an organization. Stohl (1995) describes communication
networks as capturing ―the tapestry of relationships—the complex web of affiliations among
individuals and organizations as they are woven through the collaborative threads of
communication‖ (p. 18). Communication networks emerge in organizations based on formal
and informal communication (Stohl & Stohl, 2005).
External communication must pass through the registry section which keeps record of such
communication. It involves communication with individuals and organisations outside our
organisation.

Importance of internal communication

 Better understanding between the employer and employees
 Greater efficiency among workers
 Effective coordination among employees and departments
 To avoid losses where employees report breakdowns and shortages promptly
and management takes action in time to avoid losses

Importance of external communication

 Good reputation which increases prestige of the company
 Improvement of public relations thus more people become interested to deal
with the company
 Better business prospects: attracts more customers, increase sale of its
products
 Choice of customers: the information helps the company to produce goods
according to the choice of customers
 Government departments: organizations need tactful negotiations with
licensing authorities, foreign trade offices and many other government
departments

(b) Formal vs informal communication

Formal communication consists of messages that follow prescribed channels of
communication
throughout the organization. The most common way of depicting formal communication
networks is with organizational charts Organizational charts provide clear guidelines as to
who is responsible for a given task and which employees are responsible for others‘
performance.

Organizational charts demonstrate that communication can flow in several directions:

downward, upward, and horizontally.

Informal/grapevine communication has no definite route of communication for sharing

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information. Information converges a long way by passing from one person to another
leaving no indication from which point it started. This is similar to the vines of grapes.

Characteristics
Informal or grapevine communication has the following characteristics:
(1) Formation through Social Relations:
This communication is born out of social relations who mean that it is beyond the restrictions
of the organisation. No superior-subordinate relationship figures therein. A more sociable
superior can gather much information through this channel.
(2) Two types of Information: Through this communication, information about the work and
the individual can be collected.
(3) Uncertain Path: Since it is beyond the restrictions of the organisation, it follows no
definite channel. Like a grapevine, it moves in a zigzag manner.
(4) Possibility of Rumour and Distortion: Responsibility for the true or false nature of
communication does not lie on any individual and, therefore, not much attention is paid to its
meaning while communicating. Consequently, the rumours keep floating.
(5) Quick Relay: Informal communication makes news spread like wildfire. Not only this,
people start adding something of their own which sometimes changes the real meaning of the
communication.

Advantages
The informal channel of communication has the following advantages:
(1) Fast and Effective Communication: Under this communication, the messages move fast
and their effect is equally great on the people.
(2) Free Environment: Informal communication is done in a free environment. Free
environment means that there is no pressure of any office-big or small. The reactions of the
employees can easily be collected.

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(3) Better Human Relations: Informal communication saves the employees from tension.
Freedom from tension helps the establishment of better human relations. This also affects the
formal communication.
(4) Easy Solution of the Difficult Problems: There are many problems which cannot be
solved with the help of formal communication. There is more freedom in informal
communication which helps the solution of difficult problems.
(5) Satisfying the Social Needs of the Workers: Everybody wants good relations with the
high officers at the place of his work. Such relations give satisfaction to the employees and
they feel proud. But this can be possible only with the help of the informal communication.
(6) Grapevine channels carry information rapidly. As soon as an employee gets to know some
confidential information, he becomes inquisitive and passes the details then to his closest
friend who in turn passes it to other. Thus, it spreads hastily.
(7) The managers get to know the reactions of their subordinates on their policies. Thus, the
feedback obtained is quick compared to formal channel of communication.
(8) The grapevine creates a sense of unity among the employees who share and discuss their
views with each other. Thus, grapevine helps in developing group cohesiveness.
(9) The grapevine serves as an emotional supportive value.
(11) Present grievance: Under the informal system the employees disclose their needs,
sentiment and their emotions to others authority without feeling any hesitation.
(12) Alternate system: The management sometimes does not able to reach all information by
formal system. Informal system covers the gap or familiarity of formal system.
(13) Improved relationship: Any problem between the workers and the management can be
solved by informal system. So it makes good relationships among the employees and the
management.
(14) Increase efficiency: Under the informal system, the employees discuss their problem
openly and they can solve it. For this, the work is done properly and it develops the efficiency
of the employee.
(15) Providing recommendation: In this system the employees inform their superior about
their demands, problem and the way to develop the implementation system of the work. As a
result it creates an opportunity to send the recommendation to their management.
(16) Flexibility: Informal communication is more flexible than formal communication
because it is free from all type of formalities.
(17) Rapid communication: Informal communication transmits very fast. Especially miss-
information or rumor spread rapidly to others in the organization.
(18) Improve interpersonal relationship: Cooperation and coordination in informal
communication leads to improve interpersonal relationship which is very much essential to
carry out the business activity smoothly.
Others: Improve labor management relationship. Free flow of information. Remove mental
distance. Evaluation of employees. Obtain immediate feedback. Reliving frustration.
Increasing efficiency. Solution of problems and helping decision-making. Enhance mutual
trust etc.

Disadvantages/Limitations

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1. Unsystematic Communication: This communication is absolutely unsystematic and it is not
necessary that information reaches the person concerned.
2. Unreliable Information: Most of the information received through this communication is
undependable and no important decision can be taken on its basis.
3. Distort meaning: Something the meaning and the subject matter of the information is
distorted in this system.
4. Spread rumor: In this system, the miss-information or rumor spread rapidly. The original
information may be transformed to wrong information.
5. Misunderstanding: Under this system, generally, the employees do not obey the formal
authorization system. So it creates the opportunity to develop misunderstanding.
6. Maintaining secrecy is impossible: In informal communication system maximum
communication is made by open discussion. So it is impossible to maintain the secrecy of the
information.
7. Difficulty in controlling: Under informal communication system no established rules or
policy is obeyed. So it is very much difficult to control the information.
8. Non-cooperation: Informal communication system sometimes develops the adversary
culture among the employees. So they are not to be cooperative with each other and their
efficiency may be reduced.

(c) Intrapersonal vs interpersonal communication

Intrapersonal Communication

Intrapersonal communication is the communication that occurs within your own mind.
Intrapersonal communication occurs, when you evaluate or examine the interaction that
occurs between yourself and others, but it is not limited to such situations. This form of
communication occurs before and during other forms of communication as well. For instance,
you might argue with yourself during a conversation in which someone asks you to do
something you don‘t really want to do: Before you accept or decline, you mull over the
alternatives in your mind. Intrapersonal communication also includes such activities as
solving problems internally, resolving internal conflict, planning for the future, and
evaluating yourself and your relationships with others.

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Interpersonal Communications

Interpersonal communication is the process of using messages to generate meaning between

at least two people in a situation that allows mutual opportunities for both speaking and
listening. Like intrapersonal communication, interpersonal communication occurs for a
variety of reasons: to solve problems, to resolve conflicts, to share information, to improve
perceptions of oneself, or to fulfil social needs, such as the need to belong or to be loved.
Through our interpersonal communication, we are able to establish relationships with others
that include friendships and romantic relationships. Dyadic and small-group communications
are two subsets of interpersonal communication. Dyadic communication is simply two-
person communication, such as interviews with an employer or a teacher; talks with a parent,
spouse, or child; and interactions among strangers, acquaintances, and friends. Small-group
communication is the process of using messages to generate meaning in a small group of
people (Brilhart & Galanes, 1998). Small-group communication occurs in families, work
groups, support groups, religious groups, and study groups.

―Communication is the solvent of all problems and is the foundation for personal
development.‖

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