Business communication skills notes

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION SKILLS
LECTURE ONE
INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
Lecture Outline:
 Importance of communication
 Methods of communication
 Factors to consider when choosing a communication method.
1.0 Introduction
This lecture introduces you to business communication, its definition and methods that can be used
to communicate in a business. It will go ahead to look at factors to consider when choosing a
method of communication.
Lecture objectives:
By the end of this lecture, students should be able to;
 Define communication
 Explain the importance of communication in a business
 Identify the factors to consider when choosing a communication method.
 Explain the event advantages and disadvantages of each method of communication.
Definition of communication.
Communication refers sending and receiving of the message from one point to another, one place to
another or from one person to another.
It is a process of giving, receiving or exchanging (sharing) information, opinions (views, thoughts)

or ideas (facts about something) by writing, speaking or acting so that the message (physical form,
expressible) communicated is understood by the recipient/ audience (2 or more people).
Successful communication means that the transmitted message must be appropriately understood to
achieve a common objective
It can be defined as the process by which information is exchanged and understood by two or more
people usually with intention to influence behavior.
It is the transfer of information in form of understandable messages through a channel to others.
Business English and administrative Communication II Notes by Mugumya Dickens 0782866958 Page 1
Everyday people are communicating whether it is talking on telephone, face-to-face, writing letters,
e-mails etc. It is therefore essential that communication skills are enhanced. The various
communication skills include:
 Writing
 Reading
 Speaking
 Listening
 Information technology
1.1 IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION.

 Aids decision making
 Promotes relationships among people
 Basis to analyze performance of organizations
 In solving problems-negotiation
 Motivate others
 Liaise with external stakeholders
 Team performance
 Organize human and other resources in the most effective way.
 Develop plans for the organization
 To inform members of changes in the Organization
Activity:
1. Define communication
2. What is the importance of communication in a business?
1.2 METHODS OF COMMUNICATION

When communicating there are several methods that can be used. Special care must be taken when
deciding on which method to use. This is because once a wrong method is used it may have a
disastrous effects. These methods may include verbal (oral), written communication, visual and
non-verbal.
However, the main methods of communication are verbal, written communication and non verbal
1.2. VERBAL OR ORAL COMMUNICATION

This includes speaking to another person or communication by the word of mouth. It requires
carefully selecting appropriate words as words denotes (dictionary/ actual meaning) and connotes
(implied/ intended meaning) meaning.
Forms of verbal communication
Over the telephone, face to face discussions, debates, interviews, presentations, meetings (formal or
informal), teleconferencing, video conferencing etc.
The success of verbal communication depends on one’s ability to listen carefully.
Characteristics
Interactive, restricted audience, any time any place, immediate feedback,
Why would one choose oral communication? Advantages of oral communication

 It makes possible speedy interchange with immediate feedback and spontaneous thinking.
 People can ask questions and clarify points i.e. in case any thing is not clear to the audience,
explanation can always be made.
 It is direct, simple, time saving and least expensive.
 It conveys personal warmth and friendliness because of personalized contacts.
 Any misunderstandings can be cleared immediately.
 It serves as evidence of events and proceedings.
DISADVANTAGES
 Spontaneous responses may not be carefully thought about and this means that a wrong feed
back may be transmitted.
 Different meaning may be conveyed by manner of speaking, tone of voice and facial
expression.
 The spirit of authority cannot be transmitted effectively in verbal communication.
 Lengthy and distant communication can’t be effectively conveyed verbally.
 Meetings can be costly in terms of time and organizational money.
 There are high chances of distorting the meaning of the message if hierarchy is to be
followed.
1.2.2 WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

This is when a message being sent is displayed in writing. Written communication takes time and
skill since such a small portion of our communication is contained in the words themselves. For
business purposes, managers must deliver their message clearly, succinctly and effectively if they
want to be successful. Poorly written messages create confusion or fail to achieve their intended
purpose. Its success depends on somebody’s ability to read.
Forms: E-mails, letters, fax, notices, reports, memos, questionnaires, newsletter, employee hand
books, magazines, brochures, minutes etc.
Advantages of written communication

 It’s speedy i.e. saves time when many persons have to be contacted at the same time.
 Checked for accuracy which may not always be possible with verbal communication.
 Message usually or can be recorded i.e. can be used as a record for future reference.
 It’s suitable for both simple and complex messages i.e. useful when explaining complex
matters which would be difficult for the recipient to understand immediately.
 Useful for contracts especially letters and reports i.e. used as source of evidence.
 Reliable to transmit lengthy statistical date e.g. calculations and graphs.
 Useful when dealing with any matters where it‘s important that a written record is kept e.g.
answering queries or making agreements.
Disadvantages of written communication

 Usually takes some time for the message to arrive.
 Gives room for a slow feedback and sometimes none.
 Often costly to arrange in both time and money i.e. time needed to plan, write and type such
messages, more stationery required and it’s expensive to buy computers.
 There may be leakage of the material before time causing disruption in its effectiveness. E.g.
apprehension order may be leaked giving time to the culprit to escape.
1.2.3 Nonverbal communication
Nonverbal communication is the process of communicating through sending and receiving wordless
messages. Such messages can be communicated through gesture, body language or posture; facial
expression and eye contact, object communication such as clothing, hairstyles or even architecture,
or symbol.. It can be used together with verbal and written methods and or alone.
Forms
It’s divided into 3, Environment, social and physical.
Environment (Time, Lay out (arrangement) and design, Territory, Colour, equipments etc)
Social non verbal communication (distance; public, social personal and intimate, status and
symbols)
Physical and kinetic (facial expressions, eye contact, gestures, postures, appearance, touch and
smell)
Social ie space, status and symbol
Visual communication –when information is displayed in various ways e.g. tables, graphs, charts. It
supplements both oral and written communication.
Characteristics
Widely used, unconscious communication, miss interpretation, security purposes,
Advantages/Importance of Non – Verbal Communication
 Non – verbal messages are stronger than verbal messages e.g. there is a saying that actions
speak louder than words.
 Non – verbal clarifies verbal messages e.g. saying thank you with a smile makes the
message more meaningful.
 Non – verbal messages are sent more frequently than verbal messages.
 It’s reliable i.e. people can deceive through words but not their bodies.
 Non – verbal communication has no universal meaning. E.g. one tapping on a table may be
understood as anger to some people that may not be the case i.e. one act may have many
meanings.
Disadvantages/Problems Associated With Non -verbal communication

 Differences in interpretation. Each person may interpret it according to background,
knowledge and experience.
 Can’t be stored.
 No consistency in meaning i.e. unique from society to society. E.g. nodding means
yes to a Ugandan but no to Japanese.
 May not be complete for effectiveness.
 May contradict the verbal communication e.g. I’m happy to receive, yet the attitude
or body language is not friendly.
 It’s applicable when there is a long distance between the communicators.
o Highly influenced by the personality of the communicator and receiver in question.
Activity:
1. Identify the different methods of communication.
2. When is each form of communication suitable?
3. Outline the advantages and disadvantages of each method of communication.
1.3 FACTORS TO CONSINDER WHILE CHOOSING A METHOD OF

COMMUNICATION.
The method chosen when communicating is very crucial. Therefore, one needs to put into
consideration several factors;
 Recipient/ audience-who is receiving the message (status), appropriate language, the
situation at hand, relationship between the sender and the receiver.
 Distance-is it within or far away.
 Time –when communicating overseas.
 Urgency/ speed-is it so urgent that you need feedback immediately.
 Cost-affordability, how much will the communications cost.
 Confidentiality-e-mail or fax may not be appropriate; a telephone call could be overheard.
 Safety and security
 Availability of means
 Nature of the message (size)
 Knowledge of the sender
 Influence
Review questions
1. Distinguish between verbal and non verbal communication?
2. Identify instances where verbal and non verbal methods of communication can be used.
3. Outline the advantages and disadvantages of;
a) Verbal communication
b) Non verbal communication
LECTURE TWO
ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION
Lecture Outline:
 Introduction
 Classification of communication
 The communication process
 Importance of feedback.
2.0 Introduction:
Having looked at the broad types of communication in the previous lecture, we now look at other
ways in which communication is classified describe the communication process and explain the
importance of feedback in organizational communication.
Communication is a heart or lifeblood of any organization. Therefore, Organizations can hardly

survive without communication. In any Organization, whether small or big the role of
communication is very crucial. No Organizational activity can take place without it hence making it
paramount for all Organizations to embrace effective communication.
Its purpose in Organizations can be manifested in the following ways;

 Co-ordinating activities
 Making decisions (planning)
 Organizing resources
 Motivational tool (staffing)
 Teamwork effectiveness (leadership)
 Conflict resolution
 Controlling (Measure of performance through financial statements).
2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF COMMUNICATION IN ORGANISATIONS
2.1.1. Formal vs. informal communication.
Formal communication refers to communications routed through official channels. In larger
organizations, communication becomes more formal because of the complex nature of such
organizations. E.g. a written memo from a managing director to his/her departmental heads to call a
meeting.
Informal communication-information is passed on by word of mouth among interested colleagues
who have received it from various sources e.g. visits. This is more evident in smaller organizations
with fewer employees.
2.1.2. Internal and external communication

Internal communication-there are various methods of internal communication which can be used
within Organization. These include notices, fax, letters, telephone, memos, e-mails, face to face etc.
The purpose or objectives of internal communication are;

 To pass on instructions
 To inform staff on new policies, arrangements, developments, processes etc
 To provide feedback after analyzing situations
 To motivate staff
 To provide confirmations, responses
 To pass on ideas, suggestions
External communication; External communication covers how an organization interacts with those
outside their own organization. This may be with the public, employers, community organizations,
local authorities, job centers, careers offices, funding bodies, specialist agencies and other training
providers. E.g. letters, annual reports, newsletters, advertisements, fax etc.
The purpose or objectives of external communication are;

 To provide information to consumers about products and services to do with the
Organization.
 Promote the organization
 Handle enquiries about the organization and its products and services.
 Advertise the organization
Activity:
1. What is the purpose of communication in organizations?
2. Distinguish between the following forms of classification
a) Formal and informal communication
b) Internal and external communication
3. What are purposes of internal and external forms of communication?
2.2 THE FLOW OF INFORMATION IN ORGANIZATIONS/COMMUNICATION
CHANNELS
Depending on which kind of information to be communicated and the level of the person sending or
receiving the information, there are always clear lines of communication. This is more evident in
larger Organizations where communications seems to be more complicated than in small
Organizations of just a few people and few communication problems are likely to arise.
Organizations usually draw an Organization chart, which makes these lines of communication quite
clear and easier. The chart also shows the directions through which information can flow depending
on where it is originating and who is receiving it.
These lines or channels of communication include:
2.2.1 Vertical communication:

This encompasses both upward and downward flow of information. Here information moves
between individuals at different levels in an organization. Sometimes messages are sent from the
CEO to all employees or from departmental head to all employees in his/her department only. It
follows a chain of command (reporting lines) displayed on the Organizational chart. In the same
way, subordinates also send messages to their superiors upwards. However we can suffice it to say
that it is a principal channel for routing directions, instructions and policies from top decision
makers down through the Organization to the people who at various levels will implement them.
2.2.2Horizontal communication:
Occurs between people at the same level or status. E.g. a meeting of only departmental heads. The
senders and the receivers can be in the same departmental heads or in different units. The common
link is their need to cooperate and share. Such communications are necessary to accomplish routine
tasks. The information can be communicated during face to face discussions, telephone etc.
2.2.3 Diagonal communication:

Here there is no obvious line of authority since it takes place between people who work in different
departments and at different levels within the Organization. More often than not tasks arise that
involve more than one department and people no matter their level or status. It involves committees,
teams or task forces that are created to solve problems or complete special projects. Its success
depends largely on cooperation, goodwill and respect between the parties concerned.
2.2.4 The grape vine:

It is an informal communication system, which results from failure to use the proper lines of
communication. It is an unofficial communication system, which is ever changing. It is a vehicle for
distortion of the truth, rumors and gossip. An active grapevine can cause much damage to an
organization by spreading incomplete, false or exaggerated information. It can result into low
morale, fear and settled workforce.
Although the grapevine has diverse effects, it cannot completely be eradicated. Therefore
management should ensure that better ways through which information is communicated do exist so
as to reduce its influence especially in times of uncertainty. The confidence of an Organization’s
employees is vital hence adequate and accurate information should always be made available to the
people concerned at the earliest possible opportunity through correct channels.
2.3 THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

The Communication process is the guide toward realizing effective communication. It is through
the communication that sharing of a common meaning between the sender and the receiver takes
place. Individuals that follow the communication process will have the opportunity to become more
productive in every aspect of their profession.
The communication process is made up of four key components. These include encoding, medium
of transmission, decoding and feedback.
There are also two other factors in the process; sender and the receiver. The communication process
begins with the sender and ends with the receiver. It is as shown below:
The sender/ Source

This is the person who conceives an idea and wants to share it. To communicate it, he must first
think along these lines;
 What exactly do I want to say?
 What am I trying to achieve?
 What kind of person am I saying it to?
Encoding
• This is a process of transforming the idea/ thought into a message that the receiver will
understand.
• The sender has to decide the specific outcomes he wants from communication. This will
help him decide on the appropriate form of language and tone.
Channel/ Medium
• This is a means by which a message is sent.
• It’s the physical transmission of the message to the receiver.
• Select a channel i.e. verbal, NV or written and a medium i.e. report, letter, telephone, or
face to face exchange etc.
• The channel and medium you use will depend on the message, location of audience, the
time available etc.
Decoding
• This is where the receiver converts the message into thought.
• The receiver must understand the language of the sender and he also makes sure that he
uncovers the hidden meaning, feelings or attitudes which the sender has conveyed in the
message.
• The decoded message is stored in the receiver’s mind.
Receiver
• This is the person for whom the message is meant. He is responsible for decoding and
interpreting the message sent.
2.3.1 Feedback
• The communication process cannot be successful without appropriate feedback
• The receiver reacts to the sender by giving a feedback.
• Feedback is the receiver’s response to the message of the sender and the final link in the
communication process.
• It’s the stage at which the sender evaluates the effectiveness of the communication process.
• Then the communication is repeated.
2.3.2 IMPORTANCE OF FEEDBACK:
 Information obtained from feedback can be used in decision making.

 Completes the communication cycle.
 Confirmation that the message was received.
 Used as a tool to assess whether the communication was successful.
 A measure of performance.
 Feedback can be used as a motivation tool etc.
Review Questions:
1. Discuss the communication process?
2. Illustrate and explain the different stages of the communication process.
3. Define feedback and describe the process of feed back in an organization
4. What is the importance of feedback in an organization?
LECTURE THREE
PLANNING FOR COMMUNICATION
Lecture Outline:
 Introduction
 Planning
 Barriers to effective communication
 Overcoming barriers to effective communication.
3.0 Introduction:
This lecture identifies the need for communicating, when to communicate and how to communicate.
It recognizes that at times communication is not effective because of certain barriers which are
encountered during the process. This lecture will also try to highlight how such barriers can be
overcome.
Lecture objectives:
By the end of the lecture, students should be able to;
 Explain why we need to plan for communication
 Understand the purpose of communication
 Identify barriers to effective communication.
 Suggest ways of overcoming the barriers to communication.
3.1 Purpose of communication

Every communication must have a reason why it is being made. The message should have a
purpose so that it does not affect the process.
Messages come with different purposes.
1. To prepare an organization for change.
2. To call for action that is giving instructions.
3. To provide job satisfaction, motivation and change workers’ attitudes.
4. To encourage staff to develop and supply ideas and suggestions more frequently e.g. during the
meeting.
5. To develop information and understanding among workers.
6. To eliminate the grapevine and ambiguity e.g. developing procedures in organizations.
7. To influence others.
8. To create relationships/ links with other people.
3.2 Planning communication

In planning for communication one is trying to identify the what, where, how, when and why to
communicate.
What (The massage) answers the question of which message is to be sent (content).
Where (The audience) considers the issues of the receivers of the message, it can be the audience /
the occasion.
How is the channel or media through which the message will be received? It also considers the
means and ways of communication. How, can also be the media i.e. print media, TVs, letters,
radios, telephone lines, meetings etc.
When this looks at the time. The time of communication is important. For example if it is a
meeting, the sender needs to know the best time of the day when people are psychologically and
mentally strong.
Why; this is the purpose. Every communication must have a purpose for which it is being made.
3.2.1Audience
For communication to be complete there must be a sender and the receiver of the message as seen
in the process. Both verbal and non-verbal communications require audience although more
attention is put on speech (oral communication).
The challenge to the speaker is to be audience centered and has to ensure that;
a) The needs of the audience are identified (values and interests). E.g. in a political rally, people
expect the plans of the candidate in regard to position, in class students expect examples relating
to a certain topic etc.
b) Audience attitudes, to communicate effectively one ought to know the feelings and opinions
that the audience has about him/ her or the topic in question. Calmness or hostility of the
audience should be identified to know people’s emotions.
c) Audience analysis; there are two approaches of audience analysis.

i) Getting information about the audience in terms of sex, age, numbers, marital status and
experience will help create relationship with the audience by providing special attention to each
individual’s need. Here you get to know what the audience share in common, what they know
already about the subject etc.
ii) Inquiring from someone who has met the same audience before e.g. a colleague, friend etc.
This helps to know the expectations of the audience and its characteristics.
3.2.2 The message

This is the physical form of the thought, which is experienced and understood by some or all of the
receiver’s senses. It can be seeing, hearing, reading and tasting. It can further be a spoken / written /
observed piece of information that can be sent to another person from the sender to the receiver.
How do you convey (communicate) good and bad news messages? E.g. promoting, demoting or
firing a person. Consider the attitude (friendly, relaxed), facial expression (smile, frown) and the
tone of voice.
3.3 BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
3.3.1 Noise
This is the physical sound or mental disturbance that disrupts the flow of communication on either
the sender or receiver’s sides. It can be physical noise that is sound coming from the surrounding
environment or psychological noise (mental disturbance) e.g. preoccupation, tiredness, anxiety,
stress etc. Physical noise can be done away with by use soundproof gadgets and communicating in
a noise free area. Psychological noise you have to free your mind before you communicate or
receive communication.
3.3.2 Prejudices
This is bias and prejudging the sender conditioned by what we already know and our background
knowledge and experience. Sometimes people under look one another because of status, origin etc
(we often want to hear what we want to hear or what we think we have heard instead of what has
actually been said.
3.3.3 Inattentive listening

Listening is a skill and careful concentration is demanded if communication is to be understood.
Success at gaining attention depends on the words used, the way the communication is expressed,
our interest in the speaker, in the communication and other factors. Many times the listener is not
interested or has other things to concentrate on thus blocking the message from the communication.
3.3.4 Language barrier

In effective communication, the choice of words is very vital. Many words or gestures have
different meanings. Foreign language, dialects, regional accents and the use of technical or
specialist language should be considered. The language used should be appropriately familiar to the
receiver i.e. consider the people you are talking to.
3.3.5 Emotional responses
Communication cannot succeed if a person is highly emotional about the topic concerned. Problems
may arise from insecurity, resentment, anger, fear etc, this makes a person preoccupied with
emotions to receive and send the intended message. If emotions are high on the part of the sender or
the receiver/recipient, it is better to wait for a while before trying to put the message across.
3.3.6 Information overload and under load

If you receive a message with too much or too little information you may tend to put up a barrier
because the amount of information is coming so fast or so slow that you may have difficulty in
interpreting the information. Excess information may confuse the receiver as he has to figure out
the exact importance of the message and scanty information would make him grope for the actual
intent of the message.
3.3.7 Differing perceptions

Our minds organize this stream of sensation into a mental map that represents our
Perception or reality. In no case is the perception of a certain person the same as the world itself and
no two maps are identical. Because your perceptions are unique, the ideas you want to express
differ from other people. As senders, we choose the details that seem important and focus our
attention on the most relevant and general that is selective perception. As receivers, we try to fit
new details in our existing pattern thus distorting the information.
3.3.8 Differing backgrounds

Age, education, gender, social status, economic position, religion, political beliefs
e.t.c can all separate one person from another and make understanding difficult.
3.3.9 Poor planning (inappropriate choices).

3.3.10 Lack of feedback rendering the communication process incomplete
3.3.11 Technical failure e.g. network problems.
3.4 OVERCOMING BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION
1. Language barrier
-Use the most specific and accurate words possible.
-Use language that describes rather than evaluates.
2. Poor listening
-Listen without interrupting.
-Try to view the situation through the eyes of other speaker and resist jumping to
conclusions.
3. Emotional responses
-Be aware of the feelings that arise in yourself and in others as you communicate and attempt to
control them.
-Be alert.
4. Differing backgrounds
-Clarify your own and understand the background of others.
-Do not assume that certain behaviors mean the same thing to everyone.
N.B. Students to discuss more on the barriers and solutions.
Review Questions:
1. Discuss the necessity of planning for communication.
2. Describe the different barriers to communication.
3. Suggest ways of overcoming barriers to communication.
LECTURE FOUR
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
Lecture Outline:
 Introduction
 Advantages of written communication
 Disadvantages of written communication
 Basic writing principles
4.0 Introduction:
In the previous lecture we looked at why we need to plan before we communicate, barriers to
communication and how to overcome them, in this lecture we shall look at written communication
which is one of the ways in which we can communicate, its advantages and disadvantages and basic
principles of writing.
Written communication is used every day in organizations inform of letters, memoranda, reports,
notices, electronic mail e.t.c. The secret of good writing is to use plain language as if you are having
a conversation.
4.1 Advantages of written communication

 It’s speedy i.e. saves time when many persons have to be contacted at the same time.
 Can be checked for accuracy which may not always be possible with verbal communication.
 Message usually or can be recorded i.e. can be used as a record for future reference.
 It’s suitable for both simple and complex messages i.e. useful when explaining complex
matters which would be difficult for the recipient to understand immediately.
 Useful for contracts especially letters and reports i.e. used as source of evidence.
 Reliable to transmit lengthy statistical date e.g. calculations and graphs.
 Useful when dealing with any matters where it‘s important that a written record is kept e.g.
answering queries or making agreements.
4.2 Disadvantages of written communication
 Usually takes some time for the message to arrive.
 Gives room for a slow feedback and sometimes none.
 Often costly to arrange in both time and money i.e. time needed to plan, write and type such
messages, more stationery required and it’s expensive to buy computers.
 There may be leakage of the material before time causing disruption in its effectiveness. E.g.
apprehension order may be leaked giving time to the culprit to escape.
4.3 THE BASIC WRITING PRINCIPLES (7CS)
4.3.1 Completeness
A message is said to be complete when they contain all the facts, ideas the receiver needs in order
to give appropriate feedback e.g. on a business letter ordering for a car, all information should be
disclosed such as the model type, colour and extended features or else you get what may not serve
your purpose.
Importance of completeness:
 Gives desired results without additional expenses.
 Helps in building good will between the organization and its customers.
 Helps to avoid law suits if important information is missing.
Therefore in a bid to obtain completeness, make sure you answer all questions asked, give
something extra when desirable, check for the 5 Ws and any other essentials i.e. what, when,
where, who and why.
4.3.2 Conciseness – It involves saying what you want to say in the fewest possible words. It is
important to be brief in your communication, use simple and carefully selected words.
Importance
 Creates a good image about the sender.
 Eliminates unnecessary expressions and words.
 Saves money and time.
Therefore one should omit all the unnecessary words or expressions e.g. instead of saying at this
juncture, use now, in due course – soon, in accordance to your request – as you requested.
4.3.3 Consideration
Put your target audience in mind when communicating. Have empathy so as to understand their
information needs. Try to visualize your receiver with their problems, desires/needs.
4.3.4 Concreteness
This means being vivid, specific and definite rather than being vague and general. Take time and
organise your points and determine your subject for discussion. Therefore one should use specific
facts, statistical figures e.g. the lifespan of the car is 20 years, put actions on your verbs rather than
being passive e.g. Mr. John repaired the computer rather than the computer was repaired by Mr.
John.
4.3.5 Clarity
This involves getting the message across so as for the receiver to understand what you are trying to
say. The message should be clear to the receiver so that it is interpreted the way the sender wanted.
In order to achieve clarity, one should choose short familiar words and construct effective sentences
and paragraphs.
4.3.6 Courtesy
It involves being genuinely thoughtful and interested in other people. One should not be rude but
communicate in a polite manner, politeness costs nothing yet it means a lot. Therefore one should
be sincere and thoughtful about other people’s feelings, answer people’s messages promptly and
omit expressions that irritate of offend others.
4.3.7 Correctness: Use proper grammar, punctuation, spelling and language.

Activity:
1. What are the advantages of written communication?
2. What are the disadvantages of written communication?
3. Describe the basic principles of writing
4.4 BUSINESS LETTERS

A letter is a written document or printed communication addressed to a person or any other
organization by a person or an organization. A business letter on the other hand is the basic means
of communication two companies or between companies and their stakeholders (Suppliers,
employees, customers, government, creditors’ e.t.c.). Common types of business letters include;
appreciation, complaint, job application, apology, resignation, confirmation, request, appointment,
recommendation, retirement invitation e.t.c.
4.4.1 Importance of business letters

 Appear formal and authoritative for action. I.e. written to persuade others to take action.
 Function as advertisements. They are written on headed paper with the company’s log often
the same as a trade mark which advertises the company to the recipients.
 Create and maintain the good image / reputation of a firm. A business letter on a good
quality headed paper which is attractive and well – balanced enhances the prestige of an
organization.
 Ensure that all the persons and organizations understand the message sent by appearing to
be reasonable and fair to both the recipient and sender.
 Help to identify the company i.e. they are a representation of a company’s business.
 Business letters help to create relations with the outside world. A well presented may lead to
an important business contract.
4.4.2 Standard and Optional parts of a Business Letter

E- Mail may be the quick and convenient way to relay daily business messages, but the printed
business letter is still the preferred way to convey important information. A carefully crafted letter
presented on an attractive letter head can be a powerful communication tool. To make sure you are
writing the most professional and effective letter possible, follow these basic business – letter
writing guidelines.
 Select a professional letter head design for your business. This contains the company’s logo,
name, address, telephone numbers, fax numbers, email address, website and physical
address.
 A business letter is a representation of a company, so it must look distinctive and
immediately communicate high quality. Good quality letter headed paper is used for
business letters.
4.4.3 Specific parts of a business letter

Standard parts
1. Heading: This contains the return address (sender’s address), and the date on the first line.
a) Sender’s address; sometimes it may be necessary to include a line after the address for a
phone number, fax number and e –mail address. Don’t include this information if it’s
already incorporated into the letter headed design. Always skip a line between the address
and date. This is done especially if the heading is next to the left margin.
b) Date; Use month, day and year format. E.g. March 3, 2007 or 3 rd, March 2007. The date
should come before the return address.
2. Inside address: This is the address you are sending the letter to. Make it as complete as possible.
Include titles and name if you know them. I.e. name of addressee that person’s title or office /
position, name of the company or institution and the full address. Include a person’s personal title
(Mr., Mrs., Miss, Ms, Prof, Dr e.t.c.).If not sure of a woman’s preference use Ms. Always skip a
line after the heading before the inside address and another line after the inside address before the
greeting / salutation.
3. Greeting / Salutation: The greeting in a business letter is always formal .It normally begins with
the word “Dear” and always includes a person’s last name (surname). It normally has a personal
title. Use a first name only if the title is unclear. E.g. you’re writing to some one named Grace
Mugisha but not sure whether the person is male or female. The greeting in a business letter always
ends in a colon (:), not a comma as in personal letters. You know you are in trouble if you get a
letter from a boy friend or girl friend and the greeting ends in a colon, it’s not going to be friendly.
5. Body: The body is written as text. A business letter is never hand written. State why you are
writing i.e. explain the situation and make request for response. Make sure it’s done through a
straight forward and concise manner. Skip a line between paragraphs, another between the
greeting and the body and also one between the body and close.The body includes three parts.
These include:
a) Introduction
b) Main body
c) conclusion
5. Complementary close / Closing: The complimentary close is inserted one line below the last
line of the body. This short polite closing ends with a comma. It begins at the same column the
heading does. The most common formulas used are; yours sincerely, yours faithfully. Use sincerely
where a name has been used in the salutation / greeting and faithfully where sir / madam has used in
the salutation / greeting.
6. Signature block / Signature line: Sign your letter in blue or blank ink
7. Your Typed Name: In all business letters, there must be the sender’s typed name after the
signature. Women may indicate how they wish to be addressed by placing a personal title in
brackets after the name. If any the designation / department or position of the sender may be
indicated below the name.
4.4.4 Optional parts

1. Special Notation: This appears lowest on the page and includes common notations if any to
indicate Courtesy Copies (CC) and enclosed documents (ENCs).Enclosed documents came
before CC in case they are to appear at the same time in a letter. Use ENCs if they are many
documents and ENC if it’s one. CC indicates other anyone else receiving the letter.
2. Reference
3. Subject heading
4. Attention
NOTE: Some organizations may have formats that vary slightly.
4.5 STYLES AND FORMATS OF BUSINESS LETTERS
Business readers expect to receive letters that adhere to an existing format standard. There are
several acceptable business letter styles available for use in the professional world but the three
commonly used business letter styles include; Block style, Modified block style and semi – block
style.
4.5.1 Block Style:
The fully – blocked layout is becoming more widely used method of display for business
letters .This is because there is no indenting to bother within the whole letter. When using this
business letter format, the entire is left justified and single – spaced except for double space
between paragraphs. Example;
July 1, 2002
GP ASSOCIATES
P.O Box, 2653
Kampala
gparker@gpaccounting.com
www.gpaccounting.com
MR. Ernie Embata
P.O Box, 1234
Mbarara
Dear Mr. Embata:
I understand from our mutual acquaintance, Lucy Letter that you are looking for an accounting firm
to assist in the sell of your business. I would welcome the opportunity to show you how GP
Associates was able to help Chad successfully sell his business earlier this year.
Should you be thinking of purchasing another business, please note that we also offer business
acquisition services.
To set up an appointment to discuss your specific needs, please contact me at the above address.
Sincerely,
GREEN PANKI
MARKETING MANAGER
ENC: Documents indicating our activities and names of successful clients.
CC: Managing Director, GP Associates.
4.5.2 Modified Block Style:

With this business letter format, the body of the letter is left justified and single – spaced. The
heading and closing however are aligned in the center of the page. Example;
July 1, 2002
GP ASSOCIATES
P.O Box, 2653
Kampala
gparker@gpaccounting.com
www.gpaccounting.com
MR. Ernie Embata

P.O Box, 1234
Mbarara
Dear Mr. Embata:

I understand from our mutual acquaintance, Lucy Letter that you are looking for an accounting firm
to assist in the sell of your business. I would welcome the opportunity to show you how GP
acquisition services.
To set up an appointment to discuss your specific needs, please contact me at the above address.
Sincerely,
GREEN PANKI
MARKETING MANAGER
ENC: Documents indicating our activities and names of

successful clients.
4.5.3 Semi – Block Style:

This similar to the modified block business letter style except that each paragraph is indented
instead of being left justified. Example;
GP ASSOCIATES
P.O Box, 2653
Kampala
July 1, 2002
MR. Ernie Embata

P.O Box, 1234
Mbarara
Dear Mr. Embata:

I understand from our mutual acquaintance, Lucy Letter that you are looking for an accounting
firm to assist in the sale of your business. I would welcome the opportunity to show you how GP
acquisition services. To set up an appointment to discuss your specific needs, please contact me
at the above address.
Yours faithfully,
GREEN PANKI
MARKETING MANAGER
ENC: Documents indicating our activities and names of our successful clients.
Review Questions
1. Describe the basic principles of writing and explain the importance of each.
2. Describe the contents of a business letter.
3. What is the importance of a business letter.
4. Prepare letters using the different styles of business letters
LECTURE FIVE
APPLICATION/COVER LETTERS AND MEMOS
Lecture Outline:
 Purpose of cover letters
 Importance of memos
 General format.
 Curriculum Vitae
5.0 Introduction:
This lecture introduces you on how to write cover letters and memos and goes ahead to give
importance of each. It also gives the general formats for writing memos and cover letters.
Lecture Objectives:
By the end of this lecture you should be able to;
 Write memos in different scenarios
 To write cover letters for any purpose
 Explain the purpose of memos and cover letters
 Identify situations when you can use memos
 Write his/her curriculum vitae
5.1 COVER LETTERS

Your application letter is one of your most important job search documents. An effective letter can
get you a phone call for an interview, but a poorly written application letter usually spells continued
unemployment. The difference can be how to handle a few key points.
5.1.1 The purpose of the cover letter is to:

 Introduce yourself to the employer.
 Indicate which position you’re applying for.
 Explain why you are interested in that specific job.
 Direct the attention of employers toward information on your resume that is of particular
relevance to the position being applied for.
5.1.2 SAMPLE APPLICATION LETTERS
Patrick Sabula
P.O Box, 60045
Kasese
psabs@yahoo.com
25th, August 2018,
The Human resource Manager,

Bugema University,
P.O Box, 223,
Kampala.
Dear sir/madam
RE: APPLICATION FOR A JOB OF AN ADMINSTRATOR
In reference to the job advert that was in New Vision of Monday 20 th August 2018, I humbly apply
for the above job in your organizations. I am 40 years old, male, married, a Ugandan by nationality
and a hardworking individual
I completed a Bachelor Degree in business Administration at Bugema University in 2006. In august

2009, I completed a master’s in Business Administration at Bugema University.
In 2012, I completed a postgraduate diploma in public administration at Mukono University, and I
am currently pursuing ACCA second level.
Since 2008, I have worked as an administrator at Kyambogo University. Therefore I have a twelve
years working experience on that capacity.
I have acquired relevant skills in administration and management skills, interpersonal skills,
analytical skills, customer care skills, oral and written communication among others. I am a
dynamic individual, religious, honest, multi skilled, analytical, a co-operative and a self-motivated
individual.
For more details, I refer you to my curriculum vitae. I am ready for interviews any time you call me
and I am willing to begin work as soon as you wish.
Hoping that my application will be considered I look forward to work with you. Thank you.
Yours faithfully
Patrick Sabula
(Applicant)
5.2 CURRICULUM VITAE
AMANDA SAMURA
P.O BOX 102, KAMPALA
PHONE: +256782524668
EMAIL:sams@yahoo.com
PERSONAL DETAILS
Gender Male
Nationality Uganda
Date of Birth 13th September 1978
Marital Status Single
Home address Masaka, Kyanamukaka
PROFILE
Human Resources graduate with internship experience in training and compensation benefits.
Strong analytical skills, trustworthy, highly motivated and hard working person with a high sense of
duty and loyalty both professionally and privately. Extremely flexible and can easily adapt to the
surroundings without compromising with any of my principles and responsibilities.
EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND
2003 – 2006 Bugema University Kampala
Bachelors Degree in Business Administration
2001 – 2002 Trinity College Nabbingo Wakiso

Uganda Advanced Certificate of Education
1997 – 2000 Gayaza High School Kampala

Uganda Certificate of Education
1990 – 1996 Nakasero Primary School Mbarara

Primary Leaving Examination
EXPERIENCE
November 2008 – to date Kyambogo University
Compensation Intern
Responsibilities and achievements
 Analyzed compensation figures for the mid – wife division, benchmarking each position
with salary survey statistics and industry research.
 Created and advanced database in Microsoft Access to track compensation figures for a
newly created Mwana Mugimu (infants) division, comparing planned salaries with industry
salary surveys.
 Produced and checked all the hospital salary increase letters following the performance
review cycle, resulting in 100% accuracy and on – time delivery of letters while maintaining
complete data confidentiality.
October 2005 - November 2006 PHENIX LOGISTICS LIMITED
Human Resource Intern
Responsibilities and achievements
 Performed complete review of HR policy manual with culminating in a report to senior
management with recommendations on outdated policies and those affected by the new
laws.
 Created 20 – question employee opinion survey on company vacation policies and collated
results in graphical format for review and use by Director of HR.
2002 – 2004 NANDOS
Waitress and Hostess
Responsibilities & Achievements.
 Served an average of fifty customers a day, two times a week, delivering orders while
maintaining strong customer service and quick table turnover to increase business revenue.
 Managed daily cash receipts of an average of ushs 6 million and determining appropriate
share levels with other staff members.
SKILLS
 Communication skills – Can demonstrate oral and written communication skills at
workplace and business management.
 Teamwork – Can make effective contributions as both a team member and team
leader in different projects. Have been active member and leader of our discussion
and course work team at the University.
 Peer Counseling – Attended a three-day peer counseling training and have been
helping peers cope up with University challenges.
 Technology – Microsoft word, Excel, Power Point and Access
EXTRA – CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES

 Treasurer, BAD Club 2005/2006
TIBM
 Chairman BAD Club 2004/2005
TIBM
 Head Disciplinary Committee 2001/2002
Trinity College Nabbingo
 Health Perfect 2000
Gayaza High School
INTERESTS AND HOBBIES
 Reading any moral material
 Watching movies and soccer
 Playing indoor games like Ludo, Scrabble and Snakes and Ladders
.
LANGUAGES
 English spoken & written
 Runyankore spoken & written
 Luganda spoken & written
REFEREES
1. MR RANA SEMPAGAMA
Lecturer
BUGEMA UNIVERSITY
P.O BOX ……, KAMPALA
TEL: 010012
2. MRS CATHY ASINGA

PRINCIPAL PERSONNEL OFFICER
MULAGO HOSPITAL
TEL: 0782437892
5.3 MEMO
When you think of a memo, what do you think of?
Is it a little piece of paper with a cute letterhead that says something like:
"From the desk of ..." or "Don't forget ..." or "Reminders ..." The message itself may be very
simple--something like:
"Buy more paper clips" or "Meet with President at 2:30" or "Mom, we're out of fudge pops."
 A memo is a document typically used for communication within a company. Memos can
be as formal as a business letter and used to present a report.
 However, the heading and overall tone make a memo different from a business letter.
Because you generally send memos to co-workers and colleagues, you do not have to
include a formal salutation or closing remark.
5.3.1 IMPORTANCE OF MEMOS
 Usually you write memos to inform readers of specific information.
 You might also write a memo to persuade others to take action, give feedback on an
issue, or react to a situation.
 However, most memos communicate basic information, such as meeting times or due
dates.
 Memos solve problems either by informing the reader about new information, like
policy changes, price increases, etc., or by persuading the reader to take an action, such
as attend a meeting, use less paper, or change a current production procedure.
Regardless of the specific goal, memos are most effective when they connect the
purpose of the writer with the interests and needs of the reader.
5.4 GENERAL FORMAT OF A MEMO

 When you write a memo, you will follow a general format. Your company may have
specific requirements that you must use. For instance, a company might have a
particular way of presenting a heading or may even use a specific type of letterhead or
logo.
 However, usually a memo has a "to," "from," "subject," and "date" entry
The following are important while drafting a memo:

 Heading
 Message
 Length
 Format Guidelines
5.4.1 Heading
 A memo's heading provides information about who will receive the memo, who is
sending the memo, the date, and the memo's subject. This information may be bolded or
highlighted in some way. For example:
TO:
FROM:
DATE:
SUBJECT:
 Additionally, you might also initial your name in the "FROM" line to indicate that you
gave the memo a final approval.
 Sometimes organizations specify how to fill out the headings. If you are unsure, it may
be a good idea to include your job title and your reader's. The memo will then be
informative to someone new to the situation, or someone who received the memo after it
was passed on from the original reader.
5.4.2 Message
 It is important that the first sentence of the memo should answer that question with a
purpose statement. The best purpose statements are concise and direct.
 Your memo's message should also provide a context for readers. In other words, always tell
your readers why you are writing. Consider the following questions:
 Is your memo a result of a situation? For instance, "As a result of yesterday's meeting..."
 Is your memo a reminder? For example, "The Proposal is due July 2."
 By providing context for your readers, you avoid being asked to provide that information
later. Also, you should always include your contact information at the bottom of your
message. This can be your phone number or e-mail address.
 Finally, consider how your memo looks. If you have nothing but paragraph after paragraph
of text, you might use lists to draw attention to specific information. Lists represent an
effective way to present information. Not only do they breakdown large amounts of text, but
they also provide text in a way that is visually pleasing. Lists are especially useful for
conveying steps, phases, years, procedures, or decisions. By avoiding full sentences in a list,
your information is concise and more likely to engage your readers. For example:
5.4.3Tone
 Since you typically send memos to those working within your company, you can use a
more informal tone than you would if you were writing a business letter.
 For example, you might refer to your colleagues by their first names or use humor.
However, always keep in mind that you still need to be professional. Ask yourself how
the company's president would react to your memo. If you would be embarrassed to
have the president read your memo, consider changing or eliminating information.
However, always keep in mind that you still need to be professional. Ask yourself how the
company's president would react to your memo. If you would be embarrassed to have the president
read your memo, consider changing or eliminating information.
5.4.4 Length
 Memos are generally short, concise documents. However, you may have to write longer
memos, depending on your topic. For example, a memo might present the new guidelines
for a specific office task.
 Obviously, if you have over forty guidelines, the memo will be more than a page. Some
memos might even introduce a short report. In this case, you might include the report in the
memo, or the memo might be a separate document, introducing the report.
5.4.5 Format Guidelines
Regardless of the style, memos generally have similar format characteristics, unless otherwise
specified by your professor or company. Listed below are some basic guidelines that can help you
create a memo:
 Memos have one-inch margins around the page and are on plain paper
 All lines of the memo begin at the left margin
 The text begins two spaces after the subject line
 The body of the memo is single-spaced, with two spaces between paragraphs
 Second-page headings are used, as in business letters
 The second page includes who the Memo is to, the page number, and the date
 The sender usually signs the Memo using initials, first name, or complete name
Review Questions
1. Highlight incidences when you need to use a memo
2. What is the importance of a cover letter when looking of a job?
3. What are the contents of a memo?
4. What are the contents of a cover letter?
5. Assuming you are applying for a job as an Accountant in one of the prominent companies in
Kampala. Make an application and all necessary documents such that you are able to compete to be
shortlisted for interviews.
LECTURE SIX
BUSINESS REPORTS
Lecture Outline:
 Introduction
 Importance of business reports
 Characteristics of business reports
 Structure of business reports
 Approaches to organising reports.
6.0 Introduction:
This lecture will highlight how to write business reports emphasising what has to be include for a
report to be meaningful to the person for which it is prepared.
Lecture Objectives:
By the end of this lecture, you should be able to;
 Write a business report from any given scenario.
 Explain the necessity of business reports
 Differentiate the different approaches of organising reports.
This is a printed or microfilmed collection of facts and figures presented in a logical and concise
form. It may also refer to communication of information and advice from someone who has
collected and studied facts to someone who needs to be informed in order to make decisions or take
action. Or this is communication design from to convey and record information that will be of
practical use to the reader.
6.1 Importance of Business Reports

 Indicate actual performance of a firm i.e. financial.
 Form the foundation for decision making e.g. quantity and quality of products and services.
 Financial and credit reports allow organisations to easily access loans.
 Enable enforcement of fair policies and procedures e.g. remuneration of the employees and
taxes levied.
 Allow identification and solving of problems i.e. through monitoring and evaluation reports.
 Required for record keeping purposes i.e. source of reference.
6.2 Classification and Types of Reports

Several reports are written in business. They are a very important method of gaining and giving
information. Business reports are classified according;
6.2.1 Function i.e. whether to inform or analyse.
a. Analytical reports are written to solve problems. Information is analysed, conclusions are
drawn and recommendations.
b. Informational reports – inform or instruct i.e. present information. The reader sees the
details of events, activities or conditions. No analysis of the situation, no conclusions and no
recommendations.
6.2.2. Origin i.e. whether authorised or voluntary.
a. Authorised reports - Are those requested or ordered for but by management.
b. Voluntary reports - Are those not requested or ordered for by management but individuals
do their research and present findings on their free will.
6.2.3 Frequency o f the issue - whether periodic or special.
a. Periodic reports – Are those written on a timely basis e.g. daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly
or yearly. E.g. financial reports.
b. Special reports – Are those written for specific information or reports made on a special
topic after research and investigation e.g. market research report.
6.2.4 Formality – Whether formal or informal.
a. Formal reports are those written by a selected committee or group of people after fairly
detailed investigations or research. These are meant to benefit the organization. The reverse
is true for informal reports.
6.2.5 Subject matter-These are reports in line with the origin of the department. E.g. Safety report,
accident report from HR department or Safety department and equipment and maintenance report
from Production department or Maintenance department.
6.3 Characteristics of Business Reports
6.3.1 Accuracy:
Check that everything you write factually accurate. Facts should be capable of being verified,
argument soundly based and the reasoning should be logical. Don’t write anything that will
misinform, mislead or unfairly persuade the readers. This will be doing a disservice not only to
yourself but also to your department and organisation. Accurate information is essential for
effective communication and decision – making.
6.3.2. Objectivity:
A report should not be an essay reflecting personal emotions and opinions. You must look at all
sides of a problem with an open mind before stating your conclusion. Making it clear that you have
an open mind when writing your report will in most cases, make your conclusions and
recommendations more acceptable to your readers. The emphasis therefore, should be on the factual
material presented and the conclusions drawn, rather than on any personal beliefs, biases or
prejudices (pre c onception, pre – judgement, narrow – mindness, discrimination and unfairness).
6.3.3. Conciseness:
Aim at keeping the reports concise. In doing this, do not mistake shortness for conciseness. A report
may be brief because it omits important information. A concise report on the other hand is short but
still contains all the essential details.
6.3.4. Simplicity:
A report should also be as simple as it can be. However guard against over – simplifying, to the
point of missing out information which the reader needs to fully understand what you are trying to
say. Keep the readers firmly in mind and keep asking yourself whether or not they will be able to
follow the logic of your presentation.
6.3.5. Avoid Pointless words:

Some words and phrases – like basically, actually, undoubtedly, each and every one and during the
course of our investigation – keep cropping up in reports, yet they add nothing to the message and
often can be removed without changing the meaning or to the tone. Try leaving them out of your
writing. You will find your sentences survive, succeed and may even flourish without them.
6.4 Report Structure

A report is mainly made up of 3 parts i.e. the Introduction, Text, and the Terminal section. But
before the introduction, is the heading like any other business document.
6.4.1 Heading:
There should be two headings to a report i.e. the name of the company and the report heading e.g.
Report on students’ poor performance last semester.
6.4.2. Introduction:
This is made of eleven parts and these are;
a) Authorisation – This is the name of person who asked for the report.
b) Problem – Gives reasons of the report.
c) Purpose – Determines what the writer should put in the report.
d) Scope – Refers to the area of coverage.
e) Limitations – These are hindrances encountered while making the report. May be in
terms of money, time, research assistance or available data.
f) Methodology – Refers to methods used in collection of required material. These include
observation, interviews, and questionnaires e.t.c.
g) Sources – Types of sources of information i.e. primary or secondary.
h) Background – This is history of the situation being investigated.
i) Important terms – Definition of the used terms that are rare in the report.
j) Brief statement of results (Executive summary) – This contains the summary of the
whole report.
k) Plan for presentation – Contains the order of the topics presented in the report.
6.4.3. Text
This section provides all the necessary explanation of the report. It includes interpretation of data
and comments on the significance of the findings. It often referred to as Discussion, Findings or
Data Analysis.
6.4.4. Terminal section:

This section contains the summary, conclusions and recommendations. Its main function is to point
out the whole report and make it’s final meaning clear and distinct (presenting a clear un mistakable
impression) thus should be based on the text and should not include any new information.
a) Summary - Reflects what has been discussed or analysed in the text in a brief form.
b) Conclusion – Evaluates facts discussed in the text and comes to a stand point without
including the personal opinion of researcher or writer.
c) Recommendation – Suggest the action to be taken or decision to be made basing on the
findings and conclusions.
6.5 Approaches to organising a report body

There are two types / ways of arranging a report i.e.
6.5.1. Inductive arrangement:

This is indirect, logical from the known to the unknown. Explanation comes before main ideas. The
format is to start with the Introduction, Text (discussion and explanation) and the Terminal section
last.
When to use Inductive Arrangement / Approach
 You must have a detailed explanation in order to understand the conclusions or
recommendations for instance in a scientific or technical report.
 If the reader is a type who will fight the decision unless he/she is 1 st given complete details
and becomes convinced by the logical development of facts.
 When the reader might feel less biased towards conclusions and will be more likely to
accept them if 1st given the analysis of the important factors.
 If the reader needs to be encouraged to read the entire report and not just the terminal
section.
 When the reader prefers the report in this order.
6.5.2. Deductive Arrangement / Approach:

This is direct and comparable (suitable for comparison) to the direct plans used for direct requests
and good messages. The main idea comes before explanation. The format is to start with the
Terminal section, Introduction and Text. Or Introduction, Terminal section and Text.
When to use Deductive Arrangement / Approach
When your reader;
 Is a busy executive who wishes to know only what the conclusions are or what action is to
be taken and when and who has the responsibility.
 Prefers to determine quickly whether to scan the text for confirmation of conclusions or
recommendations and whether the rest of the report is worth reading.
 Wants the writer’s point of view promptly.
 Can better analyse data if conclusions or recommendations are given first.
 Prefers the report in that order.
Review Questions:
1. Explain reason for writing business reports.
2. Describe the different ways in which reports are classified.
3. Explain the different approaches to report writing
4. Explain the essential features of a report.
LECTURE SEVEN
NON- VERBAL AND VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Lecture Outline:
 Introduction
 Non verbal communication
 Definition of non verbal communication
 Importance of non verbal communication
 Divisions of non verbal communication
 Problems associated with non verbal communication
 Verbal/oral communication
 Why use verbal communication
 Disadvantages of verbal communication.
7.0 Introduction:
In this lecture we shall look at other ways of classifying communication in business organizations
which could be through verbal or non verbal means. The lecture will also look at the importance of
each and disadvantages or problems associated with each method.
Lecture Objectives:
 Describe the importance of verbal and non verbal communication
 Describe with reasons cases in which verbal communication is more suitable.
 Explain the problems associated with non verbal communication
 Discuss the merits and demerits of verbal communication
7.1 NON – VERBAL COMMUNICATION
7.1.1 Definition
Refers to human action and behavior and the corresponding meaning that is attached to the
behavior. Or conveying a message without using words or writing. E.g. gestures, eye contact,
posture, facial expressions e.t.c.
7.1.2 Importance of Non – Verbal Communication

 Non – verbal messages are stronger than verbal messages e.g. there is a saying that
actions speak louder than words.
 Non – verbal clarifies verbal messages e.g. saying thank you with a smile makes the
message more meaningful.
 Non – verbal messages are sent more frequently than verbal messages.
 It’s reliable i.e. people can deceive through words but not their bodies.
 Non – verbal communication has no universal meaning. E.g. one tapping on a table may
be understood as anger to some people that may not be the case i.e. one act may have
many meanings.
 Express emotions
 Communicate to deaf
 Communicate with people who don't understand your language.
 Ritual (greeting)
 non-verbal messages cannot be avoided: even when we do nothing, we convey a

message
7.1.3 Disadvantages
 You cannot have long conversation.

 Cannot discuss the particulars of your message
 Difficult to understand and requires a lot of repetitions.
 Cannot be used as a public tool for communication.
 Less influential and cannot be used everywhere.
 Not everybody prefers to communicate through non-verbal communication.
 Somebody cannot understand your expression or posture, that you are trying to tell and they
misunderstood. And which is not good sometime.
 Can't be avoided when others are near you
 Can't explain complex ideas
 Doesn't come across phone lines or in written text
 Only communicates for limited distances, and only in the present moment
Activity:
1. Define non verbal communication.
2. Outline the importance of non verbal communication
3. What are the disadvantages of non verbal communication?
7.2 Divisions of Non – verbal

These are basically 3;
o Environmental
o Social interactions
o Physical Interactions
7.2.1 Environmental communication

With the environment, time, territory, design and arrangement contribute to the communication of
messages. Each of these conveys a message about its occupants.
a. Time: Business is time bound. Workers must arrive in time; work in shifts and meet
specified production quotas. Time is money i.e. most workers are paid by clock. Time is
power i.e. people of busy schedules are perceived as more important than those who have
time for social niceties. Key cultural aspect in the area of time include;
- Monochromic cultures i.e. doing one activity at the same time e.g. reading a newspaper in a
meeting may imply impoliteness.
- Polychromic cultures i.e. people do several things at the same time e.g. having a meeting
while at the same time reading documents or surfing the internet to research for solutions.
Common in Latin America.
b. Territory: Many people consider their workspace, a table, a chair or piece of
machinery, an office they have run for several years as their territory that others can’t enter
without permission.
c. Design and arrangement: Some time we are constantly influenced with out
realizing it by the design and arrangement of the environment. Therefore
managers should be familiar with five elements of that design and arrangement i.e.
o The building design
o The office space design
o The room design
o The room colour
o Desk arrangement
I. Building design: This can shape the type of communication among its occupants e.g.
buildings away from stairways are quiet and tend to be secure showing the seriousness of
the organization.
II. Office space design / Layout: The corner office with windows is usually for a Chief
Executive Office or partner. Inner offices are for junior executives, sometimes they have no
windows but at least there is a door and an area you can call you own. The general office is
for the lower echelon and support personnel. There is no privacy.
III. Room design: For fast turnover in restaurants and bars use bright lighting and should be in a
noisy place. However for many other types of organizations use of bright colours and
location in noisy places may indicate lack of seriousness.
IV. Room colours: Colour is used as a motivator. It’s believed that conferences conducted in
cheerful bright rooms are more successful than those held in dull environments. E.g. red is
aggressive, exciting and stimulating and related to emotions and passion, Blue is cool, clear,
serene and has a calming effect, and Green is light, fresh and peaceful.
7.2.2. Social Communication

The environment in which we work and live influences how we communicate, affects verbal and
non- verbal behaviour. Social aspects that send important messages include;
a) Space: Personal distance extends from one to the four feet away from the body. This is often
referred to as un invisible. Social distance is between four and eight feet away from the body.
This is used for impersonal or business like situations.
Proxemics—How Space Influences Communication. Proxemics refers to the amount of
space that individuals naturally maintain between each other. Sociologists report four
territorial zones: intimate space (up to 1 1/2 feet), personal space (1 to 2 1/2 feet), social space
(4 to 7 feet), and public space (10 feet or more). When our territorial space is invaded, we
resent and resist the intrusion. Business conversations may take place in personal or social
space, but never in intimate space. Meetings are usually conducted in public space. Although
effective communicators probably could not name these four zones, they instinctively
understand and observe spatial requirements.
b) Status: Title or position communicates status. Time that elapses between knocking at some
one‘s door and entry communicates status. How far into the territory the visitor penetrates and
how quickly he/she does it depends on the status.
c) Symbols: These are used by organizations to identify themselves or their products. These
create recognition of the organization and its products i.e. useful in helping sell and
maintaining usable public image e.g. logos and trademarks.
7.2. 3. Physical Communication
It’s the most personal and unconscious but also the most easily controlled part of physical
behaviour. This includes body gestures, facial expressions, eye movements, voice and clothing.
b) Body: There is no precise meaning obtained from body position and movement. E.g. one
may cry when she is happy but another when she is sad. Body languages differ from culture
to culture. Each culture has its own body language. Interpretation of body language
message is more accurate when it’s received over a period of time and not only in one
observation.
c) Gestures: These are the movements of the body parts especially hands. Gestures vary in
meaning from culture to culture and must be interpreted in the context of their meaning e.g.
handshakes for friendliness, peace and sealing an agreement for gentlemen.
d) Facial expressions: Smiling is a powerful signal / indication to warmth, approachability.
Smiling is often contagious and others will respond favourably. They will be more
comfortable around you.
e) Eye movement: An eye moves an estimated 1000 times during the average day. Meaning
attached to various movements.
f) Clothing: This makes or breaks a person. It influences how the people around us think
about us. Dressing communicates a variety of messages to others in the organization. It
reveals something about your emotions and discloses information about our behaviour and
differentiates us from others.
g) Voice: Verbal messages relate to vocal factors like tone, quality, and style, rate of speech or
accents. Voices discuss many messages. The sensitive strive to use a voice that
complements and emphasizes the words that he/she speaks.
h) Touch
Touch is the first non-verbal experience we have in life and through it we learn to relate to
people and objects. It is critical to our sense of well-being. Each person will respond to
touch in a personal way and that response will be based on values affected by age, sex, role,
cultural norms, background and the situation itself. Australians of Anglo-Celtic background
are sometimes reluctant to touch publicly, and especially reluctant to touch strangers. In
fact, apologies are made when someone is touched by mistake. Touching is seen as
acceptable in courtship, in greetings, especially in handshakes and sometimes women may
kiss each other or men may kiss women to indicate friendship or intimacy. In some
European cultures men may kiss other men as a sign friendship or kinship.
Touching is an important human activity. However, we need to be aware of the cultural

implications of a touch (forbidden between men and women in some cultures) and, in the
workplace, of the implications of touch that can lead to sexual harassment issues.
i) Physical appearance of the body
j) Posture. The way you stand and hold your body also sends messages about your self
confidence. Stooped or bowed shoulders may signal that you are burdened, self conscious,
lacking confidence, submissive, beaten, guilty, or afraid. A straight back with squared
shoulders typifies strength and responsibility. Hunched shoulders suggest anxiety or
weariness.
7.3 Problems Associated With Non -verbal communication

o Differences in interpretation. Each person may interpret it according to background,
knowledge and experience.
o Can’t be stored.
o No consistency in meaning i.e. unique from society to society. E.g. nodding means
yes to a Ugandan but no to Japanese.
o May not be complete for effectiveness.
o May contradict the verbal communication e.g. I’m happy to receive, yet the attitude
or body language is not friendly.
o It’s not applicable when there is along distance between the communicators.
o Highly influenced by the personality of the communicator and receiver in question.
o
Activity:
1. What are the divisions of non verbal communication?
2. Explain the disadvantages of non verbal communication
7. 4 VERBAL/ORAL COMMUNICATION
Oral communication is known as communication by word of mouth.
It may be face-to-face or not. Oral communication may be in form
 A conversation
 A telephone conversation
 Interviews
 Training sessions
 Conference/ seminars
 A gossip in the lift
 A chance meeting in the corridor etc
Note:
Oral communication can take place between two or more people.
It can be planned or incidental.
It can be formal or informal.
7.4.1 WHY WOULD ONE CHOOSE ORAL COMMUNICATION?
 It makes possible speedy interchange with immediate feedback and spontaneous thinking.
 People can ask questions and clarify points i.e. in case any thing is not clear to the audience,
explanation can always be made.
 It is direct, simple, time saving and least expensive.
 It conveys personal warmth and friendliness because of personalized contacts.
 Any misunderstandings can be cleared immediately.
 It serves as evidence of events and proceedings.
7.4.2 DISADVANTAGES
 Spontaneous responses may not be carefully thought about and this means that a wrong
feedback may be transmitted.
 Different meaning may be conveyed by manner of speaking, tone of voice and facial
expression.
 The spirit of authority cannot be transmitted effectively in verbal communication.
 Lengthy and distant communication can’t be effectively conveyed verbally.
 Meetings can be costly in terms of time and organizational money.
 There are high chances of distorting the meaning of the message if hierarchy is to be
followed.
Review Questions
1. In what instances is verbal or non verbal communication necessary?
2. Outline the advantages and disadvantages of verbal communication
LECTURE EIGHT
LISTENING
Lecture Outline:
 Introduction
 Techniques for effective listening
 Good listening skills
 Poor and good listening habits
 Types of listening
 Sources of difficulty by listener
 Barriers to listening
 Basics of effective listening
8.0 Introduction:
Having looked at verbal communication in the previous lecture, we now have a glimpse at listening
because without listening effectively communication through verbal means will be useless. We
shall also look at the types of listening and barriers to effective listening which have to be overcome
for listening to be effective.
Lecture Objectives:
 Describe the techniques for effective listening
 Explain what skill a good listener should have
 Identify the sources of difficulty to a listener and how they can be overcome
 Explain the barriers to listening
Listening is the absorption of the meanings of words and sentences by the brain.
Listening leads to understanding of ideas and facts. It takes attention or sticking to the task in spite
of distractions. Listening is half of oral communication. In other words, if someone communicates
and there is no one to listen, then communication becomes incomplete.
It’s an active mental process & it goes beyond simply hearing. Listen- ‘conscious hearing’ or to pay
attention
Listening is a skill that needs to be practiced and taken as seriously as speaking and writing, for the
consequences of not listening carefully could be very disastrous.
NOTE: The difference between listening and hearing is that, hearing is physical.
Listening involves following and understanding the sound- it is hearing with a purpose.
8.1 TECHNIQUES FOR EFFECTIVE LISTENING

What is effective listening?
This is actively absorbing the information given to you by the speaker, showing that you are
listening and interested, and providing feedback to the speaker so that he or she knows the message
was received. Effective listeners show speakers that they have heard and understood
8.2 GOOD LISTENING SKILLS

8.2.1 Establish eye contact with the speaker.
 Studies show that listening has a positive relationship with eye contact while the speaker is
speaking. This interrupts your brain and adds distraction to the speaker.
 Focus on the visual aid only when it is an asset to the point being discussed.
 Don’t get so involved in taking notice that you fail to often look at the speaker. The
speaker’s gestures, movements and facial expression are often an important part of the
message. Etc.
In other words, the better eye contact you have with the speaker, the better you will listen. There are
some things you should do to establish eye contact:-
Don’t look at others who enter or leave
8.2.2 Want to listen

This suggestion simply says that, you must have intent to listen. We can recall having been forced
to listen to a speech or briefing that we didn’t want to listen to. This listening seldom results in
understanding or enjoyment. Therefore, we should always clear our mind and prepare to listen.
8.2.3 Avoid pre-judgment/ Don’t be biased

Never pre- judge the speaker because of appearance, occupation and do not make any conclusions
before hearing what is said. Remember you cannot evaluate the importance of the message from the
speaker until you have heard it.
Let us face it: We all have likes and dislikes; some things turn us on, others turn us off. These
characteristics are natural and to be expected but we should not let our- likes and dislikes- get in the
way of understanding the speaker’s message. E.g. One may be biased about people from a certain
region.
8.2.4 Give positive feedback

It is always important to give positive feedback non-verbally. You can give feedback by:-
 Looking and acting interested. Positive head nods, alertness and smiles all offer
encouragement to the speaker.
 Asking questions. Questions that show interest and attention encourage both the
speaker and the listener.
 Share information with the speaker- we tend to tell things to those who tell us things.
8.2.5 Judge content not delivery

You must appraise the content and not the speaker. Weigh the merits of what the speaker is saying.
Focus on the main issues to see whether they have some sense in them.
However, there are also times when you must judge the speaker. E.g. job interviews, speech
contests e.t.c. Here, judgment of the speaker is important.
8.5.6 Extract key points

You can pick out and repeat to yourself key words and phrases to help you fix in your mind what is
being said. Take notes effectively- Don’t attempt to write everything down. Effective listeners focus
on ideas. If you have been given an article, circle or highlight the most important points.
8.5.7 Follow the golden rule
Do to others you would have them do unto you.
The effective listener is always other directed, focused on the other person. In other words, be the
kind of listener you want others to be when you are talking. Ask “How would I want others to listen
to me?” That’s how to be an effective listener.
8.5.8. Block out distractions

Fight distractions and other competing thoughts if you are to be a good listener. Everyone has
mannerisms. Unfortunately, some mannerisms are negative or distracting. These should be avoided.
Avoid these mannerisms:-
 Tapping a pencil, playing with a rubber band or some other objects, such things distract
other listeners and annoy the speaker.
 Continually looking at the clock or your watch
 Rearranging items in your wallet
 Reading a paper.
Such things hinder the speaker, divert the attention of other listeners, and prevent you from being
the best listener you can be.
8.5.9 Be open minded

Appreciate the speaker’s point of view and accept that it may not agree with your own.
8.9.10. Do not interrupt

Never bring in judgments until the speaker has finished and try as much as you can not to be
emotional
8.10 POOR LISTENING HABITS AND GOOD LISTENING HABITS

Poor Listening
Poor Listeners... Good Listeners...
Habits
Criticize the speaker's voice, clothes,
realize that a lecture is not a popularity
Criticizing a or looks. Therefore, they decide that
contest. Good listeners look for the ideas
speaker the speaker won`t say anything
being presented, not for things to criticize.
important.
become so involved in disagreeing listen with the mind, not the emotions.
Finding fault with with something the speaker states Good listeners jot down something they
the speaker that they stop listening to the disagree with to ask the speaker later, then
remainder of the lecture go on listening.
Allowing yourself Use little distractions -- someone filter out distractions and concentrate on
to be distracted coughing, a pencil dropping, the what the speaker is saying.
door opening and closing -- as an
excuse to stop listening.
understand that speakers talk about what
Look at the speaker but don't listen. they think is most important. Good
Faking attention They expect to get the material from listeners know that a good lecture may not
the textbook later. contain the same information as the
textbook.
Outline the lecture in detail. The
Forcing every adjust their style of note-taking to the
listener is so concerned with
lecture into one speaker's topic and method of
organization that he misses the
format organization.
content.
want to see how the facts and examples
Only want the facts. They consider
Listening only for support the speaker's ideas and arguments.
everything else to be only the
facts Good listeners know that facts are
speaker's opinion.
important, because they support ideas.
Think it is too difficult to follow the want to learn something new and try to
Listening to only speaker's complicated ideas and understand the speaker's point. A good
the easy material logic. A poor listener wants listener is not afraid of difficult, technical,
entertainment, not education. or complicated ideas.
listen closely for information that can be
Calling a subject Decide a lecture is going to be dull
important and useful, even when a lecture
boring and "turn out" the speaker.
is dull.
Get upset at words which trigger
hear these same words. When they do,
Overreacting to certain emotions -- words such as
they listen very carefully. A good listener
"push button" communist, income tax, Hitler or
tries to understand the speaker's point of
emotional words abortion. Emotion begins and
view.
listening ends.
use any extra time or pauses in the lecture
Move along lazily with the speaker
to reflect on the speaker's message. They
Wasting thought even though thinking is faster than
think about what the speaker is saying,
speed speaking. A poor listener daydreams
summarize the main points, and think
and falls behind.
about the next points.
8.11 TYPES OF LISTENING
8.11.1 COMPETITIVE OR COMBATIVE LISTENING

Happens when we are more interested our main point of view than in understanding or exploring
someone else’s view. We either listen to openings to take the floor, or for flaws or weak points we
can attack
8.11.2 PASSIVE OR ATTENTIVE LISTENING
We are genuinely interested in hearing and understanding the other person’s point of view. We are
attentive and passively listen. We assume that we heard and understood correctly but we stay
passive and we don’t verify it.
8.11.3 ACTIVE OR REFLECTIVE LISTENING

It is the most useful and important listening skill. We are genuinely interested in understanding
what the other person is thinking, feeling, wanting or what the message means, and we are active in
checking out our understanding before we respond with our own new message.
It requires often that the listener attends to the words and feelings of the sender for understanding. It
also requires the receiver to hear various messages, understand the meaning and then verify the
meaning by offering feedback
8.11.4 Other Types of listening

– Content listening –enables you to understand and retain message.
– Critical listening enables you to evaluate the information
– Empathic listening is used to draw out the other person.
8.12 THE LISTENING PROCESS
Listening is a process involving 5 related Activities, which generally occur in this sequence.
• Sensing – physical hearing of message & taking note of it.
• Interpreting- decoding & absorbing what you hear
• Evaluating- forming an opinion about the message
• Remembering – Sorting a message for future reference
• Responding –acknowledge the message by reacting
Receiving/sensing. Physical hearing of a message

Attending/interpreting. Focusing attention. decoding & absorbing what you hear
Understanding
Evaluating. Analyse and judge the message
Remembering
Responding
8.12.1 Sources of difficulty by the listener

 Being pre-occupied and not listening
 Being so interested in what you have to say that you listen mainly to find an opening to get
the floor, or to get thing to disagree with
 Listening to your own personal beliefs about what is being said
 Evaluating and making judgments about the speaker or the message
 Rushing to advising before you hear the entire message
 Being right: You can’t listen to criticism, you can’t be corrected, you can’t take suggestions
to change
 Dreaming – drifting about in our interior fantasies
 Not asking for clarification when you know that you do not understand
8.12.2 Barriers to listening
In order to improve your listening skills you need to be aware of the major barriers to effective
listening. Some barriers come from the listeners themselves (for example, disinterest in the topic),
some from the sender (for example, a boring tone) and others from the environment (too much
noise).
Probably the most famous study about listening was undertaken by Ralph Nichols who examined
100 of the poorest listeners and 100 of the best listeners in a university setting. His 10 bad listening
habits are often quoted in communication texts (see Gibson & Hodgett 1990, for example). They
are:
 deciding in advance that the subject is uninteresting

 focusing on the poor delivery of the speaker
 becoming overexcited and anxious to make your own point
 focusing only on facts
 a tendency to outline everything
 pretending to pay attention
 allowing distractions to interfere
 avoiding difficult material
 responding emotionally to certain words or phrases
 Day dreaming because of the difference between speech speed and thought speed.
8.12.3 Basics for effective listening:

 Desire to become a better listener
 Stop talking while the speaker is talking
 Look at the speaker, avoid looking at your watch
 Leave your emotions behind
 Get rid of distractions and get ready to listen
 Recognize your own prejudice
 Use your own words to verbalize your understanding of the message
 Look for feelings or intent beyond the meaning of the words
 Give feedback
 Listen for ideas, not facts
 Judge content, not delivery
 Listen optimistically
 Concentrate, don’t start dreaming
 Don’t think ahead of the speaker
Review Questions:
1. Describe the techniques for effective listening.
2. Outline good listening skills
3. Differentiate between the different types of listening
4. What are the sources of difficulty in listening?
5. Briefly explain the basics of effective listening.
LECTURE NINE
SPEECH
Lecture Outline:
 Introduction
 Preparation for an effective speech
 Methods of presentation
 Overcoming speaking anxiety in presentations.
9.0 Introduction
This is the second last lecture of the course and will give you a brief on how to communicate
effectively when using oral means. It describes the different methods of presentation and how to
overcome speaking anxiety.
Lecture Objectives:
 Adequately prepare for any presentation
 Explain the different methods of presentation and to discuss the suitability of each method.
 Identify the causes of anxiety before presentation and explain how they can be avoided
It is the most commonly used in our day to day lives and indeed in organizations. It probably has
the largest impact on both the sender and receiver. For this reason, it requires great skills and people
should be attentive when speaking. In organizations, managers speak to subordinates, to colleagues
and vice versa.
9.1 PREPARATION FOR AN EFFECTIVE SPEECH
“Anyone can give a speech but not everyone can give an effective speech”. While day to day
conversation is difficult to plan, executing formal presentation is easier to plan for because you are
aware and you have time to do so effectively. Planning is essentially preparation for everything that
is looking ahead to see how you will do things. Being prepared is by far the most important
element. How many times do you practice your speech? As a general rule, you should spend about
30 hours of preparation and rehearsal time for every hour you will be speaking. Use a tape recorder
or videotape and view yourself. This will help you to get an accurate picture of how you speak.
To give an effective speech there are things that you should consider.
9.1.1 Determine the purpose.
What are you trying to achieve/communicate? What is the purpose of your speech? Are you
informing, do you want action, or to persuade or entertain. When you are invited to give a speech at
a conference, seminar or even address a group of people on a topic that you are conversant with, it
is important for you to ascertain what you expect to achieve by the end of the day.
9.1.2 Analyze your audience and the situation.
Who are you going to talk too? What levels are they in terms of knowledge, age, sex, their needs,
their occupations, their backgrounds? This tells you how, when, where and what say. You will
prepare differently when talking to different people for example if you are talking to accountants,
you can use appropriate technical expressions like illustrations in your presentation.
1. Collect and interprete information (research). When making a presentation, the

speaker has an opportunity to organize himself, collect data, write down what you will
say, revise it and re-arrange it so that it suits the objective of the communication.
2. Organize the information. Organisating data is sequencing of the presentation so that it
is logical and will be understood by the audience. A speech is organized like a report
that is introduction, text (discussion of details) and conclusions. As part of organizing
your presentation, you have to decide how you will present the talk. Good presentation
involves getting a full understanding of what you are going so that you have command
over the subject.
3. Give of Yourself - Use personal examples and stories in your speech whenever possible.
Make sure your stories help to emphasize or support your point. The stories must match
your message. Use examples from your personal and professional life to make your
point. In either case be willing to give of yourself by sharing some of yourself with the
audience.
4. Use Natural Humor - Don't try to be a standup comedian. Use natural humor by poking
fun at yourself and something you said or did. Be sure NOT to make fun of anyone in
the audience. People will laugh with you when you poke fun at yourself but don't overdo
it.
5. Plan Your Body & Hand Positions - During the practice of your speech look for
occasions where you can use a gesture. Establish three positions where you will stand
and practice not only how to move to them but where in your speech do you move. Pick
three positions, one on center stage, one to your right, and one to your left. Do not hide
behind the lectern. When you do move maintain eye contact with the audience.
6. Pay attention to all details - Make sure you have the right location (school, hotel, room
& time). Make sure you know how to get to where you are speaking. Ask how large an
audience you will be speaking to. Make sure you bring all your visual aids and plenty of
handouts. Arrive early so you can check out where you will be speaking and make any
last minute adjustments. It is very important that you pay attention to even the smallest
details. You can never over plan. Remember, "He who fails to plan is planning for
failure"
7. Plan visual aids. What you see you remember, so goes the saying. It is therefore
preferable that visual aids are used when making a presentation to re enforce what one is
saying and hold the attention of the audience. examples include power point
presentation, overhead projectors,poster/flipcharts,whiteboards,chalkboards,hand outs
etc
9.2 METHODS OF PRESNTATION/DERIVERY
Once the objectives are clear and the presentation has been written systematically depending on
your abilities, then you may decide on the methods of presentation. they
include;impromptu,reading,memorizing,and extramporaneous.
9.2.1 Impromptu speaking.
It means speaking without preparation. This is usually when you’re called to speak without notice.
It is important to keep such speech as short as possible and restrict what you say. For instance refer
to the audience, the importance of the topic, event and courtesy must be inbuilt in the speech.
9.2.2. Reading.
This is good because you don’t deviate from what you have prepared. However using this method,
make sure that the speech is short and has no complicated phrases, figures or graphs to present to
the audience. In business meetings reading is not the preferred presentation and also in conferences,
there is never enough time for one to read the whole presentation. This is where visual aids
become important. Using this method, handouts, charts, transparencies and now slides from power
points computer software has made presentations easier.
9.2.3 Memorizing.
This is committing information to memory. It is cramming information into the mind. This takes
time and cannot be used for a speech. A speech may be long and once spoken, it may not be used
again. There is therefore no merit in committing lengthy speeches to memory. However you may
memorize important quotes about what you want to say that are relevant to the topic that you are
presenting.
9.2.4 Extramporaneous.
This is the most preferred method of presentation. This is where you speak from the previously
prepared outline. You speak out on the issues but keep on referring to the notes or outline. The
outline enables you to keep track of what you want to say and facilitates allocation of time to
specific points on the outline. Visual aids are very important under this method
9.3 OVERCOMING SPEAKING ANXIETY IN PRESENTATIONS (STAGE FRIGHT)
Do your knees feel like Gumby's when you have to get up and speak in front of a group? Do
you feel like the next words out of your mouth are going to be the dumbest words ever uttered
by a human?
Some of the world's most famous presenters have freely admitted to nervousness and stage fright.
Mark Twain said it best, "There are two types of speakers: those that are nervous and those that are
liars".
Everyone, even experienced speakers, has some anxiety when speaking in front of a group of
people. This is perfectly normal. The best way to deal with this anxiety is to first acknowledge that
this fear is perfectly normal and you are not alone. To reduce your fear, you need to make sure you
properly and thoroughly prepare yourself before you speak.
Proper preparation and rehearsal can help to reduce this fear by about 75%. Proper breathing
techniques can further reduce this fear by another 15%. Your mental state accounts for the
remaining 10%.
Nothing will relax you more than to know you are properly prepared. Below are 10 steps you can
take to reduce your speech anxiety.
1. Know the room - become familiar with the place in which you will speak. Arrive early and
walk around the room including the speaking area. Stand at the lectern, speak into the
microphone. Walk around where the audience will be seated. Walk from where you will be
seated to the place where you will be speaking.
2. Know the Audience - If possible, greet some of the audience as they arrive and chat with
them. It is easier to speak to a group of friends than to a group of strangers.
3. Know the Material - If you are not familiar with your material or are uncomfortable with
it, your nervousness will increase. Practice your speech or presentation and revise it until
you can present it with ease.
4. Learn How to Relax - You can ease tension by doing exercises. Sit comfortable with your
back straight. Breathe in slowly, hold your breath for 4 to 5 seconds, and then slowly exhale.
To relax your facial muscles, open your mouth and eyes wide, and then close them tightly.
5. Visualize Yourself Speaking - Imagine yourself walking confidently to the lectern as the
audience applauds. Imagine yourself speaking, your voice loud, clear and assured. When
you visualize yourself as successful, you will be successful.
6. Realize People Want You To Succeed - All audiences want speakers to be interesting,
stimulating, informative and entertaining. They want you to succeed - not fail.
7. Don't apologize For Being Nervous - Most of the time your nervousness does not show at
all. If you don't say anything about it, nobody will notice. If you mention your nervousness
or apologize for any problems you think you have with your speech, you'll only be calling
attention to it. Had you remained silent, your listeners may not have noticed at all.
8. Concentrate on Your Message - not the medium - Your nervous feelings will dissipate if
you focus your attention away from your anxieties and concentrate on your message and
your audience, not yourself.
9. Turn Nervousness into Positive Energy - the same nervous energy that causes stage fright
can be an asset to you. Harness it, and transform it into vitality and enthusiasm.
10. Gain Experience - Experience builds confidence, which is the key to effective speaking.
Most beginning speakers find their anxieties decrease after each speech they give.
If the fear of public speaking causes you to prepare more, then the fear of speaking serves as its
own best antidote.
Remember, "He who fails to prepare is preparing for failure - so Prepare, Prepare, Prepare"
Review Questions:
1. Describe how you can prepare for an oral presentation.
2. Describe the different methods of presentation.
3. How can you overcome anxiety before a presentation.
LECTURE TEN
INTERVIEWS
Lecture Outline
 Introduction
 Types of interviews
 Preparing for interviews
 Responsibilities of an interviewer
 Responsibilities of an interviewee
 How to succeed in an interview.
10.0 Introduction
As we come to the end of this course, let’s look at interviews, the different types and how to
prepare for interviews. We shall also look at the responsibilities of both the interviewer and the
interviewee and finally how to succeed in an interview.
Lecture Objectives:
 Describe the types of interviews
 Adequately prepare for an interview
 Distinguish between the responsibilities of an interviewer and those of an interviewee.
 Explain the different techniques on should apply to succeed in interview
It’s an interaction between two or more people in order to gain information to accomplish a
predetermined purpose. It could be planned or unplanned.
It’s a two way street that provides the opportunity for information exchange and for mutual
marketing and fact finding.
10.1 Types of interviews.
10.1.1 Job interviews:

The interviewer assesses your suitability and experience while the interviewee markets themselves
and gets to know about the organization. Initially the interviews are official and structured but later
there can be spontaneous questions to get the candidate’s response.
10.1.2 Information interviews:

The interviewer seeks facts that bear on a decision. Questions are asked and answers are given..
One needs to decide in advance what information you require.
10.1.3 Persuasive interviews:
A person tells another about a new idea, product and explains why the other should act on the
recommendations. The persuader asks about the other’s needs and shows how the product is able to
meet those needs.
10.1.4 Exit interviews:

The interviewer tries to understand why the interviewee is leaving the organization. Usually insight
is given on how the organization is being run.
10.1.5 Evaluation interviews:

A supervisor periodically gives an employee feedback on his or her performance. They discuss
progress on predetermined standards and evaluate areas that require improvement.
10.1.6 Counseling interviews:

Personal problems interfering with work performance are discussed
10.1.7 Conflict resolution interviews:

Two competing people or groups explore their problems and attitudes. The goal is to bring two
parties closer together, cause adjustments in perceptions and attitudes and create a more productive
climate.
10.1.8 Disciplinary interviews:

A supervisor tries to correct the behavior of an employee who has ignored the organizational rules
and regulations. The aim is to make the employee see the reason for the rules and agree to comply.
10.1.9 Terminal interviews: A supervisor informs an employee of the reasons for the termination.
The interviewer tries to avoid involving the company in legal action and tries to maintain as
positive a relationship as possible
10.2 PREPARING FOR INTERVIEWS

 Define the purpose: Clearly defined purpose sets the tone of the interview and helps
determine your plan of action.
 Decide who should be involved: Whether a panel is necessary which consists of the
supervisor, manager e.t.c or just one interviewer.
 Plan the interview format or structure: The basic structure includes an opening (covers the
greeting, establishes common ground and purpose), a body (accomplishes the goal through
questioning and explaining. Information about previous experience, job description,
organizational structure, get cues about background and attitude e.t.c), and a close (applicant
summarises his or her understanding of the job, clarification on any misunderstandings,
inform about when notification would be given).
10.3 Responsibilities of an interviewee.
o Anticipate the interviewer’s questions.
o Plan your answers so that whatever you want to say is said.
o You can also introduce questions of your own.
o Research about the company.
o Be smart, polite and alert.
o Keep time.
o Carry your academic papers.
o Try to act as normal as possible.
10.4 Responsibilities of an interviewer.

o Schedule the interview and ensure that the venue is comfortable and convenient.
o Collect information, listen and probe i.e. develop a set of questions and their sequence.
o Keep the interviewee at ease so he can keep on answering the questions.
10.5 How to succeed in the interview
10.5.1 Before
o Get references on time.
o Read the application requirements on the advertisement carefully.
o Check the advertised job prospects and it’s potential.
o Consider the organization carefully; it’s reputation, employee relations, location e.t.c.
o When short listed, confirm your acceptance and find out as much as possible about the firm.
10.5.2 During
o Keep time.
o Check your appearance
o Avoid fiddling with clothes, rings, neck.
o Look directly at the interviewer when asking or answering questions.
o Don’t mumble or gamble
o Pose when answering to see if you can go on or you’ve given a satisfactory answer.
o Take time over tricky questions.
o Try to think ahead and anticipate what will be asked next.
o Ask questions
10.5.3 After
o If offered the job, confirm your acceptance as soon as possible.
o The current employer should have your resignation in good time.
o Always part from employers on good terms. You may need them later in your career.
Review Questions.
1. You have been invited for a job interview, you are not sure whether it’s an oral or written
interview; Explain how you would adequately prepare for such an interview.
2. Explain how you should behave before, during and after the interview.
3. Identify the responsibilities of the interviewer and the interviewee during an interview.
TELEPHONE COMMUNICATION
This means the process of communicating by using a telephone facility. A telephone is an

instrument which enables an individual with in an organization to speak to another in the next
room, outside the organizations, in another town or in another country by transmitting human voice.
The telephone was invested by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876 to enhance communication. The
ordinary telephone facility has the following parts;
(1) The Receivers
This contain the ear piece and the mouth piece. The ear piece is that part through which we hear the
caller’s voice and the mouth piece is that parts through which we answer the caller.
(2) The Dial:

This is the part which contains the numbers which are dialed i.e. 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10
(3) The Bell

This it he part which is used for alerting us when a call is being made to us.
ADVANTAGES OF USING A TELEPHONE
(i) Speed: It takes only a few seconds to reach a person within or outside the country.
(ii) Direct link. It enables a person to person link. One is able to ask questions and get answers
in turn. This way, the telephone creates a friendly atmosphere for communication.
(iii) Reduce movement for the staff with in the office which may be tiresum.
(iv) Conceals or hides emotions which would be revealed by facial expressions and gestures.
(v) Cheap – It is relatively a cheap source of conveying messages provide proper control is
exercised on its use.
(vi) Time saving – It saves time because urgent messages can be conveyed without moving from
one place to another.
DISADVANTAGES
(i) No record unlike letters, telegrams and telexes, telephone contacts are never written and such
messages are difficult to prove in court. However, the modern mobile telephones SMS
facility much as it is not satisfactory.
(ii) No personal contact. Although the callers speak directly, they are not able to see each other
so as to have a face to face touch in the conservation. It is thus difficult to understand each
other fully.
(iii) For business calls – one can only telephone during the day i.e. business transactions can only
be made during the office hours. However, telephone answering machines can now be used.
(iv) Telephone facility may be costly. This is especially if proper control of the telephone is not
maintained and the employees misuses it by making non organizational calls.
(v) In some case, one may telephone and fail to get the person needed and this can lead to delays
in business transactions.
(vi) Poor usage. Most members of staff may not know how to use the telephone and how to
answer calls. This will destroy customer relations or cause delays in business transactions.
THE TELEPHONE SWITCH BOARD
A telephone switch board is an instrument through which the incoming and outgoing calls within
the organization are routed through to and from the extensions. A switch board is used in large
organizations where there are several extensions and all incoming calls are received and transferred
to various executives or departments by means of interconnecting switches and signals. The switch
board allows the operator to receive all employees calls and handle them according to his/her risk.
The switchboard is managed by switchboard operator. This is the first person a caller speaks to.
The size of the switch board depends on the size of the organization.
HOW THE SWITCHBOARD OPERATORS
In organizations with many telephones, the telephones are connected to a switch board. When a
call is made from outside, the switch board operator will announce the name of the organization and
then the caller will ask for a certain person or office. Then, by inserting one of the plugs on the
switchboard into an appropriate hole, the operator will connect the caller with the office required.
In organizations, telephones in the various offices are called extension and each extension has its
number. Usually these extension numbers are typed on a printed letter heading and distributed to
every office so that it is easy to connect to them quickly. When one office wants to call another
office, it is better to ask for that extension’s number to enable the operator to connect quickly.
Switchboards may be cord-connected for cordless, automatic or manual and they can vary in
capacity from one main line with three extensions to thousands of extensions. The switchboard is
sometimes referred to as the telephone exchange because it is used to make telephone exchanges
between extensions.
TYPES OF SWITCHBOARD AND SWITCH BOARD SYSTEMS OR TELEPHONE

EXCHANGES
MANUAL SWITCHBOARDS WITH TELEPHONE SYSTEM
(1) PRIVATE BRANCH EXCHANGE TELEPHONE SYSTEM (PBX/INTERCOM:
This is an internal telephone system in which a switch board is used to give dial connections
between various extensions of the same organization. Here, the switchboard is not connected to the
national post office telephone system. it is also known as private telephone system or the internal
communication (Intercom). This system will contain a series of extensions from the switchboard
but without the ability to ring outside.
(2) PRIVATE MANUAL BRANCH EXCHANGE TELEPHONE SYSTEM (PMBX):
This is a type of switchboard operation system where by the operator makes all necessary
connections between extensions for both incoming and outgoing calls and internal calls manually.
When using the manual switchboard, the extension user lifts the receiver and is connected to the
switchboard, the extension user lifts the receiver and is connected to the switchboard and then asks
for the number he/she wants whether an internal extension or external organization. When using
the manual switchboard, the extension user lifts the receiver and then connects to the switchboard
directly. Then he/she asks for the operation to access a telephone number or extension needed. The
operator t hen will dial the number or extension and gives the line to the caller. This type is corded.
AUTOMATIC SWITCHBOARD AND TELEPHONE SYSTEM
(3) PRIVATE AUTOMATIC BRANCH EXCHANGE TELEPHONE SYSTEM (PABX):
Under this system, the switchboard operator is only needed to connect the incoming calls. This
system allows various extensions to connect each other directly without passing through the
switchboard operation after mere dialing of a certain extension number. Also outgoing calls can be
dialed direct by first dialing a certain number e.g. ‘g’ followed by the telephone number you want
to contact dialed in the normal way. However, incoming external calls have to be received by the
operator connected to the appropriate extensions and therefore, the operation remains important
irrespective of the type of switchboard used.
(4) CORDLESS SWITCH BOARD
Whether the switch board is manual or automatic, we usually find that they are either cordless
(without buttons) or with cords.
THE SWITCH BOARD AND THE TELEPHONE LINES

(1) MAIN LINES
These are the telephone lines coming from outside the organization connected through the
switchboard. It is through the main lines that one can either receive calls or make calls from or to
people outside the organization. Many organizations have more than one main line that if one is
engaged, the other can be used.
(2) EXTENSIONS
These are telephone lines extending from the main switchboard of the organization to the various
departments or rooms. Incoming calls pass through the switchboard to the extensions and vice
versa. An extension user can speak to another extension with the organization either directly if the
switchboard is direct or through switchboard in case its manual.
MAIN LINES SWITCHBOARD EXTENSION
(3) DIRECT LINES
A direct line is a single line through which calls can be made directly to another number without
passing through the switchboard operator. All house telephones are direct lines.
(4) SECRETAL FILTER LINE

This is an extension from the switchboard to the secretary’s office with one or more sub-extensions.
The secretary for example can receive a call from a switch board and deal with it if she can or
connect it to the executive by speaking to him first in order to announce the caller. Thus, the
secretary can either speak to the boss or caller, without any hearing and the boss can talk to the
caller without the secretary hearing.
MAIN Secretary’s Office.
SWITCHBOARD EXTENSION The Secretary
LINE
Executive
DUTIES OF A SWITCH BOARD OPERATOR
 Receiving incoming calls and putting them through to those to the extensions of those being
called.
 Making out calls from the extensions to the outside world and connecting caller.
 Helping callers to locate telephone numbers they don’t know.
 Locating staff calling or receiving the call.
 Giving a line through for those who wish to make calls.
 Recording the incoming and outgoing calls for making sure that they are paid for.
TELEPHONE SERVICES
This refers to the services available through the telephone and they include:
(i) INTERNAL CALLS
These are calls which are made from one extension to another within the same organization i.e.
between offices within the organization. When answering the internal telephone, you should not
announce the name of the organization but only state the organization or the extension.
(ii) EXTERNAL CALLS

These are calls made to outside persons or firms and those received from outside organizations
through the main lines. External calls can be sub divided into:
(a) Local calls

These are calls made when you want to speak to a subscriber in the same town. You make local
calls by simply dialing the number you want.
(b) Trunk calls (Long Distance Call)

Trunk calls are those calls made to other towns but within the same country. This service has now
become an essential part of any business especially after the introduction of the Subscriber Trunk
Dialing (STD) System which enables a person to contact most parts of the world in just a matter of
seconds.
Before the introduction of the (STD), telephone subscribers (People who rent telephones) could dial
local calls but had to go through a telephone exchanger when they wanted to make a trunk call
(long distance calls (i.e. it was the telephone operator to make the connection with the other
number. Today, by the use of the STD system, a subscriber can dial the code number of the area
he/she wishes to contact and then the number of the subscriber to be connected and the connection
is made automatically.
(c) International Calls

These are calls which are made to other countries. These calls can be made directly by dialing the
international code numbers, country code numbers, respective town numbers and the telephone
number of the concerned organization. This is possible only if international subscriber dialing (SD)
system has been established in a country. In the absence of ISD system, international calls can be
made through the international exchange operators.
SPECIAL TELEPHONE CALLS

Some special telephone services are provided by Post and Telecommunication Corporation and
these are:
(1) PERSON TO PERSON CALLS/PERSONAL CALLS

These are calls made to a named person or department or reference number on payment of a small
extra charge. The charge for the call starts only when the exchange connects the caller with the
named person. If the named person is not available, further attempts can be made later. This
service helps to avoid too high telephone charges for long distance calls, time spent to locate the
named person is not charged.
(2) FIXED TIME CALLS
This service enables a caller to book calls in advance at a prearranged time for an extra charge.
Fixed calls can be booked either as a single call or as a daily call on consecutive days. The
telephone exchange operator connects the caller at that specific time even if liens are busy. It
enable the caller to be connected without wasting any time thus avoiding the frustration of having to
wait for the line to be available or failing to get the person called.
(3) ADC (ADVISE DURATION & CHARGE)
This is a service used if the caller wishes to know the period or the cost of a call made, asks the
operator for ADC. When the call is completed, the operator calls the caller back and advises him
on the charge. When an ADC call is booked by the caller, the operator meters the call and will
afterwards ring the caller and tell him about the time and cost of the call. This service enables the
caller to charge this call to a particular person or department as well as updating the telephonist’s
records.
(4) TRANSFERRED CHARGE CALLS
This service is provided to enable the charging of bills of a specific call to the person to whom a
call is being made. A request for a transfer of charge is made at the time the call is made. The
transfer of the telephone charge to the called subscriber can only be made if he agrees to accept.
The calls are normally made by the travellers to their head office or by the businessmen to their
families.
(5) TELEPHONE CREDIT CARD
A telephone credit card enables a person to make a call without payment at a time. Each card bears
a different number and when the card holder wishes to make a call, he gives his number to the
operator and the cost of the call will be put on his regular telephone account. A quarterly charge is
made for each telephone credit card. Telephone credit cards are supplied to any subscriber on
application to the general post office.
(6) FREEFONE CALLS

Under this service, the subscriber may request the telephone department to rent a special free one
number which enables him to bear the cost of incoming calls without putting the caller to the
expense of the cost of the call. The subscriber using the system can instruct all his callers that he
will pay the charges for the calls made by them. This system encourages customers to place orders
or make inquiries e.g. 999, MTN, MANGO, CELTEL, Customer Service Line, Radio stations, Toll
free number etc. This service is similar to the business reply service for written communication.
(7) MORNING & ALARM CALLS

Under this service the subscriber can request the telephone operator to make a call to him at a
particular time. This call is booked by the subscribers who have early morning business
appointments and wish to be awakened.
(8) OCEAN LINER CALLS

If one wishes to make a telephone call to an liner one should ask the telephone operator for the
international exchange. The operator will then tell the caller how much delay there would be in
contracting a ship. The operator will book the call and ring the caller back as soon as possible when
the ship has been contacted. The international exchange is able to locate most large ships at sea.
(9) EMERGENCY CALLS

These are calls made in case of emergency to police, fire brigade, hospital ambulance etc. Most E.
African countries use 999 as the emergency number.
(10) TIME CALLS

A number can be dialed which connects the caller to a speaking clock. This clock tells the precise
time.
(11) DIRECTORY ENQUIRIES

This service is useful when the subscriber’s telephone number cannot be found in the directory.
Therefore, the caller can ask the operator to give the telephone number of a particular subscriber if
not in the directory.
MEETINGS
A meeting may be defined as any gathering, assembly or coming together of two or more persons
for the transaction of lawful business of common concern. Meetings are important means of
communication because they provide both oral and written methods of conveying information and
they are an effective tool for management decision-making. The proper functioning of any
association or company large or small requires the members to always come together from time to
time in order to discuss matters of common concern to be able to take decisions by common
consent by the majority. Meetings are thus essential.
IMPORTANCE OF MEETINGS IN ORGANISATIONS

1. They facilitate decision making
2. They aid in solving problems
3. Building relationships
4. Meetings assist in sharing ideas among workers
5. Some meeting s are a legal requirement e.g. annual general meetings and statutory meting
6. Meetings assist in motivating employees and sense of being consulted resulting into
employee satisfaction
7. Aid in training employees
TYPES OF MEETINGS
(1) INFORMAL MEETINGS
These may involve a very informal ‘Encounter’ on the corridor and the exchange of information,
which may follow. They are informed meetings in a sense that they do not generally proceed
according to a fixed or pre-determined plan called the agenda. In such an informal meeting, here is
often time for general conversation before, during and after the main topics. An informal meeting
may be called at a short notice either by means of a note or simply by a word of mouth. It is not a
usual practice to keep a record of the proceedings in an informal meeting (minutes). Informal
meetings can be held in a Manager’s office or his colleagues’ offices or on the premises of
customers or suppliers. They are always convened at short notice by means of memo, telephone or
simply by word of mouth, usually called upon to discuss matters, which a rise on short notice.
(2) FORMAL MEETINGS
These meetings have a plan of what is to be discussed and what to follow as the order prepared in
advance i.e. the agenda and it is adhered throughout the meeting. Such meetings are normally held
after the people entitled to attend have been notified in writing before the meeting. Such meetings
are normally guided by the Chairman or convener whose duty is to keep the meeting in order so that
an agenda can be followed.
3. GENERAL MEETINGS
These are meetings supposed to be attended by all the members of the organization or company.
Such meetings can be convened mostly, quarterly or yearly in which case they are known as Annual
General Meetings (AGM). Such will be convened to discuss issues of genera; concern primarily of
annual nature e.g. election of new office bearers, examining books of accounts, analyzing
performance etc.
4. ORDINARY MEETINGS
These are meetings open to all members of the firm. They can be held monthly or quarterly for
example monthly staff meetings of the organization or company.
5. EXTRA ORDINARY MEETINGS
These are general meetings held in order to deal with a vital matter such as bankruptcies or mergers.
An extra ordinary meeting is an additional meeting in the course of the year, which may be called
for a particular purpose other than when it is required annually by the constitution. Such a meeting
is designed to handle issues, which cannot be postponed till the next Annual General Meeting.
6. AD HOC MEETINGS
These are meetings which are normally called for very urgent and specific reasons and when
necessary e.g. a strike of workers or students, serious and sudden complaints of customers or
suppliers etc.
7. COMMITTEE MEETINGS
These are meetings attended by members of a particular committee set up by the parent body.
Committee meetings usually consist of the Chairperson who conducts the meetings according to an
agreed set of rules called standing orders. There are different types of committees in organizations
and these include (refer to notes).
8. STATUTORY MEETING
This is first meeting of shareholders of a public company, it must be held within a period of not less
than one month or more than 6 months from the date at which the company is entitled to commence
business. It’s conducted once in the lifetime of company.
CONVENING MEETINGS
The holding of any formal meeting in an organization or company is done by the Secretary in
proper consultation with the Chairman. The process of convening a meeting in an organization or
company will require the following documents:
DOCUMENTS COMMON TO MEETINGS
(1) INVITATION OR NOTICE OF MEETING
Having agreed on the date of the meeting or following the date determined at the lose of the last
meeting, the secretary is responsible for sending a notice of meeting to the concerned members.
This notice should be sent in advance so that members have enough time to prepare. Information in
the notice of meeting should include:-
 Name of the meeting e.g. AGM, Committee meeting etc

 Time of the meeting
 Venue
 Date
 Name of the Secretary calling the meeting
The notice of meeting is particularly important where there is a Statutory period of notice of
meeting for example according to the Companies Act, 21 clear days notice is required for an
Annual General Meeting of a company which means 21 days between sending out the notice and
the date of the meeting.
AN EXAMPLE OF NOTICE OF MEETING
(2) THE AGENDA
This is simply a list of things to be done at the meeting in their proper order in which business is to
be transacted. It is usually prepared by the Secretary in consultation with the Chairman. It is
supposed to be sent to the members before the meeting in order to allow them analyse items to be
discussed prior to the meeting. The agenda usually contains the notice of meeting. Usually the
agenda is divided into 3 main sections i.e. opening routine items, main business and closing
routines.
EXAMPLE OF AN AGENDA
(3) CHAIRMAN’S AGENDA
It is usual practice for the Secretary to prepare a special, more detailed agenda for use by the
Chairman. This usually contains the same running order as that in the agenda sent to the
Committee members but will be printed only on the left hand side of the paper thus leaving the right
side free for the Chairman to add comments and key words to assist him/her in the effective conduct
of the meeting. It is helpful to the Chairman who may have been absent from the office and yet be
required to chair a meeting on his/her return. The Secretary will have filled in the necessary
information until the last possible moment e.g. apologies for absence or any last minute
information, which may come in. This will enable the Chairman to introduce agenda items with
authority and clarity.
(4) MINUTES
These are the official brief and concise record of proceedings of a meeting written as evidence of
that meeting. Usually rough copy is made during the meeting and a fair copy is made after the
meeting by the Secretary awaiting approval by the members in the next meeting and signature by
the Chairman after adoption by the members. Minutes constitute a permanent record of the
decisions and actions of the members and serves as a reminder of the subjects previously dealt with
an the conclusions reached. Keeping minutes is a legal requirement for management purposes
because once adopted by members and signed by the Chairman and Secretary, they are acceptable
in Court of law as evidence.
HINTS/RULES OF WRITING MINUTES
 Follow the order of the agenda and have a brief title for each item recorded.
 Be accurate so that they present a true record of the proceedings.
 Be brief, precise and concise i.e. summarize important matters discussed and conclusions
reached to avoid ambiguity.
 Be clear so that, those absent from a meeting can be fully informed of the proceedings to avoid
doubt about the deliberations.
 Use reported speech e.g. a member proposed, it was agreed, it was resolved but not I agree or I
propose.
 Avoid repetition of the words already used.
 Use simple phases in reporting the proceedings e.g. members agreed, members doubted etc.
 Sound neutral – do not criticize or ridicule.
 Do not impose your personal opinion in recording the minutes.
 Avoid bias against some members as you record the minutes.
 Use proper wording, appropriate and formal for recording decisions i.e. stick to reported speech
rule e.g. members agreed that, resolved that, recommended that, conformed that etc. This
requires the Secretary to avoid using un proper words or slogans or jagoons what may not be
easily interpreted by all members.
 Minutes should be numbered.
 They should be impersonal, impartial and uniform in style and not coloured by the writer.
 They should be written in past tense in a reported speech style e.g. Mr. Kato requested that his
abstention be minuted rather than I wish my abstention to be minuted.
IMPORTANCE OF THE AGENDA
Preparing the agenda is a very useful practice because:

(1) If it is circulated in advance, it helps the members to come prepared for the meeting.
(2) Since the agenda has a set order, it helps the Chairperson to conduct the meeting smoothly.
(3) It ensures that, only matters relevant to that particular meeting are discussed.
(4) It ensures that every point is properly taken up for discussion.
(5) It facilitates preparation of the minutes.
(6) The Chairman’s agenda is useful to him/her since it has up-to-date details e.g. the latest
apologies and any other last minute information which may come especially if the Chairman
has been absent.
(7) The agenda helps the Chairman to be focused to planned issues thus saving time.
(8) The agenda helps the Secretary in preparation of the minutes after the meeting since the
minutes will follow the order of the agenda used in the meeting.
CONTENTS OF MINUTES
(1) Headings/Title
Minutes should be given a title i.e. a description of the meeting which should include the type of
meeting, time, date and the venue where the meeting was held. For example:
MINUTES OF THE 25TH ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING OF NIBS HELD AT 2.00 PM ON
MONDAY 29TH MAY 2005 IN THE BOARDROOM.
(2) Attendance
(a) Members Present: This section lists the members of the meeting who have attended the
meeting and are supposed to vote during the meeting. The chairman’s name should appear
first.
(b) Members in attendance: This section is used technically to refer to those who are not part of
the voting members of such a meeting e.g. if a Company Secretary is in attendance of the
Board of Directors meeting or any other persons who are required to be in attendance by
virtue of their roles whose contributions are vital in such a meeting.
(c) Members absent with apology and their apologies.
(d) Members absent without apology.
(3) Opening Prayer

(4) Communication from the Chairman.
(5) Matter arising from the Chairman communication
(6) Reading of the minutes of the last meeting
(7) Matters arising from the minutes.
(8) General business i.e. deliberations, resolutions, conclusions and recommendations reached.
(9) Any other business i.e. any item that can come up outside the agenda.
(10) The date of the next meeting.
(11) Closing prayer if required.
(12) The signature space for the Chairman and Secretary.
AN EXAMPLE OF THE MINUTES OF A HOUSE ALLOCATION COMMITTEE
MINUTES OF THE HOUSE ALLOCATION COMMITTEE MEETING HELD AT 2.00 PM

ON MONDAY 09TH MAY 2005 IN COMMITTEE ROOM 6 AT NIBS
AGENDA
1. Opening prayer
2. Communication from the Chair
3. Reading of previous minutes
4. general business
5. AOB
6. Setting the date for the next meeting
7. Closing prayer
MIN 1/09/05: The meeting began with a prayer led by
MIN 2/09/05: MEMBERS PRESENT
1.
2.
3.
MEMBERS IN ATTENDANCE
1.
2.
3.
4.
MEMBERS ABSENT WIT APOLOGY

1.
2
3
4
MEMBERS ABSENT WITH APOLOGY

1
2
3
4
MINUTE 3/09/05: COMMUNICATION FROM THE CHAIR:

The Chairman officially opened the meeting by welcoming members and wishing them a
constructive and fruitful discussion.
MIN 4/09/05: READING OF PREVIOUS MINUTES

The minutes of the previous meeting were read by the Secretary and after factual amendments, they
were confirmed and adopted as a true record and the Chairman and the Secretary were given a go
ahead to sign them.
MIN 5/09.05: SENIORITY IN HOUSE ALLOCATION

The committee noted that because senior lecturers always took precedence over junior lecturers, it
had resulted into a case whereby senior lecturers with no children were being allocated houses with
four bedrooms, whereas junior lectures with four children were given a house with one bedroom. It
was recommended that the Principal should consider abolishing the precedence of senior lecturers
in order to allow junior lecturers compete on the basis of equity.
MIN 6/09/05: INSPECTION OF HOUSES

The Chairman was informed of a recent increase in damage of houses. This took the form of
broken windows, damaged furniture, serious marking of black patches on the walls etc. It was
therefore decided that an inspection should always be carried out once every four months. That
during this inspection, damage should be noted and occupants billed.
MIN 7/09/05: ALLOCATION OF HOUSES

The committee allocated houses as follows:
No. 7: to Mr. Katto
No. 3: to Mrs Kimera
No. 8: to Miss Barya
No. 15 to Mrs Battle
MIN 8/09/05: A O B
There was no any other business.
MIN 9/09/05: DATE OF THE NEXT MEETING
There being no any other business, the date for the next meeting was fixed on 09/6/2005 at 2:00 pm
at the same venue.
MIN 10/09/05: CLOSURE

The meeting ended at 4:000 pm with a closing prayer led by Mrs Rwakubunyatura.
TYPES OF MINUTES
Basically, there are four main types of Minutes, viz
(1) NARRATIVE MINUTES (MINUTES OF NARRATION)

As the name suggests, this type of format provides a fairly detailed account of what took place
summarizing the discussion and indicating who said what prior to recording any decisions reached.
Minutes of narration are somehow similar to a report. In addition to the above, the voting pattern is
also included in the record.
(2) ACTION MINUTES

This type of minutes simply provide a very clear account of who has agreed to take responsibility
for what. This format is particularly useful where a committee is part of the hierarchical committee
network in that lines of authority are clearly demonstrated.
(3) RESOLUTION MINUTES

This is where a record of any resolutions passed is recorded. Only resolutions are recorded and
those who never attended the meeting are only informed of the results in the minutes without an
account of the discussions. This means that there is no reference made to any discussions that took
place before the resolutions. No mention is made even of the movers and seconders of the
resolutions. Nevertheless, the minutes are clear and complete in themselves and contain all the
relevant details which are self-explanatory.
(4) VERBATIM MINUTES

These are minutes, which provide a word-by-word account of what has taken place. Their use is
very unlikely in a business context. This is because accuracy would be virtually impossible to
ensure and at the same time, it would take too long to read them since they would be containing
even unnecessary details.
SECURITY OF MINUTES
(1) The pages should be numbered.

(2) The final page of the minutes of each meeting should be signed by the Chairman.
(3) The minutes should be kept enclosed in a loose-leaf folder preferably in an office safe or
locked drawer.
(4) Keep stock of unused minutes.
(5) The pages that have been added to the minutes should be of distinctive types.
THE ROLE OF A SECRETARY IN REGARD TO MEETINGS:
BEFORE THE MEETING
(i) Prepare notice of meeting and supply it to the legible members for the meeting.
(ii) Prepare the agenda in consultation with the Chairman and distribute it to the members.
(iii) Prepare a Chairman’s agenda.
(iv) Book a suitable room or venue and confirm the booking early to avoid embarrassments.
(v) Obtain any necessary statements or documents from members who cannot be present but who
are known to have strong views on items to be discussed.
(vi) Collect together required items like stationery including writing papers, pens, pencils,
notebooks etc.
(vii) Have spare copies of the agenda for some members who may not come with theirs or may not
have received.
(viii) Prepare minutes for the previous meeting.
(ix) All relevant papers and files including letters of apology received from members unable to
attend should be arranged.
(x) Prepare an attendance register.
(xi) Prepare all books of reference like standing orders, acts, bills related to matters to be
discussed.
(xii) Book any audio/visual support materials needed e.g. flip charts, projectors, micro phones etc.
(xiii) Organize car parking where necessary
(xiv) Arrange for refreshments.
(xv) Make up nameplates or tags or cards if necessary especially where committee members are
unknown to one another.
(xvi) Confirm all booking arrangements like parking, venue and other materials.
(xvii) Check the venue in terms of seats, heating, lighting and ventilation.
(xviii) Check for water, glasses and ashtrays in the meeting room.
(xix) Notify the reception about the visitors who are coming in order to prepare directional signs
to the venue by preparing “Meeting in progress” signs and placing them outside.
(xx) Reminding the boss of the time if the meeting seems to be overrunning.
ON THE DAY OF THE MEETING AND DURING THE MEETING
(1) Attend early to oversee all the arrangements.
(2) Ensure that the sitting arrangement is in order.
(3) See that each members has a supply of writing paper.
(4) Pass around the attendance register and check that all members sign the register.
(5) Reading the minutes of the previous meeting, letters of apology and any other correspondence.
(6) Assisting the Chairman especially in supplying information from files as may be required
during the meeting.
(7) Answering queries as may be required.
(8) Recording the details of the meeting proceedings.
(9) Remind the Chairman of time constraints as necessary.
(10) Dealing with emergencies e.g. answering telephones, leaving the room to collect papers on
behalf of the Chairman.
(11) Serving refreshments especially where the meeting may be discussing confidential matters and
does not wish catering staff to be present.
(12) Feeding the Chairman with information and advice on procedures.
AFTER THE MEETING
(1) Ensure that all documents are returned to the office.

(2) File any documents again which may have been removed from files.
(3) Remove the notice of meeting and agenda from the notice boards.
(4) Clear the rooms of surplus papers.
(5) Notify the catering section to remove cups, plates etc.
(6) Enter the date of the next meeting into your diary.
(7) If the chairman is your employer or your immediate boss, make sure that the date of the next
meeting is entered in his diary.
(8) Draft minutes of the meeting and type them out early for Chairman’s approval before the next
meeting.
(9) Agree with the chairman on the drafted minutes and prepare the final copy ready for duplication
and circulation.
(10) Take up any follow up actions called for during the meeting.
(11) Remind others concerned to do likewise.
(12) Open a file for the next meeting.
THE DUTIES OF THE CHAIRMAN REGARDING MEETINGS:

The Chairman of the meeting is a very important person with a lot of authority during the meeting.
The Chairman’s duties are really threefold i.e. conduct outside the meeting, the way in which he
handles the meeting procedure and the way in which he controls the committee members. Briefly,
the duties and responsibilities of a Chairman before, during and after the meetings are as follows:
(1) Agreeing on the drafted agenda with the Secretary.
(2) Liaising with the Secretary in respect of the necessary preliminary arrangements.
(3) Planning the way how he/she wishes the meeting to proceed.
(4) To approve items discussed on the agenda.
(5) Delegating any administrative work needed in advance which would corride with the meeting
day.
(6) Attending and starting the meeting promptly.
(7) To conduct the meeting according to the agenda and the constitution keeping the discussion
within prescribed limits.
(8) Guiding the discussion and assisting the meeting members in making decisions by passing
resolutions and amendments.
(9) Making necessary introductions and announcements after ensuring that there is Quorum.
(10) Taking apologies for absence and announcing them.
(11) Leading the members through the minutes of the previous meeting as they are read by the
Secretary.
(12) Dealing with matters arising out of the read matters.
(13) Initiating, guiding and sustaining a c o-operative atmosphere during the discussion.
(14) Initiating useful discussion but being mindful of time.
(15) Encouraging everyone to participate by creating an atmosphere of confidence.
(16) Focusing the meeting to the pint by ensuring that the discussion is within the limits of the
agenda i.e. sustaining objectivity and impartiality.
(17) Taking Chairman’s decisions and actions if and when necessary.
(18) Giving clarifications on various points as may be required in consultation with the secretary.
(19) Limiting contributions on a particular point where necessary because of irrelevance or time
constraints.
(20) Summarizing the discussion and points reached.
(21) Putting contentious matters to vote and declaring results.
(22) Closing or adjourning the meeting.
(23) Liaising with the Secretary to agree on the drafted minutes.
(24) Taking up any necessary follow up action agreed upon during the meeting.
(25) Monitoring progress of events of the meeting and executing necessary business.
EFFECTIVE PARTICIPATION AT MEETINGS

Much of the responsibility for effective participation of the members during the meeting may be put
down to the Chairman. However, the way in which those present contribute is also significant. A
meeting can generate meaningful results only if member’s participation is positive and there is
plenty of informed discussion. People will be able to make useful contributions when;
(1) They have studied the agenda and other paper work, which would allow them to do necessary
homework.
(2) When they have understood the opinion o others as appropriate.
(3) When they have prepared themselves to put forward their views in a logical and constructive
way.
(4) When they are willing to listen to opposing views.
(5) When they are prepared to support others.
(6) When they are prepared to disagree if and when necessary.
(7) When they are sufficiently conversant with meeting procedures.
(8) When they are prepared to become involved and take follow up action if requested to do so.
(9) If they are prepared to report back to colleagues.
(10) If they have started with the meeting promptly and are able to follow all the events.
(11) If they are able to follow and communicate in the language being used in the meeting.
IMPORTANCE OF MEETINGS
Usually meetings are called to serve a variety of different purposes, which include;
(1) Providing information as a group together and so saying time.

(2) Providing a forum for putting forward ideas or proposals, which are constructive.
(3) Solving problems in the organization.
(4) Exchanging opinions and coming up with viable conclusions.
(5) Reporting back.
(6) Co-ordinating activities.
(7) Reaching joint decisions
(8) Dispelling rumours and ensuring fact-finding.
(9) To create an atmosphere for creative thinking.
(10) Pooling talents and resources together to be able to benefit form a breath of knowledge and
experience.
(11) Fulfilling a statutory obligation.
(12) Developing staff due to exposure to meetings through staff representation.
(13) Team building in the organization.
(14) Encouraging maximum participation and involvement in organizational matters.
(15) Speeding up the process of decision making by action as a catalyst.
TERMS USED IN MEETINGS

(1) Agenda (Ref. Behind)
(2) Chairman agenda (Refer behind)
(3) Loophole of Agenda.
This is where by some matters may be left out in preparation of the agenda or have cropped up after
the notice of agenda was issued. Usually members take advantage of the loopholes in the agenda
by proposing discussion on those matters, which have not specifically included in the agenda. The
loophole in the agenda brings up such items s “any other business”.
(4) Quorum:
This refers to the minimum number of persons that should be present before the meeting starts in
order to make the meeting valid. Quorum is derived from Latin and may be defined as “the
minimum number of members who must be present at a meeting as required by the rules. Any
business conducted at the meeting without quorum is invalid. The main purpose of having is to
avoid decisions being taken at a meeting by a small minority, which may be found unacceptable to
the vast majority of the members. The number constituting a quorum at any company meeting is
usually laid down in the Articles of Association.
(5) Ad hoc:
This simply means “arranged for the purpose” For example an ad hoc committee is disbanded after
its purpose. Usually an ad hoc meeting is called upon to carry out one particular specified piece of
work and when such work is completed the meeting is dissolved e.g. Wedding committees and a
meeting for the arrangement of the visit of a very important person (VIP).
(6) Adjournment:
This means to break off the meeting before completion of business in order to resume later. It
refers to an interruption of the proceedings of the meeting before it is completed to be resumed after
words subject to the Articles, or Constitutional rules, the Chairman may with the consent of
members adjourn the meeting due to shortage of time, space or for more consultations to be recalled
at a later date or hour to complete unfinished items on the agenda.
(7) Addressing the Chair:

In a meeting, a member wishing to speak on a point must rise and address the chair. E.g. Mr..
Chairman, Madam Chairman, Hon. Speaker. This means that all remarks during the meeting must
be addressed to the Chairman and members are not allowed to discuss any matters between
themselves in course of the meeting.
(8) Amendment:
This refers to an alteration or change to a motion or proposal by the addition for amendment
proposal must be proposed, seconded and put before the meeting.
(9) Addendum: This is an amendment that add words to a motion.
(10) Attendance Record/Register:

This is a record of the members attending the meeting. This record is supposed to be signed by
members as they enter the meeting or sheet of paper can be passed around for members to sign.
(11) Casting Vote/deciding vote:
This is a second vote usually allowed to the Chairman used only when there is a tie or equal number
of votes for or against a motion. However, this does not work for company meetings. In
accordance with the rules and regulations, a chairman may be granted a second vote or an additional
vote to be cast in case of a tie in voting.
(12) Closure: A motion submitted with the aim of ending the discussion on a matter before the
meeting.
(13) Motion:
A motion is a proposal put before the meeting for its consideration before adoption. Normally the
motion must be written and handed over to the Chairman or Secretary before the meeting. The
business of the meeting is transacted through motions and no meeting can take place without the
subject for discussion or motion. The motion has to be moved by the proposer during the meeting
and has to be seconded. The mover of the motion speaks on it and has the right to reply at the close
of the discussion. The seconder may also speak to the motion only once. If there is no seconder, the
motion is dropped and cannot be introduced again. When put to a meeting, the motion becomes
“the question” and when it is passed it is called the “resolution”. A motion on a matter which has
not been included on the agenda can be moved only if “leave of urgency” has been agreed by the
meeting or it has been included under the customary item “AOB” any other business.
(14) Co-option:
This means allowing or adding other people to serve on the committee by the power given to the
committee to co-opt. A co-opted member often has no right to vote because he/she is a non-
member. A member can usually be co-opted because of some specialist knowledge or expertise
he/she can provide.
(15) Dropped motion:

This is a motion which has been rejected or dropped because of lack of the seconder or the meeting
does not see its significance and wishes it to be abandoned.
(16) En bloc:
This means electing or re-electing all members of the committee by passing of one resolution for
example the voting of a committee en bloc means that the committee has been elected or re-elected
by passing one resolution.
(17) Ex officio:
This is a person invited to attend the meeting by virtue of his office but without voting rights. A
person for example may be a member of a committee by reason of his office i.e. because of one’s
office; he/she may automatically qualify to attend a certain meeting.
(18) In Camera: Meeting not open to the public or journalists i.e. held in privacy.
(19) Intra vires:

Within the power of the person or committee or meeting concerned e.g. acting intra vires is acting
within your powers or limits or boundaries.
(20) Ultra vires:
Outside the legal power of one’s authority or organization or committee i.e. beyond the powers of a
person, organization, committee of meeting. For example a decision made beyond the Standing
order/Articles of Association’s provisions.
(21) Kangaroo closure:

This is where the Chairman of the meeting jumps from one amendment to another by omitting
those, which he/she considers to be less important or repetitive.
(22) Lie on the Table:

This is a situation where by members of the meeting decide not to take any action upon the business
contained in a document or letter. Such a document or letter is then said to “Lie on the table” until
it will be discussed.
(23) Nem Con (nemine contradicente):

This means that there is no one contradicting i.e. there is nobody voting against the, option but
some members may not have voted at all.
(24) Nem dis: Means no one dissenting as mem. com above i.e. no one is disagreeing or no body
is refusing but instead everybody assents.
(25) Vote of No Confidence:

A vote of no confidence may be passed by members of a meeting against the Chairman if they don’t
agree with him or her. If this happens the Chairman must vacate the chair in favour of the deputy
or some other person nominated by the meeting or the speaker. The other situation is censure
where by members can withdraw confidence from a fellow member because of misuse of the office.
There is also calling back whereby members who elected you to represent them to a meeting are not
satisfied with you and calls you back in favour of another person.
(26) Point of Order:
This is a clarification regarding the procedure at a meeting or query relating to the standing orders
or constitution raised by a member during the meeting after realizing an irregularity in the normal
procedure of handling business at the meeting e.g. absence of quorum, indecent dressing, being off
topic etc.
(27) Poll:
This is a method of voting at an electron or on an issue in a meeting. It usually takes the form of a
secret vote by ballot paper.
(28) Ballot:
This is a written secret vote which is supposed to be cast privately/secretly in accordance with the
constitution.
(29) Proxy:
This is a document authorizing a person to act on behalf of another or to attend the meeting and
vote on behalf of another or voting on a n election acting for another. For example, a member may
be appointed to vote by proxy i.e. on behalf of another member who is unable to attend a meeting.
This is subject to the articles, standing orders or constitution.
(30) Putting the Question:

This means to conclude the discussion on a motion. In a meeting, the Chairman may “Put the
Question” by announcing that “The question before the meeting is put”. Also during the
discussion, members may feel that sufficient discussion has taken place on a motion, a member may
move a motion that “The question be now put”. If this is done, only the proposer of the motion
under discussion may speak and a vote is taken. If the motion “Question be put now” is defeated,
the discussion may be continued.
(31) Reference back:

This is an amendment referring a report or other item of business back for further consideration to
the body or committee or person submitting it. If the motion “Reference back” is defeated, the
discussion is continued.
(32) Resolution:
This is the word used for a motion, which has been passed i.e. once passed, a motion becomes a
resolution. Therefore, it is a formal decision reached at a meeting. A resolution must be
proposed/seconded and put to the meeting in the customary way. A resolution cannot be rescinded
(repeal, annul or cancel) at a meeting at which it is adopted.
(33) Rider:
This is an addition to a resolution after it has been passed. It adds to a resolution rather than
altering it. It must be proposed, seconded and put to the meeting in the usual way. If differs from
an amendment in that it adds to a resolution instead of altering it.
(34) Right of reply:

This is where the proposer has the right of reply when the resolution has been fully discussed but
before it is put on vote he is allowed to reply once and afterwards the motion is put to the meeting.
(35) Scrutineer:
This is a person who counts and closely examines the votes at an election.
(36) Teller:
Is the title given to the person appointed to count votes at a meeting not necessarily election votes.
(37) Sine Die:

Means without an appointed day or indefinitely. It means without a date fixed for resuming a
meeting.
(38) Standing Orders:

These are rules compiled by the organization regulating the manner in which its business is to be
conducted. It may also have the title “Constitution”.
(39) Status Quo:

This term is used to refer to a matter in which there is to be no change (a social situation as it is now
or a social situation as it was before a recent change or as things stand at present).
(40) Unanimous:
This is a situation when all members of a meeting have voted in favor of a resolution. Under such
circumstances, it is said to have been carried out unanimously.
(41) Ab Initio: Means from the beginning.
(42) Abstention: Where a member refrains from casting a vote either in favor or against a
motion.
(43) By Laws: Rules governing an organization’s activities.
(44) Collective responsibility: A situation whereby all members agree to a bide by a majority
decision.
(45) Convene: To call a meeting and the person who has called it is called a convenor.
(46) Lobbying; The term given to the practice of seeking support of others before or during the
meeting.
(47) Verbatim: Word by word.
(48) Terms of Reference:

A statement of the work to be carried out by a group or committee, providing guidelines as to how
it should be done and expressing any limitations in respect of methods.
(49) Chairman’s Action: This means the rights of the Chairman to make a decision within
his/her terms of reference without reference to the committee.
(50) Postponement when the meeting has been cancelled and rescheduled for another date.
REFERENCES:
1. Flatley, M; Rentz,K. And Lentz, P. (2011) Business Communication, McGraw Hill Professional
2. Guffey,M.E. (2010) Business Communication: Process and Product, 6th edition, South-Western
3. Wilcox, D.L. and Cameron, G.T. (2008) Public Relations: Strategies and Tactics, 9 th edition,
Allyn and Bacon Publishers
4. Hendrix, J.A. and Hayes, D.C. (2009) Public Relations Cases, 8 th edition, Wadsworth
Publishing

Business communication skills notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Business communication skills notes

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Business communication skills notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION SKILLS

It is a process of giving, receiving or exchanging (sharing) information, opinions (views, thoughts)

It is the transfer of information in form of understandable messages through a channel to others.

1.1 IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION.

1.2 METHODS OF COMMUNICATION

1.2. VERBAL OR ORAL COMMUNICATION

Forms of verbal communication

Why would one choose oral communication? Advantages of oral communication

1.2.2 WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

Advantages of written communication

Disadvantages of written communication

1.2.3 Nonverbal communication

It’s divided into 3, Environment, social and physical.

Advantages/Importance of Non – Verbal Communication

Disadvantages/Problems Associated With Non -verbal communication

1.3 FACTORS TO CONSINDER WHILE CHOOSING A METHOD OF

Communication is a heart or lifeblood of any organization. Therefore, Organizations can hardly

Its purpose in Organizations can be manifested in the following ways;

2.1.2. Internal and external communication

The purpose or objectives of internal communication are;

The purpose or objectives of external communication are;

2.2.1 Vertical communication:

2.2.3 Diagonal communication:

2.2.4 The grape vine:

2.3 THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

The sender/ Source

2.3.2 IMPORTANCE OF FEEDBACK:

 Information obtained from feedback can be used in decision making.

 Confirmation that the message was received.

 Used as a tool to assess whether the communication was successful.

 Feedback can be used as a motivation tool etc.

PLANNING FOR COMMUNICATION

3.1 Purpose of communication

3.2 Planning communication

c) Audience analysis; there are two approaches of audience analysis.

3.2.2 The message

3.3 BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

3.3.3 Inattentive listening

3.3.4 Language barrier

3.3.6 Information overload and under load

3.3.7 Differing perceptions

3.3.8 Differing backgrounds

3.3.9 Poor planning (inappropriate choices).

N.B. Students to discuss more on the barriers and solutions.

4.1 Advantages of written communication

4.3 THE BASIC WRITING PRINCIPLES (7CS)

4.3.7 Correctness: Use proper grammar, punctuation, spelling and language.

4.4 BUSINESS LETTERS

4.4.1 Importance of business letters

4.4.2 Standard and Optional parts of a Business Letter

4.4.3 Specific parts of a business letter

4.4.4 Optional parts

Dear Mr. Embata:

ENC: Documents indicating our activities and names of successful clients.

CC: Managing Director, GP Associates.

4.5.2 Modified Block Style:

MR. Ernie Embata

Dear Mr. Embata:

ENC: Documents indicating our activities and names of

CC: Managing Director, GP Associates.