Unit I Life Processes

Life processes: All the processes which are necessary to maintain life in an
organism are called life processes. In other words the basic functions performed
by living organisms to maintain their life on earth are called life processes. E.g
Nutrition, respiration, excretion etc.
Nutrient: A nutrient is any chemical substance which an organism obtains from its
surroundings and uses it as a source of energy for the biosynthesis of its body
constituents like tissue and organs like carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins,
minerals.
Nutrition: The word nutrition has been derived from a Greek word “Nutrito”
which means to nourish. The sum total of all the processes starting from taking
the food and it’s utilization by an organism in various metabolic activities is called
nutrition. In other words nutrition is intake of food or nutrients and utilization of
these nutrients by an organism is called nutrition.
Types of nutrition:
1. Autotrophic nutrition: The term has been derived from two Greek words
“Auto” means self and “trophe” means nutrition. Thus autotrophic means
self-nutrition. In this type of nutrition organisms prepare their own organic
food from inorganic substances such as carbon dioxide and water. This
mode of nutrition is found in green plants, some bacteria and some
protozoans. Autotrophic organisms or autotrophs self-nourishing and are
called producers. Depending upon the source of energy autotrophs are
further categorised into two types:
a. Photoautotrophs
b. Chemoautotrophs
Photoautotrophs: All green plants and some bacteria which
synthesize their food from inorganic materials in presence of sunlight
and chlorophyll by the process of photosynthesis are called
photoautotrophs.
sunlight
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
Chlorophyll

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 Chemoautotrophs: some autotrophs like hydrogen bacteria, iron
bacteria, nitrifying bacteria synthesize their food by utilizing energy
released by oxidation of certain inorganic substances. This process is
called as chemosynthesis and the organism which shows this type of
nutrition is called chemoautotroph.
2. Heterotrophic nutrition: The word heterotrophic is derived from a Greek
words “Hetero” means different and “Trophe “means nutrition. It is a kind
of nutrition in which an organism is directly or indirectly dependent on
autotrophs for their food. Thus non green plants, all animals including
human beings, some bacteria, fungi etc are heterotrophic as they are not
able to prepare their own food. Heterotrophs are also called as consumers
as they are dependent on producers directly or indirectly.
Types:
a. Holotrophic nutrition
b. Saprotrophic nutrition
c. Parasitic nutrition
a. Holotrophic nutrition: Holotrophic nutrition is a type of nutrition
in which an organism generally takes complex food by the process of
ingestion. The complex food undergoes proper digestion before it is
assimilated into the cells and utilized. Since it is characteristic of
animals it is also called holozoic nutrition. Depending upon the food
habits the holozoics may be – Herbivorous (which eat plants only e.g.
cow, rabbit, etc), carnivorous (which eat flesh of other animals e.g.
lion, tiger etc.), omnivorous (which eat both plants and animals e.g.
man, sparrow).
b. Saprotrophic nutrition: In this type of nutrition the organisms
grow and live upon dead and decaying organic matter such as rotten
leaves, dead animals, household wastes. They secrete digestive
enzymes which breakdown insoluble decayed food into simple
soluble form which is then absorbed through their body surface. E.g.
some bacteria, mushrooms and some non -green flowering plants
show saprotrophic or saprophytic mode of nutrition.
c. Parasitic nutrition: It is a type of nutrition in which an organism
lives on or inside the body of other organism and derive their
readymade nutrients from them. The organism which derive their

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 nutrients from other organisms is called parasite and the organism
from which parasite derive their nutrition is called host. In this type
of nutrition parasite is benefitted and host is adversely affected.
Parasites are of two types- ectoparasites (which live on outer surface
of host e.g. bed bug, body louse etc.), endoparasites (which live
inside the body of host e.g. tapeworm, roundworm in human body
etc).
Nutrition in human beings
Describe digestive system in human beings.

All the organs in the body of man that help in nutrition collectively constitute the
digestive system. It can be divided into two parts:
 Alimentary canal
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  Digestive glands
Alimentary canal: In man it is a long tube about 22 feet in length and is highly
coiled muscular structure starts from mouth and terminates as anus. It is
differentiated into following 8 parts:
1. Pre-oral cavity: The slit between two lips is called mouth. The lips prevent
the loss of food from the buccal cavity during mastication of food.
2. Buccal cavity/ oral cavity: It is a large cavity bounded above by palate,
lower side by tongue and the lateral sides by cheeks and the front part by
teeth. The teeth are 32 in number in adult human being.

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|
 Tongue / lingua: Tongue is a single, pinkish, oval, elongated highly
muscular and protrusible sense organ present on the floor of
buccopharyngeal cavity. It is attached at the posterior end with
throat with the help of lingual frenulum and anterior part is free. A
furrow termed the sulcus terminalis divides the oral part and
pharyngeal part of the tongue. The limbs of the sulcus terminalis run
laterally and forward from a median pit named the foramen caecum.
Tongue contains papillae and taste buds. The tongue is essential for
mastication, taste, speech and secretion of mucous. The tongue:
 Acts as universal toothbrush, as it helps in tooth cleaning.
 Helps in speaking.
 Helps in deglutition.
 Helps in mixing saliva with food.
 Acts as a curry comb in many animals, hence help in body cleaning.
 Helps in taste detection
 In dog helps in regulation of body temperature- panting.

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  In frog and other animals it helps in prey capturing.
Taste papillae are of following types- circumvallate, fungiform,
foliate, filliform. In man anterior end of tongue feels sweet taste,
posterior part feels bitter taste, sides feel sour taste and a small part
behind the anterior end feel salty taste.
 Teeth: Teeth are living structure. We have heterodont (when teeth
are different in structure and functions. They include incisors,
canines, premolars and molars), thecodont (teeth have well
developed roots implanted in deep individual pits or sockets called
alveoli or theca in jaw bones), diphyodont (two successive sets of
teeth- deciduous and permanent).

3. Pharynx: The pharynx is about 12-14cm long funnel shaped vertical canal. It
serves as passage of food from the cavity to oesophagus. It is commonly
called the throat.
4. Oesophagus/ food pipe: It is about 25cm long muscular narrow track which
lies behind the trachea and heart. The oesophagus opens into the stomach.
The junction of oesophagus and stomach is called cardiac orifice or
gastrooesophaged junction. It is guarded by cardiac sphincter. The
oesophagus passes food from pharynx to stomach.
5. Stomach: The stomach is “j” shaped muscular sac present on the left side of
the abdomen. The stomach has three regions namely fundus, body and
pylorus. The posterior end of stomach opens into small intestines by pyloric

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 orifice and is guarded by pyloric sphincter.

6. Small intestine: Small intestine is the longest and narrow tubular part of
alimentary canal that lies coiled in abdomen. It has circular folds and villi.
Small intestine is differentiated into following three parts:
 Duodenum: It is 20-25 cm long wider tube that forms a C- shaped
arch with stomach. Duodenum has an ampoule where common bile
duct and pancreatic duct open jointly.
 Jejunum: it is middle part of small intestine, about 2.4m long and
4cm wide. It is rich in digestive glands.
 Ileum: It is 3.6m long and 3.5cm wide, terminal narrow part of small
intestine which is characterized by club shaped villi and peyer’s
patches. Major digestion and absorption occurs in small intestine. It

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 also produces number of hormones.

7. Large intestine: The ileum enters into wide tube called large intestine that
measures about 1.5 m. it is differentiated into 3 parts:
 Caecum: Small almost rounded sac measures about 10-15cm. from
caecum arises a blind worm like structure called vermiform appendix
which measures about 3-8cm.
 Colon: largest part of large intestine and divided into 4 regions-
ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon and sigmoid
colon.
 Rectum: It is S shaped tube measuring about 12cm that opens to
outside as anus.
8. Anus: Opening of alimentary canal at lower end is called anus. It is bounded
by anal sphincter. Anus is meant for passing out faeces.
Digestive glands: The glands which are associated with alimentary canal
and secrete some enzymes that help in the process of digestion are called
digestive glands. Human digestive glands include:

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1. Salivary glands: They are present in mouth. There are 3 types of
salivary glands in man:

 Parotid glands: Largest salivary glands which are present

below and in front of each pinna (ear). A stenson’s duct arises
from each gland, opening between the teeth of upper jaw.
 Sub-maxillary/Sub-mandibular: It is located on the inner side
at the angle of jaw, one on either side. A Wharton’s duct arises
from each gland and opens on lower jaw.
 Sublingual glands: These are present below the tongue. Duct
of rivinus or Bartholin’s duct arises from these glands and
opens below tongue on the floor of buccopharyngeal cavity.
Salivary glands secretes fluid called saliva through salivary
duct into the oral; cavity. Saliva is slightly alkaline (pH=6.8) and
its daily secretion is about 1-1.5 litres. Saliva contains 2
enzymes- salivary amylase (maltose into glucose), maltase
s(maltose into glucose). Saliva helps to lubricate the food for
swallowing.

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2. Gastric glands: These are tubular multicellular glands present in the
internal surface of stomach. There are about 35 million gastric glands
in stomach. Gastric glands secrete gastric juice which is highly acidic
(0.1-1.5). the composition of gastric juice includes:
 HCL: It provides an acidic medium and activates inactive
enzymes pepsinogen into pepsin and pro-renin into renin.
 Renin: It converts soluble casein into procaesin. This process is
called curdling of milk.
 Pepsin: it converts proteins into peptones.
 Gastric lipase: it splits fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
3. Liver: liver is the largest gland of our body. It is bilobed reddish
brown gland which lies on the right side of abdominal cavity. Liver is
formed of hepatic cells. Numerous capillaries are present in between
these cells called bile capillaries. The hepatic cells join together to
form hepatic duct. The two hepatic ducts join together to form
common bile duct. The liver secretes bile which is stored in the gall
bladder until needed in the duodenum. The bile is clear yellow
alkaline fluid and has bitter taste. About 500ml-1lt of bile is secreted
by liver in a day. Bile contains bile pigments and bile salts (biliverdin
and bilirubin). Bile salts emulsify the fat(converts large fat globules
into smaller ones) and facilitate absorption of vitamins. The only
enzyme present in bile is alkaline –phosphatase but it has no
digestive function.
4. Pancreas: It is second largest gland in our body. Pancreas is
heterocine gland, pinkish leaf like triangular gland present in C
shaped loop of duodenum. The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice
which is poured into duodenum through hepatopancreatic duct. The
exocrine region of pancreas secretes sodium bicarbonate and many
digestive enzymes. The bicarbonate ions make the medium alkaline
favourable for the action of pancreatic enzyme. Some important
enzymes present in pancreatic juices are:
 Trypsin: It converts proteins into proteoses, peptones and
peptides.
 Chymotrypsin: It acts on proteins and converts them into
polypeptides and free amino acids.

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  Amylase: It converts starch into maltose and small amounts of
glucose.
 Lipase: It converts fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
 Sucrase: It converts sucrose into glucose and fructose.
 Maltase: It converts maltose into glucose.
 Nucleases: These acts on polynucleotide chains of RNA and
DNA and convert them into nucleotides
5. Intestinal glands: There are two types of numerous, microscopic
glands present in the mucosa of small intestines. They are:
 Crypts of Lieberkhan: present throughout small intestine.
 Brunner’s glands: Present only in duodenum.
These glands secrete intestinal juices. Intestinal juice is alkaline
in nature. Man secretes about 2-3 litres of intestinal juice. They
contain following enzymes:
 Erepsin: it converts peptones into amino acids.
 Carbohydrases: they convert carbohydrates into glucose.
 Nucleases: changes nucleic acid into nucleotides.
 Lipase: converts lipids into fatty acids and glycerol.
Describe the process of digestion in human beings:
Human beings are heterotrophic omnivorous organisms. They obtain their food
by holozoic mode of nutrition. The utilization of food involves the following
steps:
1. Ingestion: Ingestion means intake of food by an organism. In human beings
food is ingested through the mouth into the buccal cavity. In the buccal cavity
food is masticated with the help of teeth which breaks it into smaller pieces.
2. Digestion: Digestion involves physical and chemical breakdown of complex,
non diffusible food materials into simple soluble food materials. Digestion of
food starts in oral cavity continues in stomach and is completed in small
intestines.
In buccal cavity food mixes with saliva secreted by salivary glands which
contains enzymes namely ptyalin and maltase. These enzymes convert starch
into sugar. The partially digested food called bolus enters into stomach.
In the stomach food is treated mechanically by peristaltic movements and
chemically by gastric juice. Gastric juice contains HCL and enzymes like pepsin,
renin etc. the HCL provides acidic medium for the action of enzymes. The

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 enzyme pepsin converts proteins into peptones and proteases while as
enzyme renin coverts milk into curd. The churned food called chyme passes
from stomach into small intestines. In small intestines the chyme is treated
with secretion of pancreas, liver and intestinal glands. These glands release
enzymes like trypsin, Carbohydrases, lipases etc.
Pepsin converts proteins into peptones and then peptones into amino acids.
While as Carbohydrases convert starch into glucose. Lipases convert fats into
fatty acids and glycerol. In the small intestines food changes into diffusible
form called chyle. So during digestion carbohydrates are converted into
glucose, proteins into amino acids and fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
3. Absorption: Diffusion of digested food through the walls of alimentary canal
into blood is called absorption. Simple substances like water, glucose which
does not require digestion is absorbed in stomach.
The digested food is absorbed mainly in small intestines. The inner surface of
small intestine is provided with millions of finger like projections called villi.
The villi increase the surface area of small intestine which helps in rapid
absorption of digested food.
Each villus has lymph vessel in the centre called lacteal, which is surrounded
by network of capillaries, which in turn is surrounded by a layer of epithelial
cells. Digested lipids are absorbed into lacteal while as sugar and amino acids
are absorbed by blood capillaries.
4. Assimilation: Conversion of digested food into living protoplasm is called
assimilation. The blood carries digested food to all parts of the body where it
becomes assimilated into the cells.
In the cells most of the glucose is oxidized to release energy required for
various metabolic activities. The remaining glucose is converted into glycogen
which is stored in liver and muscle cells. The glycogen can be used a source of
energy by the body when required. The amino acids are converted into
proteins while as fatty acids and glycerol is converted into fats. The excess of
amino acids gets converted into urea by liver which later on gets excreted by
kidney.
5. Egestion: The elimination of faecal matter from alimentary canal through
anus is called egestion or defecation.

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 Respiration
Respiration is a metabolic process in which breaking down of glucose takes
place inside the living cells by the process of oxidation resulting in the release
of CO2, H2O and energy. The compound which is oxidized during respiration is
called respiratory substrate e.g. Glucose. Depending whether oxygen is used
or not. The respiration is of two types:
a. Aerobic respiration: In this type of respiration complete oxidation of
substrate takes place in presence of atmospheric oxygen to release H 2O
and CO2 with the release of energy. It occurs in plants and animals.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + 38ATP
b. Anaerobic respiration: In this type of respiration, incomplete break down
of glucose takes place in the absence of oxygen into CO 2 and lactic acid or
ethanol with the release of small amount of energy. It occurs in muscles
and in certain micro-organisms such as bacteria and yeast.
Mechanism:
The process of respiration is a long and complex process which is
completed in two steps:
1. Glycolysis: It is common to both aerobic and anaerobic respiration. It
takes place in cytoplasm without the use of atmospheric oxygen. During
this process glucose undergoes a series of changes to form three
carbon molecule pyruvate or pyruvic acid.
2. Breaking down of pyruvate: when O2 is not available the pyruvate
undergoes incomplete oxidation and is converted into different
molecules in different organisms. e.g
a. In yeast glucose is converted into pyruvate which is further
converted into ethyl alcohol.
C6H12O6 CH3COCOOH C2H5OH
Glucose Pyruvic acid Ethyl alcohol
In the cells of higher plants under anaerobic condition glucose is
converted into ethyl alcohol or organic acids like malic acid, oxalic
acid etc.
b. In muscle cells, during active metabolism, glucose is oxidised
anaerobically and is converted into pyruvates. The pyruvates are
further converted into 3 compound molecule called lactic acid.
Glucose Pyruvic acid lactic acid + energy

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 c. In some bacteria glucose is partially converted into lactic acid or
butyric acid.
Glucose Lactic acid + Energy (Streptococcus lactis)
Glucose Lactic acid + Butyric acid (Clostridium
butyricum)
Describe respiratory system in human being.

The respiratory system in human beings consists of two major components:

a. Respiratory tract b. Respiratory organs
Respiratory tract: The path through which O2 reaches up to lungs and CO2 is
removed from the lungs is called respiratory tract. In man it consists of following
parts:
1. Nose: The respiratory tract begins with a pair of external nostrils situated at
lower end of nose. Each nostril leads into vertical tube like structure called nasal

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 chamber which are separated by cartilaginous nasal septum. Each nasal
chamber on the other side opens into pharynx by aperture called internal nares.
2. Pharynx: The pharynx is differentiated into upper nasopharynx and lower
oropharynx. The oropharynx leads into 2 tubes – larynx and oesophagus
through glottis and gullet respectively. The glottis is guarded by a flap called
epiglottis that doesn’t allow anything other than air to enter into the larynx.
3. Larynx/ Voice box: It is upper slightly swollen part of trachea or windpipe. It is
more prominent in men as compared to women and is called Adam’s apple. In
the larynx there is present a pair of vocal cords which help in the production of
sound, hence it is also called voice box. During swallowing of food or liquid the
larynx moves upwards so that its opening is closed by epiglottis and food
doesn’t enter into larynx.

4. Trachea: The trachea or windpipe is long narrow whitish tube that extends
through the neck enters the thorax where it divides into a pair of branches
called primary bronchi. The walls of trachea are supported by ‘C’ shaped
cartilaginous rings which prevent collapsing of trachea. The trachea at its lower
end divides or splits into two branches called primary bronchi.
5. Primary bronchi: These are pair of tubular structures formed as a result of
bifurcation of the trachea. These are right and left primary bronchi that enters
into corresponding lungs. These are also supported by cartilaginous ring.
Respiratory organs: They include a pair of lungs.
Lungs: Lungs are a pair of highly elastic, thin walled spongy, pinkish and hollow
bag like structures situated in the thoracic cavity on the sides of the heart and are
well protected by bony thoracic cage. Each lung is conical triangular structure. The
upper pointed end id called apex and lower broad side is called base. The left lung
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is slightly smaller and lighter than right lung. The right lung is divided into 3 lobes
while as the left lung is divided into 2 lobes. Each lung is enclosed in double
walled pleural sac. A narrow space exists between the two pleural membranes. It
is called as pleural cavity and contains a fluid called pleural fluid. It acts as a
lubricant to reduce friction between lungs and the thoracic wall during breathing.

Secondary bronchi: Each primary bronchus after entering the corresponding lung
divides to form secondary bronchi that give rise to tertiary bronchi. The tertiary
bronchi divide into branches which give rise to alveolar ducts that open into blind
sac called alveoli.

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Alveoli/ Air sacs: They are functional units of lungs and forms the gas exchange
surfaces. There are over 700 million alveoli present in human lungs representing a
total surface of 70-90 m2. Efficient gas exchange when takes place in human
beings is due to increased surface area of lungs. The wall of each alveolus is only
0.0001/mm thick. On its outside is a dense network of capillaries special cells are
also present in the alveolus wall which secretes a detergent like chemical called
surfactant. It has many functions as it reduces the amount of effort needed to
breathe.

Discuss the process of breathing

The movement of fresh air from outside into the lungs through respiratory tract
and the movement of foul air in opposite direction is called breathing.
Mechanism of breathing: It involves two steps:
1. Inhalation / Inspiration: Movement of fresh air into lungs is called
inspiration. The process involves contraction of diaphragm and external
intercostal muscles. The process of contraction results in the expansion of
the thoracic cavity which in turn results in the expansion of lungs due to
increase in the lung pressure of the air inside the lungs decreases as
compared to the atmospheric pressure. Therefore fresh atmospheric air
rushes into the lungs through respiratory tract.
2. Exhalation/ Expiration: The movement of foul air from the lungs to outside
is called expiration or exhalation. Expiration is passive process and involves
relaxation of the external intercostal and diaphragm muscles. The ribs
return to their position and the diaphragm becomes dome shaped. Both
these movements reduce the thoracic cavity volume and lungs return to
their original size. The air rushes out of the lungs due to the increase in

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 pressure inside the lungs above that the atmosphere

Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in human beings:

The transport of O2 from the lungs to the cells and the transport of CO 2 from cells to
the lungs is called transport of gases.
Oxygen transport: The transport of oxygen from lungs to the cells is called O 2
transport. The concentration of oxygen in lung alveoli is higher than that in the
deoxygenated blood in capillaries. The difference causes O 2 to diffuse from the
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alveoli into the lung capillaries. In the blood capillaries the O 2 is transported by
haemoglobin present in the RBC’s of blood. Here Hb combines with O 2 to form
oxyhaemoglobin (HbO2). The oxygen rich blood leaving the lungs enters into the
heart and is then pumped to various organs of the body by simple diffusion. As blood
coming from lungs via heart has high conc. of oxygen than the body cells. So oxygen
diffuses from the blood capillaries into the cells of the body. The cells present in
tissues of various organs consume O2 continuously for various metabolic activities
and releases CO2.
CO2 transport: The transport of CO2 from the tissue to the lungs through the blood is
called CO2 transport. In tissues oxygen is used up in various metabolic activities and
CO2 produced continuously. Hence in tissues the concentration of oxygen is
decreased whereas CO2 concentration increases. Therefore CO2 is diffused from body
cells to capillaries. In the capillaries the CO2 is transported both by plasma and RBC of
the blood. About 67% of CO2 is carried by plasma and remaining 33% is carried by
RBC’s. CO2 is carried in 3 forms- carbonic acid (5%), carbonic amino compounds
(10%) and bicarbonates (85%).
Photosynthesis and its mechanism:
The process by which green plants prepare their own food from raw materials like
carbon dioxide and water in presence of chlorophyll and light energy which is
converted into chemical energy. The photosynthesis is the most anabolic process for
providing food supply to the biological world and purifying the atmospheric air by
consuming CO2 and evolving O2. Photosynthesis is fundamentally an oxidation
reduction process in which water is oxidised to O2 and CO2 is reduced to
carbohydrates.
Light/ Chlorophyll
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
Photosynthesis occurs in following two steps:
1. Light reaction: It occurs in thylakoids of the chloroplasts. Light reaction
involves following steps.
Light energy is absorbed by PSI and PSII. The absorbed light splits the water into
molecular oxygen, electron and proton. This process is called as photolysis of
water.
2H2O 2H+ + 2OH

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In light reaction the excited electrons lost by the pigment system II pass through
various intermediate carriers and finally reduce NADP into NADPH. During their
travel through these intermediate carriers they release energy which is used to
produce ATP from ADP and inorganic Phosphate. The pigment system II then
receives the electrons released by photolysis of water. The formation of ATP and
inorganic phosphate is called photophosphorylation.
2. Dark reaction: The reactions of dark phase are pure thermo chemical reactions
and do not require light energy. The dark reaction takes place in the stroma
part of chloroplast. In the dark reaction the high energy NADPH 2 and ATP
molecules are utilized to reduce CO2 to carbohydrate. This fixation involves a
biochemical pathway Calvin cycle. The overall reaction can be represented as:
6CO2 + 12NADPH2 + 18ATP C6H12O6 + 12NADP + 18ATP + 6H2O
Excretion
The biochemical reactions taking place in the cells of an organism produce toxic
substances in the body which are harmful for an organism. So these harmful
wastes must be removed continuously. The process of removal of toxic wastes
from the body of an organism is called excretion.
Excretion in plants
Or
What are the methods used by plants to get rid of excretory wastes?
The main waste products produced by plants are CO 2, water vapours and O2. CO2
and water vapours are produced through respiration by plants whereas oxygen is
produced during photosynthesis. These are removed through stomata in leaves
and lenticels ain stems and released in air. CO 2 is excreted only at night because
the CO2 produced during respiration in day is all used up by the plant in
photosynthesis. The plants excrete oxygen during the day time only because
oxygen is produced by photosynthesis only during the day time. When the
sunlight is there water vapour is excreted by plants all the time.
The pants also store some of the waste products in the leaves, bark and fruits and
get rid of these wastes by shedding of leaves, peeling of barks and felling of fruits.
Some of the plant wastes get stored in the fruits in the form of solid bodies called
raphides(needle like calcium oxalate crystals) and are removed by detachment of
fruits. The plants also secrete their wastes in the form of gum and resins from
their stems and branches. These also excrete some waste substances into the soil
around them.

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 Excretion in human beings
The major wastes produced by human beings are CO 2 and urea. CO2 is produced
by respiration and urea is produced by decomposition of unused proteins in liver.
Our body must get rid of these wastes because their accumulation in the body is
poisonous and harms us. CO2 is excreted by our lungs. CO2 produced during
respiration enters from the body tissues into the blood stream by diffusion. Blood
carries this CO2 to the lungs and is excreted out by breathing outside into the air
through nostrils. The liquid wastes of the body are collected and excreted by the
excretory system. It consists of two kidneys, two ureters, urinary bladder and
urethra.

1. Kidneys: The kidneys of man are reddish brown, bean shaped, slightly flattened
organs present just below the stomach, one on either side of the vertebral column.
They are asymmetrical in position present at different levels. The right kidney is
about 1-1.5cm lower than the left kidney, because the right kidney is pushed
downward by the large right liver lobe.
Each kidney is about 10 cm long, 6cm wide and 3.5 cm thick .It is a bean – shaped
structure, outer margin of which is convex and inner margin is concave. In the

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middle of inner concavity is present a notch called hilus or hilum which leads to a
space called renal sinus. The renal artery, renal vein, nerve fibre, lymph vessels and
ureters enter or leave the kidney through hilus.
2. Ureters: The ureters are a pair of long tubes measuring about 10-12 inches in
length and less than half an inch in diameter at the widest point. They extend from
the kidney posterior surface of urinary bladder.
3. Urinary bladder: It is like an inverted pear in shaped highly distensible saclike
reservoir present in the pelvic region .In the urinary bladder are present three
opening, two of ureters and one of urethra. The urinary bladder serves as reservoir
for urine, before it leaves the body. It can hold about 0.5-1 litre of urine.

4. Urethra: The urethra is a small tube leading from the floor of the bladder to the
exterior. In female it opens directly to outside.
The male urethra follows a long path for a distance of 20 cm from the bladder
through the penis. It opens to outside as an orifice at the tip of the penis.
The female urethra serves as passageway for urine only, whereas in males it serves
as a passageway of semen as well as urine.

Longitudinal / Vertical section of kidney:

The L.S of a kidney shows an outer cortex and an inner medulla. The cortex seems
granular to the naked eyes. The medulla is made up of 10-15 pyramid shaped
masses called renal pyramids. Each kidney is made up of 1.25 million nephrons. The
open ends of many nephrons open into wider tube called collecting tubule that
extends from the cortex to the medulla. The collecting tubules converge to form
groups called pyramids. In between the pyramids extend cortical tissue as cortical
columns or columns of Bertini. The broad base of each pyramids lies against the
cortex whereas narrow apex called renal papilla or papillary duct of Bellini opens
into a small funnel-like structure, the small calyx. There are 8-10 smaller calyces
which are formed by the division of 2-3 large calyces. The large calyces are formed
from the pelvis which is the expanded part of ureter into the kidney.

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Explain in detail the structure and function of nephron.
Nephron is the structural and functional unit of kidney. It is of two types:
1. Cortical nephron: These are the nephrons present within the cortex. These are
short and comprise about 80% of the total nephrons.
2. Juxtamedullary nephrons: These have long loops of Henle and extend into the
medulla. These are about 20%.
Each nephron has two parts:

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 1. Malpighian body or renal corpuscle. 2. Renal tubule.
1. Malpighian body or renal corpuscle: It lies in the cortex of the kidney and is
divided into two parts:
a. Bowman’ capsule: It is a double walled cup like structure.
b. Glomerulus: It is mass of capillaries present in the cup in the Bowman‘s capsule.
It is formed by the capillaries of incoming blood vessel (afferent arteriole) and that
of out-going blood vessel (efferent arteriole). Renal tubule: Bowman‘s capsule leads
into the coiled part of nephron called renal tubule. It has three parts:
a. Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT): It is highly coiled tubular part that lies in
the cortex. The cells lining this part have a brush border which is capable of
absorption.
b. Loop of Henle: It is shaped part of the renal tubule which consists of descending
limb, hair pin loop and ascending limb. It is found in medulla of the kidney.
c. Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT): It is again highly coiled part found in cortex of
the kidney. It opens into collecting tubule.
Formation of urine:
The formation of urine is completed by three processes:

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A. Ultrafiltration or Glomerular filtration B. Tubular reabsorption or Reabsorption C.
Tubular secretion
1. Ultrafiltration: Filtration of any liquid under tremendous pressure is called
Ultrafiltration. When the blood passes from afferent arteriole having large diameter
to an efferent arteriole having smaller diameter, a pressure is built up in the
glomerular capillaries. Under the influence of this hydrostatic pressure all the
substance in the blood that can pass through the capillary walls get filtered out in
the form of a liquid called glomerular filtrate or nephric filtrate or ultrafiltrate. The
rate of glomerular filtration in a normal man is about 125 ml. per minute or 172-
180 litre/day. The glomerular filtrate contains excess of water, glucose, amino
acids, urea, uric acid, inorganic salts and other substances like pigments. The blood
that passes into the efferent arteriole is left with only blood proteins, corpuscles
and fats that cannot pass through the walls of capillaries.

3. Tubular Reabsorption: Tubular Reabsorption also called tubular

reabsorption is the process of absorption of all the useful substances from nephric
filtrate into the blood running through peritubular network of capillaries. Nephric
filtrate passes from Bowman‘s capsule to the proximal convoluted part where
entire glucose, all amino acids, some inorganic salts (Na+, K+, CI+), some urea, uric
acid and water are reabsorbed into the peritubular capillaries. Water and salts are
also reabsorbed in the loop of Henle, distal convoluted part. Collecting tubules also
reabsorb a large amount of water. The process of reabsorption is bought about by
two processes: simple diffusion and active transport.
4. Tubular secretion: The secretion of harmful substances from the blood into
the nephric filtrate through the walls of distal convoluted part is called tubular
secretion. Some substances such as creatinine, hippuric acid, potassium,
hydrogen ions, ammonia and a little uric acid are added to the nephric filtrate
by the cells of distal convoluted part either by simple diffusion or active
transport. Selective reabsorption and tubular secretion help to maintain
proper acid-base balance of the body. The filtrate left after reabsorption and
tubular secretion is called urine. In a normal man 1-1.5 litre of urine is
produced daily.
Artificial kidney/ Haemodialysis: Artificial kidney is used to filter the blood of
patient whose kidneys are damaged. The patient is said to be put on dialysis
and the process of purifying blood by an artificial kidney is called haemo
dialysis/dialysis. The blood from an artery in the patients arm is made to flow
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into the dialyser of a dialysis machine made of long coiled tubes which are
glucose and salt of similar cone as those in normal blood. As the patient’s
blood passes through the dialysis sol. Most of the wastes like urea present in it
pass through the selectively permeable tubes into the dialysis sol. The clean
blood is pumped back into the vein of patients arm.
Transportation
Transportation is a life process in which a substance absorbed in one part of a
body of an organism is carried to the other part of its body.
Transport in plants
Or
How does transport process in plants take place?
Or
How are water, minerals and food transported in plants?

Transport system of highly organized plants {gymnosperms and Angiosperms},

consists of two types of conducting tissues- xylem and phloem. Xylem
conducts H2O and phloem conducts food.
1. Transport of H2O and minerals: H2O and minerals are absorbed from the
soil by roots of the plant and transported to various parts through
conducting elements of xylem is a complex tissue, made up of four types of
elements- vessels, tracheids, xylem fibres and xylem parenchyma. The
conducting elements of xylem are vessels (Angiosperm) and tracheids
(gymnosperms).
The water and minerals are absorbed by root hairs from the soil by osmosis
through epidermis, cortex, and endoderms and reach the root xylem. The
xylem vessels of root are connected to the xylem vessels of its stem. Thus
water enters from root xylem into stem xylem vessels and finally to each and
every part of plant.
2. Transport of food: The transport of food from leaves to other parts of plant
is called translocation. It occurs through phloem. Phloem is a complex
tissue made up of following components- sieve elements, companion cells,
phloem fibres and phloem parenchyma. The main conducting elements of
phloem are sieve elements.
The food made in the leaf is loaded into sieve tubes of phloem. Water
enters into sieve tubes containing sugar by the process of osmosis due0 2to

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which pressure in phloem increases. The high pressure moves the food to
all parts of plant having less pressure.
Transportation in human beings
Or
What are the components of transport system in human beings? What
are the functions of these components?
There are two components of transport system in human beings- blood and
lymph.
Blood and its components: Blood is a red coloured, viscous and complex
fluid connective tissue. Its pH is 7.3-7.5. An average human being has 5.5
litres of blood in his body. About 55% of blood is fluid called plasma which
contains different organic compounds like albumin, globulin, fibrinogen,
vitamins, glucose, enzymes etc. the remaining 45% is made up of solid
particles called corpuscles which include RBC’s, WBC’s and blood platelets.
Functions:
1. Blood transports soluble digested food to different parts of body.
2. Blood transport oxygen from lungs to the tissues and carbon dioxide
from the tissues to the lungs.
3. It transports excretory materials (e.g Urea) to the organs of excretion.
4. It transports hormones from sites of secretion to target organs.
5. It regulates body temperature and maintains water balance in body.
Blood vessels: Blood vessels are elastic tubes which carry blood. The study
of blood vessels is called angiology. They are of following 3 types:
a. Arteries: They carry oxygenated blood (except pulmonary arteries) from
heart to various parts of body. They are thick walled, highly elastic
without valves.
b. Veins: They carry deoxygenated from all body parts to heart. They are
thin walled less elastic having wide lumen and semilunar valves.
c. Capillaries: They are microscopic narrow vessels present at the junction
of arteries and veins. They are abundantly found in those tissues where
metabolism is very fast.

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Lymphatic system: Lymph and its associated parts constitute lymphatic
system. It consists of following parts:
a. Lymph: Lymph is a colourless fluid connective tissue. It is formed
from blood by the passage of substances through the wall of
capillaries in the intercellular tissue spaces. It contains lymphocytes
water, sugar, calcium etc.
b. Lymph capillaries: These are blind at one end and are interwoven
with blood capillaries. They have very thin wall.
c. Lymph vessels: Lymph capillaries join to form lymph vessels. They
have thin wall and more valves.
d. Lymph nodes: They are bead like swellings which occur at intervals in
the course of lymphatic vessels. Lymph is filtered through lymph
nodes. They are abundant in the regions of neck, arm pits and groin
Functions:
1. Lymph helps in exchange of various materials between blood and
body tissues.
2. It transports fatty acids and antibodies from lymph nodes to the
blood.
3. It destroys microbes.
4. It carries lymphocytes and antibodies from lymph nodes to blood.

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