MATHEMATICS FOR

ELECTRONICS ENGINEERS

Dr Rajini M.
Department of Electronics and
Communication Engineering
“An equation for me has no meaning, unless it expresses a thought of God.”
- Srinivasa Ramanujan
COMPLEX NUMBERS

Introduction
Basic Definitions
Properties

Dr Rajini M.
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
HISTORY OF COMPLEX ANALYSIS

• Degree 1: 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = 0
𝑏
Does this have a solution? 𝑥 = −
𝑎

• Degree 2: 𝑎𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0
2
−𝑏 ± 𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
Does this have a solution? 𝑥 =
2𝑎
HISTORY OF COMPLEX ANALYSIS

• Degree 3: 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 = 0

Del Ferro and Tartaglia followed Gerolamo Cardano showed that for

𝑥 3 = 𝑎𝑥 + b
has a solution
3 2 3 2
𝑏2 𝑎3 𝑏 𝑏2 𝑎3 𝑏
𝑥= − + − − −
4 27 2 4 27 2

• However for a = 15 and b = 4, we get

2
𝑥= −121 = 121 −1
NEED FOR COMPLEX ANALYSIS
What Will An Engineer Get?

Complex analysis is used in many areas of Engineering including

➢ Circuit theory: Impedance, transfer functions, etc.

➢ Electromagnetism: Time harmonic fields

➢ Electrostatics: Solution to the Laplace equation

➢ Signal processing and communications

NEED FOR COMPLEX ANALYSIS
Applications

➢ Digital cameras and cellphones.

➢ Stress analysis in structures such as bridges and buildings.
➢ Mathematics behind medical images such as scanning, x-ray
➢ Fluid flow around an object
➢ Design of cars, airplane wings etc.
➢ Complex analysis is used to transform “complicated regions”
to “simpler regions”
 NEED FOR COMPLEX ANALYSIS
Relationship Between Complex Analysis and Engineering

➢ Voltage produced by battery is characterized by one real

number (called potential) say, 5 V

➢ Where as AC Voltage in a home requires two parameters one

is potential and the other is angle (Phase). Therefore AC
voltage is said to have two “dimensions”

➢ Mathematically a two dimensional quantity can be

represented as complex number (known in engineering as a
phasor) and the components are referred to as real and
imaginary

➢ So, when the complex is purely imaginary say ‘120i’ means

voltage has a potential of 120 volts and a phase of 90 degrees
which is physically real
DEFINITIONS
Complex Number

Complex number can be written in the form

𝑧= ณ
𝑥 +𝑖 ณ
𝑦
𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔

The conjugate of a complex number is 𝑧ҧ = 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦

𝑧 𝑧ҧ = x + i y x − i y = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑧 2

𝑖 2 = −1
 DEFINITIONS
Complex Plane (Argand Plane)

A complex number is represented on a two dimensional coordinate plane

➢ The x-axis is the real axis

➢ The y-axis, called the imaginary axis

y
P
z=x+iy

𝑥 − 𝑦 plane is known as
the complex plane

x
The complex plane
 DEFINITIONS
Modulus and Argument

Geometrically, |z| is the distance of the point z from the origin

and θ is the directed angle from the positive x- axis to OP

The modulus or absolute value of 𝑧, |z| = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2e

−1 𝑦
and θ is called the argument of 𝑧, 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 .
𝑥
𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃, 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃
Polar form
𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖 𝑦 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃) = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃
 DEFINITIONS
Unit Circle, Circles and Annuli

• The circle |𝑧| = 1 in the complex plane is called as a unit circle

• The equation |𝑧 − 𝑎| = 𝜌 in the complex plane indicates a circle
centered at a with radius 𝜌. We call it as a disk when 𝑧 − 𝑎 < 𝜌.
• Open annulus: 𝜌1 < 𝑧 − 𝑎 < 𝜌2
• Closed annulus: 𝜌1 ≤ 𝑧 − 𝑎 ≤ 𝜌2
 DEFINITIONS
Open and Closed Half-Planes

• Consider 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
• Upper half-plane 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 ∶ 𝑦 > 0
• Lower half-plane {𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 ∶ 𝑦 < 0}
• Right half-plane {𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 ∶ 𝑥 > 0}
• Left half-plane {𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 ∶ 𝑥 > 0}
 DEFINITIONS
Neighbourhood Of A Point

A neighbourhood of a point 𝑧0 in the complex plane is the set of all

points 𝑧 such that 𝑧 − 𝑧0 < 𝛿, where 𝛿 is a small positive real
number. Here 𝛿 is called radius of this neighbourhood.
 z0
GEOMETRY:
If z = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 and 𝑧0 =𝑥0 +𝑖𝑦0 then .z

𝑧 − 𝑧0 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 − (𝑥0 +𝑖𝑦0 ) = 𝑥 − 𝑥0 2 + (𝑦 − 𝑦0 )2 = δ
𝑥 − 𝑥0 2 + (𝑦 − 𝑦0 )2 = δ2 represents a circle with centre (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) and
radius δ.
Hence geometrically a neighbourhood of a point 𝑧0 is the set of all
points inside a disk having 𝑧0 as the centre and δ as the radius.
 COMPLEX NUMBERS
Problem 1

Show that 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 is purely imaginary if and only if 𝑧ҧ = −𝑧

Solution: If part
Need to show if 𝑧ҧ = −𝑧 then 𝑧 is purely imaginary, that is 𝑥 = 0
Since 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, we have – 𝑧 = −𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦 and 𝑧ҧ = 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦
If 𝑧ҧ = −𝑧, then 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦 = −𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦
Comparing the real parts, we have 𝑥 = −𝑥, which implies 𝑥 = 0
 COMPLEX NUMBERS
Problem 1

Show that 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 is purely imaginary if and only if 𝑧ҧ = −𝑧

Solution: Only if part

Need to show if 𝑧 is purely imaginary, that is 𝑥 = 0, then 𝑧ҧ = −𝑧
Since 𝑥 = 0, 𝑧 = 𝑖𝑦, and – 𝑧 = −𝑖𝑦 and 𝑧ҧ = −𝑖𝑦
Easy to see that 𝑧ҧ = −𝑧
 COMPLEX NUMBERS
Problem 2

3
Find 1 + 𝑖

Solution:
𝜋 𝜋
Note that 1 + 𝑖 = 2 cos + 𝑖 sin
4 4

Also recall that cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 𝑛 = cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃

𝑛 𝑛 𝜃+2𝑘𝜋 𝜃+2𝑘𝜋
𝑧= 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 , 𝑘 = 0, 1 , … , 𝑛 − 1
𝑛 𝑛
Therefore,
𝜋ൗ + 2𝑘𝜋 𝜋ൗ + 2𝑘𝜋
3
1 + 𝑖 = (1 +
1ൗ
𝑖) 3 = 21Τ6 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4
3 3
 COMPLEX NUMBERS
Problem 2

3
Find 1 + 𝑖

Solution:
 COMPLEX NUMBERS
Problem 3

Prove that |𝑅𝑒(𝑧)| ≤ |𝑧|, and |𝐼𝑚(𝑧)| ≤ |𝑧|

Solution:
Let 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦. Therefore, |𝑧| = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 , |𝑅𝑒(𝑧)| = |𝑥| = 𝑥
Now, |𝑧|2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ≥ 𝑥 2 , with equality if and only if 𝑦 = 0
Therefore,
|𝑧|2 ≥ 𝑥 2 = |𝑅𝑒(𝑧)|2
which implies that |𝑅𝑒(𝑧)| ≤ |𝑧|, with equality if and only if 𝑦 = 0.

Homework: Give a similar argument for |𝐼𝑚(𝑧)| ≤ |𝑧|

 COMPLEX NUMBERS
Problem 4: Homework

Let ℤ denote the set of complex numbers. Further, let 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , … , 𝑧𝑛 ∈ ℤ. Then,

prove the inequality
𝑧1 + 𝑧2 + ⋯ + 𝑧𝑛 ≤ 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 + ⋯ + 𝑧𝑛

Hint: First prove the case for two numbers, 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 ∈ ℤ. That is,

𝑧1 + 𝑧2 ≤ 𝑧1 + 𝑧2

This is called as the triangle inequality.

THANK YOU

Dr Rajini M.
Associate Professor
Department of Electronics and
Communication Engineering
rajinim@pes.edu
MATHEMATICS FOR
ELECTRONICS ENGINEERS

Dr Rajini M.
Associate Professor
Department of Electronics and
Communication Engineering
COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

Definitions
Limits
Continuity
Differentiation and Derivatives
Rajini M.
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
COMPLEX FUNCTION
Definition

• A function 𝑓: ℂ → ℂ is a mapping
• We denote 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧), where 𝑧 and 𝑤 are complex numbers
• If 𝑧 ∈ 𝑆, then 𝑆 is called domain of f. Note that 𝑆 ⊆ ℂ
• If 𝑤 ∈ 𝑅, then 𝑅 is called range of f. Note that 𝑅 ⊆ ℂ
• Let 𝑤 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣, and 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦. Then, we can write
𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦)
• Therefore, a complex function is equivalent to a pair of real
functions 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) and 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦)
• Since 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , one can also write
𝑤 = 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢(𝑟, 𝜃) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑟, 𝜃)
 COMPLEX FUNCTION
Simple Example 1

Consider 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 2

Cartesian form: 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖 𝑦 ∴ 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)2 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑖𝑦 − 𝑦 2

𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = (𝑥 2 −𝑦 2 ) + 𝑖(2𝑥𝑦)
Equating real and imaginary parts, 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ; 𝑣 = 2𝑥𝑦

Polar form: 𝑧 = 𝑟 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ∴ 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = (r 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 )2 = 𝑟 2 𝑒 2𝑖𝜃

𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑟 2 (cos 2𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 2𝜃)
Equating real and imaginary parts, 𝑢 = 𝑟 2 cos 2𝜃 ; 𝑣 = 𝑟 2 sin 2𝜃
COMPLEX FUNCTION
Simple Example 2 – Importance of Polar Form

Consider 𝑓(𝑧) = log 𝑧

Polar form: 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = log 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = log r + i θ log 𝑒

𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = log 𝑟 + 𝑖 𝜃
Equating real and imaginary parts, 𝑢 = log 𝑟 ; 𝑣 = 𝜃

In some cases (such as above), finding polar form is convenient

 LIMITS
Approaching a Point On Complex Plane

• A function 𝑓: ℂ → ℂ is said to have the limit 𝑙 as 𝑧 approaches a point

𝑧0 , if f is defined in the neighborhood of 𝑧0
• We denote this limit as
lim 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑙
𝑧→𝑧0
• Given any 𝜀 > 0, there exists a number 𝛿 > 0 such that
𝑓 𝑧 − 𝑙 < 𝜀,
whenever
𝑧 − 𝑧0 < 𝛿
• Then 𝑓 𝑧 is said to have the limit 𝑙 as 𝑧 approaches the point 𝑧0 .
• 𝑧 can approach 𝑧0 from any direction on the complex plane.
Note: Of course 𝑓(𝑧) needs to be defined near 𝑧0 (but not necessarily at 𝑧0 ).
LIMITS
Comparison of Real Limits and Complex Limits

The Real plane

y
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑙
𝑥→𝑥0
.
l If 𝑥 − 𝑥0 < 𝛿 ∃ 𝜀 such that 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑙 < 𝜀.
.
f(x)

0 x
x 𝑥0
The complex plane
y v
w = f(z)
f(z) .
 z 
0
.z l
x u
0 z-plane w-plane
LIMITS
Example

𝑍ത
Show that lim does not exist.
𝑍→0 𝑍
Let 𝑧 → 0 along 𝑥–axis. (𝑦 = 0)
𝑍ത 𝑥−𝑖𝑦 𝑥
Then lim = lim = lim = 1 --------(1)
𝑍→0 𝑍 𝑥→0,𝑦=0 𝑥+𝑖𝑦 𝑥→0 𝑥
Let 𝑧 → 0 along 𝑦–axis. (𝑥 = 0)
𝑍ത 𝑥−𝑖𝑦 −𝑖𝑦
Then lim = lim = lim = −1 ------------(2)
𝑍→0 𝑍 𝑦→0,𝑥=0 𝑥+𝑖𝑦 𝑥→0 𝑖𝑦
Also Let 𝑧 → 0 along the line 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥.
𝑍ത 𝑥−𝑖𝑚𝑥 𝑥(1−𝑖𝑚) 1−𝑖𝑚
Then lim = lim = lim = ------(3)
𝑍→0 𝑍 𝑥→0, 𝑥+𝑖𝑚𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥(1+𝑖𝑚) 1+𝑖𝑚
For various values of m, (3) is not unique.
CONTINUITY
On Real Line

Let 𝑓(𝑥) be a function such that 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ. Then, 𝑓(𝑥) is said to

be continuous at x0 if and only if:
• 𝑓 is defined in a neighbourhood of 𝑥0 i.e., 𝑓(𝑥0 ) exists, and
• lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥0 )
𝑥→𝑥0

A “break” in the curve is called as a discontinuity

CONTINUITY
On Complex Plane

Let 𝑓(𝑧) be a function such that 𝑓: ℂ → ℂ. Then, 𝑓(𝑧) is said to

be continuous at 𝑧0 if and only if:
• 𝑓 is defined at 𝑧0
• 𝑓 𝑧 has a limit z → 𝑧0 i.e., 𝑓(𝑧0 ) exists
• lim 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑧0 )
𝑧→𝑧0
Geometrical interpretation of continuous function

Continuity Discontinuity
DERIVATIVES
On Real Line

Let 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ be a real-valued function defined in a neighbourhood of 𝑥0. The

derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥0 is defined as

𝑓 𝑥0 +∆𝑥 −𝑓(𝑥0 )
𝑓 ′ 𝑥0 = lim ,
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥

provided that the limit exists, and is unique.

It is the slope of the secant line through the points (𝑥0 ;𝑓(𝑥0 )) and (𝑥 ; 𝑓(𝑥)).

There are two definitions of derivatives:

1. Left derivatives lim

∆𝑥→0−

2. Right derivatives lim

∆𝑥→0+

𝑥 = 𝑥0 + ∆𝑥
DERIVATIVES
On Real Line
DERIVATIVES
On Complex Plane

Let 𝑓: ℂ → ℂ be a complex-valued function defined in a neighbourhood of 𝑧0.

The derivative of 𝑓(𝑧) at 𝑧0 is defined as
𝑓 𝑧0 +∆𝑧 −𝑓(𝑧0 )
𝑓 ′ 𝑧0 = lim , provided that the limit exists, and is unique
∆𝑧→0 ∆𝑧

Substituting z = 𝑧0 + 𝛥𝑧, we get an alternate definition

𝑓 𝑧 − 𝑓(𝑧0 )
𝑓′ 𝑧 = lim
𝑧→𝑧0 𝑧 − 𝑧0
Important: 𝑓(𝑧) is defined in a neighbourhood of 𝑧0 and 𝑧 may approach 𝑧0
from any direction on the complex plane. Irrespective of the path, the limit
𝑑𝑤
should always be the same, and is equal to
𝑑𝑧
DERIVATIVES
Example 1

Differentiate 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 2

′ 𝑓 𝑧+Δ𝑧 −𝑓(𝑧)
Solution: By definition, 𝑓 𝑧 = lim .
Δ𝑧→0 Δ𝑧

(z+Δz)2 −𝑧 2 2zΔ𝑧+Δz2
𝑓′ 𝑧 = lim = lim
Δ𝑧→0 Δ𝑧 Δ𝑧→0 Δ𝑧

= lim 2𝑧 + Δ𝑧
Δ𝑧→0
′
𝑓 𝑧 = 2𝑧
DERIVATIVES
Example 3

𝑥𝑦(𝑦−𝑖𝑥)
𝑖𝑓 𝑧 ≠ 0
Discuss the differentiability of 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 at 𝑧 = 0.
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑧 = 0
𝑓 𝑧 −𝑓(𝑧0 )
Solution: By definition, 𝑓′ 𝑧 = lim . In our case, 𝑧0 = 0
𝑧→𝑧0 𝑧−𝑧0

𝑓 𝑧 − 𝑓(𝑧0 )
𝑓′ 𝑧 = lim
𝑧→𝑧0 𝑧 − 𝑧0
𝑥𝑦(𝑦−𝑖𝑥)
𝑓 𝑧 −0 𝑥2 +𝑦2
= lim = lim
𝑧→0 𝑧−0 𝑧→0 𝑥+𝑖𝑦

𝑥𝑦(𝑦−𝑖𝑥) 𝑥𝑦(𝑦−𝑖𝑥)
𝑥2 +𝑦2 𝑥2 +𝑦2
I Path: lim = 0, II path: lim =0
𝑥→0 𝑥+𝑖𝑦 𝑦→0 𝑥+𝑖𝑦
DERIVATIVES
Example 2

𝑥𝑦(𝑦−𝑖𝑥)
𝑖𝑓 𝑧 ≠ 0
Discuss the differentiability of 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 at 𝑧 = 0.
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑧 = 0
Solution continued: III path: 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥
𝑥(𝑚𝑥)(𝑚𝑥 − 𝑖𝑥)
= lim 2
𝑥→0 (𝑥 +(𝑚𝑥)2 )(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑚𝑥)
𝑦→0

𝑥 3 (𝑚)(𝑚 − 𝑖)
= lim 3
𝑥→0 𝑥 (1 + (𝑚)2 )(1 + 𝑖𝑚)
𝑦→0
⇒ 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) is not unique, as 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) takes different values for different m.

Therefore 𝑓(𝑧) is not differentiable at 𝑧 = 0.

DERIVATIVES
An Interesting Result

If 𝑓(𝑧) is differentiable at 𝑧 = 𝑧0 , then 𝑓(𝑧) is continuous at 𝑧0 . But the

converse is not true.

Counter-example: 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧ҧ is continuous at every point but not differentiable

at any point!

Let us prove this result. Consider 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, which implies 𝑧ҧ = 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦.

Take any point 𝑧0 = 𝑥0 + 𝑖𝑦0 , which implies that 𝑧0 = 𝑥0 − 𝑖𝑦0 .
 DERIVATIVES
An Interesting Result

lim 𝑓 𝑧 = lim 𝑧ҧ = lim 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑥0 − 𝑖𝑦0 = 𝑧ഥ0 = 𝑓(𝑧0 )

𝑧→𝑧0 𝑧→𝑧0 𝑥→𝑥0 ,𝑦→𝑦0
∴ 𝑓 𝑧 is continuous at any point 𝑧0 .
𝑓 𝑧 −𝑓(𝑧0 ) ҧ 0
𝑧−𝑧 (𝑧−𝑧0 ) 𝑝ҧ
Consider = = = , where p=𝑧 − 𝑧0 .
𝑧−𝑧0 𝑧−𝑧0 𝑧−𝑧0 𝑝
𝑓 𝑧 −𝑓(𝑧0 ) 𝑝ҧ
∴ 𝑓′ 𝑧0 = lim = lim , which does not exist.
𝑧→𝑧0 𝑧−𝑧0 𝑝→0 𝑝
∴ 𝑓 ′ 𝑧0 does not exist.
∴ 𝑓 𝑧 is not differentiable at any point 𝑧0 .
COMPLEX FUNCTIONS
Some Well-Known Functions

1) Polynomial function:
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑎0 𝑧 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑧 𝑛−1 + 𝑎2 𝑧 𝑛−2 +− − +𝑎𝑛
2) Exponential function: 𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑥+𝑖𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 . 𝑒 𝑖𝑦
= 𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑦 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦
𝑒 𝑖𝑧 −𝑒 −𝑖𝑧 𝑒 𝑖𝑧 +𝑒 −𝑖𝑧
3) Trigonometric function: sin 𝑧 = , c𝑜 𝑠 𝑧 =
2𝑖 2
𝑒 𝑧 −𝑒 −𝑧 𝑒 𝑧 +𝑒 −𝑧
4) Hyperbolic function: sin ℎ𝑧 = , cosh 𝑧 =
2 2
5) Logarithmic function: log 𝑧=log 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟 + 𝑖𝜃 (log e=1),
𝑦
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑧 = log 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝑥
 COMPLEX FUNCTIONS
Extra Exercise Problem

What does this equation 𝑧 − 1 + 𝑧 + 1 = 3 represent?

Solution: 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, then 𝑧 − 1 + 𝑧 + 1 = 3

(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) − 1 + (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) + 1 = 3
𝑥 − 1 + 𝑖𝑦 + 𝑥 + 1 + 𝑖𝑦) = 3
(𝑥 − 1)2 +𝑦 2 + (𝑥 + 1)2 +𝑦 2 = 3
(𝑥 − 1)2 +𝑦 2 = 3 − (𝑥 + 1)2 +𝑦 2
Squaring on both sides, we get
2
(𝑥 − 1)2 +𝑦 2 = (3 − 𝑥+1 2 + 𝑦 2 )2

(𝑥 − 1)2 +𝑦 2 = 9 + (𝑥 + 1)2 +𝑦 2 - 6 𝑥+1 2 + 𝑦2

 COMPLEX FUNCTIONS
Extra Exercise Problem

What does this equation 𝑧 − 1 + 𝑧 + 1 = 3 represent?

Solution: (𝑥 − 1)2 +𝑦 2 = 9 + (𝑥 + 1)2 +𝑦 2 - 6 𝑥+1 2 + 𝑦2

𝑥 2 + 1 − 2𝑥+ 𝑦 2 =9+ 𝑥 2 + 1 + 2𝑥+ 𝑦 2 -6 𝑥+1 2 + 𝑦2

0 = 9 + 4𝑥 − 6 𝑥+1 2 + 𝑦 2 ⇒ (9 + 4𝑥) = 6 𝑥+1 2 + 𝑦2

Squaring we get

(9 + 4𝑥)2 = 36( 𝑥 + 1 2 +𝑦 2 ) => 81 + 16 𝑥 2 +72𝑥 = 36(𝑥 2 + 1 + 2𝑥+ 𝑦 2 )

𝑥2 𝑦2
45 = 20 𝑥 2 +30 𝑦2 or + = 1, which is an ellipse.
45/20 45
THANK YOU

Rajini M.
Department of Electronics and
Communication Engineering
rajinim@pes.edu
+91 80 2672 1983 Extn 838
MATHEMATICS FOR
ELECTRONIC ENGINEERS
Complex Analysis
 Class number #3

TOPICS

➢ Limit, Continuity, Differentiability

LIMIT OF A COMPLEX FUNCTION
A function w = f(z) is said to tend to a limit l as z approaches a
point z0 , if for every , we can find a +ve real number  such
that |f(z) – l|<  for |z - z0|< . i.e. for every 𝑧 ≠ z0 in the -
disc of z-plane, f(z) has a value lying in the  -disc of w-plane
and is written as

lim 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑙
𝑧→𝑧0

Note: In real calculus x approaches 𝑥0 only along the real line,

where as in complex calculus z-approaches 𝑧0 in different
paths in z-plane.
LIMITS: INTERPRETATION
The Real plane
y
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑙
.
l 𝑥→𝑥0

.
f(x) If 𝑥 − 𝑥0 < 𝛿 ∃ 𝜀 such that 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑙 < 𝜀.

0 x
x 𝑥0

The complex plane

y v
w = f(z)
f(z) . lim 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑙
 z  𝑧→𝑧0
0
.z l
x u
0 z-plane 0 w-plane
CONTINUITY (Real valued function)
Let f(x) be a function such that f: R→R, f(x) is said to be
continuous at x0 iff:
✓ f is defined in a neighbourhood of x0 i.e., 𝑓(𝑥0 ) exists.
✓ The limit exists

✓ lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥0 )
𝑥→𝑥0

Geometrical meaning of continuous function:

If the function is continuous and if we draw the graph , there is
no break in the curve.
For example: f(x)=3x.
CONTINUITY (COMPLEX VALUED FUNCTION)

➢ Let f(z) be a function such that f: C → C. f(z) is said to be continuous

at z0 iff:
✓ f is defined in a neighbourhood of z0 i.e., f(z0) exists.
✓ The limit exists
✓ lim 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑧0 )
𝑧→𝑧0
Geometrical interpretation of continuous function

Continuity Discontinuity
DERIVATIVE OF f(Z):
Let f(x) be a real-valued function defined in a neighbourhood of
x0. Then the derivative of f(x) at x0 is given by

𝑓 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓′ 𝑥 = lim
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥
Let f(z) be a complex-valued function defined in a
neighbourhood of z0. Then the derivative of f(z) at z0 is given by
′
𝑓 𝑧 + ∆𝑧 − 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 𝑧 = lim
∆𝑧→0 ∆𝑧
OR
𝑑𝑤 𝑓 𝑧 −𝑓(𝑧0 )
= 𝑓′ 𝑍 = lim (with z = 𝑧0 + 𝛥𝑧)
𝑑𝑧 𝑧→𝑧0 𝑧−𝑧0
Provided this limit exists. The limit 𝑓 ′ (𝑧)is known as the
derivative of f(z) at z0.

The above limit should be unique along every path from z to z0.
 𝑥𝑦(𝑦−𝑖𝑥)
𝑖𝑓 𝑧 ≠ 0
Given 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 Discuss differentiability of 𝑓(𝑧) at z=0.
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑧 = 0

𝑓 𝑧 −𝑓(𝑧0 )
w.k.t 𝑓′ 𝑧 = lim
𝑧→𝑧0 𝑧−𝑧0

′
𝑓 𝑧 − 𝑓(𝑧0 )
𝑓 𝑧 = lim
𝑧→𝑧0 𝑧 − 𝑧0

𝑓 𝑧 −0
= lim
𝑧→0 𝑧−0

𝑥𝑦(𝑦−𝑖𝑥)
𝑥2 +𝑦2
= lim
𝑧→0 𝑥+𝑖𝑦

𝑥𝑦(𝑦−𝑖𝑥) 𝑥𝑦(𝑦−𝑖𝑥)
𝑥2 +𝑦2 𝑥2 +𝑦2
I Path: lim = 0, II path: lim = 0,
𝑥→0 𝑥+𝑖𝑦 𝑦→0 𝑥+𝑖𝑦
Continued…..

III path: y = mx

𝑥(𝑚𝑥)(𝑚𝑥 − 𝑖𝑥)
= lim 2
𝑥→0 (𝑥 +(𝑚𝑥)2 )(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑚𝑥)
𝑦→0

𝑥 3 (𝑚)(𝑚 − 𝑖)
= lim 3
𝑥→0 𝑥 (1 + (𝑚)2 )(1 + 𝑖𝑚)
𝑦→0

⇒ 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) is not unique, as 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) takes different values

for different m.
Therefore f(z) is not differentiable at origin.
THANK YOU
MATHEMATICS FOR
ELECTRONIC ENGINEERS
Calculus in the Complex Plane
 Class number #4

TOPICS

 Analytic functions
 C-R Equations
WHY ANALYTIC FUNCTION?

 The real and imaginary parts of an analytic function satisfy

Laplace’s equation which is the most important equation in
physics, electrostatics, fluid flow, heat conduction and so
on.
 To know whether the function is differentiable
 To get derivative of f(z) in terms of z.

Definition of Analytic function:

A function f(z) is said to be analytic at a point z=𝑧0 , if
𝑑𝑤 𝑓 𝑧+𝛿𝑧 −𝑓(𝑧)
= 𝑓′ 𝑧 = lim exists and is unique at 𝑧0 and
𝑑𝑧 𝛿𝑧→0 𝛿𝑧

also in the neighbourhood of 𝑧0 .

Continued…..
 Analytic function is also called as regular function or
holomorphic function.

 A function which is analytic every where in the complex

plane, is known as an entire function.

Ex: 1) Polynomials in z, sinz, cosz, 𝑒 𝑧 etc.

2) If the function is analytic then directly we can differentiate.

Ex: f(z)= 𝑧 𝑛 then 𝑓 ′ 𝑧 = 𝑛𝑧 𝑛−1

Images for 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧 and 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑧
CAUCHY RIEMANN EQUATION (C-R Equations):

 Cartesian form:
The necessary and sufficient conditions for the function
w=f(z)=u(x,y)+iv(x,y) to be analytic in a region R are
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
i) , , , are continuous functions of ‘x’ and ‘y’ in the region R.
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
ii) = , =− . or 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢𝑦 = −𝑣𝑥 .
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

The conditions in (ii) are known as C-R Equations.

Continued…..
 Polar form :
The necessary and sufficient conditions for the function
w=f(z)=u(r,θ)+iv(r, θ) to be analytic in a region R are
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
i) , , , are continuous functions of ‘r’ and ‘θ’ in the
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃

region R.
𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕𝑢
ii) = , =− or 𝑟𝑢𝑟 = 𝑣𝜃 and 𝑟𝑣𝑟 = −𝑢𝜃 .
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃

The conditions in (ii) are known as C-R Equations.

NOTE:

1. If f(z) is analytic in a domain D, then u and v satisfy C-R

equations but not vice versa.

2. C-R equations are necessary conditions for a function to be

analytic but not the sufficient conditions.

3. If u and v have continuous first order partial derivatives and

satisfies C-R equations , then f(z) is said to be analytic.

4. If C-R equations are not satisfied at a point 𝑧0 implies

𝑓 ′ 𝑧0 does not exist and hence f(z) is not analytic.
Ex.: Express f(z) in the form of u+iv and verify C-R equations
given f(z)=coshz.
Solution: w.k.t coshz = cosiz
= cosi(x+iy)
= cos(ix-y)
= cosix cosy+sinix siny
= coshx cosy +i sinhx siny = u+iv
Therefore u= coshx cosy , v= sinhx siny
𝑢𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦, 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦
𝑢𝑦 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦, 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦
Therefore 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 , 𝑣𝑥 = −𝑢𝑦 .
THANK YOU
MATHEMATICS FOR
ELECTRONIC ENGINEERS
Unit 1 – Calculus in the Complex Plane
 Class number #5

TOPICS

 Harmonic function
CONSEQUENCES OF C-R EQUATIONS:
i) Harmonic Function
Cartesian form:
if f(z) is analytic function then C-R equations are
𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 ---------(1) , 𝑣𝑥 = −𝑢𝑦 ------(2)
differentiate (1) w.r.t ‘x’ and (2) w.r.t ‘y’
𝑢𝑥𝑥 = 𝑣𝑥𝑦 -----(3), 𝑣𝑥𝑦 = −𝑢𝑦𝑦 -----(4)
Adding (3) and (4) 𝑢𝑥𝑥 +𝑢𝑦𝑦 = 0
Similarly 𝑣𝑥𝑥 +𝑣𝑦𝑦 = 0
This implies u and v satisfy Laplace equation and are know as
harmonic function.
 Continued…..
Note: Harmonic functions are analytic but the converse need not be true.
Ex.: (1) 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 , v = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑦 2 .
Polar form:
1 1
 If 𝑢𝑟𝑟 + 𝑢𝑟 + 𝑢 = 0 then u is said to be harmonic.
𝑟 𝑟 2 𝜃𝜃
1 1
 If 𝑣𝑟𝑟 + 𝑣𝑟 + 𝑣 = 0 then v is said to be harmonic.
𝑟 𝑟 2 𝜃𝜃
Continued…..
Note: Harmonic functions play an important role in applied
mathematics. For example the temperature T(x,y) in thin plates
lying in the xy-plane are harmonic. The practical importance of
complex analysis in engineering mathematics results from the
fact that both the real and imaginary parts of an analytic function
satisfy Laplace’s equation which is the most important equation
in physics, electrostatics, fluid flow, heat conduction and so on.
Continued…..
Ex.: prove that 𝑢 = 2𝑥 − 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥𝑦 2 is harmonic.
Solution:
Let 𝑢 = 2𝑥 − 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥𝑦 2
differentiate p.w.r.t ‘x’ and ‘y’ two times
𝑢𝑥 = 2 − 3𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 , 𝑢𝑦 = 6𝑥𝑦
𝑢𝑥𝑥 = −6𝑥, 𝑢𝑦𝑦 = 6𝑥
𝑢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑢𝑦𝑦 = 0
Therefore u is harmonic.
THANK YOU
MATHEMATICS FOR
ELECTRONIC ENGINEERS
Unit 1 – Calculus in the Complex Plane
 Class #6

TOPICS
 Line integral
 Evaluation of line integral
 Related problems
 Why complex integration?

 Existence of higher order derivatives?

 Properties of analytic functions of higher order
 In finding Laplace Transform, Fourier Transforms and Z-
Transforms in applications.
 Digital filters are designed by looking the locations of zeroes
and poles in the complex plane.
Method of Complex Integration was first introduced by B.
Riemann.
Complex Line Integral
y
Consider a continuous function f(z) of the
complex variable 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 defined at all  N b  zN
C z N 1
points of a curve C extending from a to b. 3 n zn
 2 z2 z3
Divide the curve C into N parts . Let 𝛼𝑘 be  1 z1
a  z0
any point on the arc of the curve and let
x
∆𝑧𝑘 = 𝑧𝑘 − 𝑧𝑘−1 where 𝑘 = 1,2,3, … 𝑁.
𝑁
Then lim 𝑘=1 𝑓(𝛼𝑘 )∆𝑧𝑘 where
𝑛→∞
max ∆𝑧𝑘 → 0 𝑎𝑠 𝑁 → ∞
is defined as the complex line integral

along the path C. It is denoted by 𝐶

𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧.
Properties of Complex line integral.

1. 𝐶
𝑘𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑘 𝐶
𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧, 𝑘 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

2. 𝐶
𝑓 𝑧 + 𝑔 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 𝐶
𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 + 𝐶
𝑔(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧

3. 𝐶
𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 𝐶1
𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 + 𝐶2
𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧,

where 𝐶 is the union of the smooth curve 𝐶1 and 𝐶2

4. −𝐶
𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = − 𝐶
𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧, where –C denotes the curve
having the opposite orientation of C.
 2+𝑖 2
Evaluate 0
𝑧 𝑑𝑧along (i) the line 𝑦 = 𝑥/2 ii) the
real axis to 2 and vertically to 2+i.
Solution:
i) Along OA: 𝑥 = 2𝑦. y
A (2,1)
𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 2𝑦 + 𝑖𝑦 = 2 + 𝑖 𝑦
𝑑𝑧 = 2 + 𝑖 𝑑𝑦 x=2

𝑧 = 2−𝑖 𝑦 O (0,0) B (2,0) x

𝑦 varies from 0 𝑡𝑜 1.
2+𝑖 2 1
0
𝑧 𝑑𝑧= 0 2 − 𝑖 2 𝑦 2 2 + 𝑖 𝑑𝑦.

1
1 2 𝑦3 5
= 5(2 − 𝑖) 0
𝑦 𝑑𝑦 =5 2−𝑖 = (2 − 𝑖).
3 0 3
Continued…..
2+𝑖 2 2 𝑑𝑧 + 2 𝑑𝑧……………….(a)
ii) Let 0
𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑂𝐵
𝑧 𝐵𝐴
𝑧 y
A (2,1)
Along OB: 𝑦 = 0, 𝑧 = 𝑥, 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 varies from 0 𝑡𝑜 2.
Along BA: 𝑥 = 2, 𝑧 = 2 + 𝑖𝑦, 𝑧 = 2 − 𝑖𝑦, 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖𝑑𝑦 and x=2

𝑦 varies from 0 𝑡𝑜 1. O (0,0) B (2,0) x

2+𝑖 2 1
𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖 (2 − 𝑖𝑦)2 𝑑𝑦
0 𝑥=0 𝑦=0

After integration we get

2+𝑖
2
14 + 11𝑖
𝑧 𝑑𝑧 =
0 3
Given the flow 𝑓 𝑧 = cos 𝑧 , compute the circulation and net
flux across C, where C is the square with vertices 𝑧 = 1, 𝑧 = 𝑖,
𝑧 = −1, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 = −𝑖.

Solution:

We must compute 𝐶
𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 𝐶
cos 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 and then
take the real and imaginary parts of the integral to find
the circulation and net flux, respectively.
The function cos 𝑧 is analytic everywhere, and

so 𝐶
𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 𝐶
cos 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 0 by Cauchy’s theorem.

Thus the circulation and net flux are both zero.

Given the flow 𝑓 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖 𝑧, compute the circulation
around, and the net flux across, the circle 𝐶: 𝑧 = 1.

Solution:
Here 𝑓(𝑧) = 1 − 𝑖 𝑧 , 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋; 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2𝜋
𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 1 − 𝑖 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝐶 0
2𝜋
= 1+𝑖 1 𝑑𝜃 = 2𝜋 1 + 𝑖 .
0
The circulation around C is 2π, which is the real part of the
complex line integral.
The net flux across C is 2π, which is the imaginary part of the
complex line integral.
THANK YOU
MATHEMATICS FOR
ELECTRONIC ENGINEERS
Unit 1 – Calculus in the Complex plane
 Class #8

TOPICS
 Cauchy’s Integral theorem - 1
Cauchy’s theorem
Statement: If f(z) is analytic in a simply connected domain R, then
𝑐
𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 0 for any simple closed curve C lying entirely within R.

Proof:
Let 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣

Then 𝐶
𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 𝐶
(𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣)(𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦)

𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = (𝑢𝑑𝑥 − 𝑣𝑑𝑦) + 𝑖 (𝑣𝑑𝑥 + 𝑢𝑑𝑦) −−−− −(𝑖)

𝐶 𝐶 𝐶
We have Green’s theorem in the plane stating that if M(x,y) and
N(x,y) are two real valued functions having continuous first order
partial derivatives in a region R bounded by the curve C then
𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀
𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦 = − 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝐶 𝑅
Continued…..
Applying this theorem to the two line integrals in the RHS of (i)
we get

𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = − − 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑖 − 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝐶 𝑅 𝑅
Since 𝑓 𝑧 is analytic, we have Cauchy-Riemann equations:
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
= ; = −
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Hence we have

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = − 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑖 − 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝐶 𝑅 𝑅
This proves Cauchy’s theorem.
 Simply Connected Region

z0

 A “simply-connected” region means that there are no “holes”

in the region. (Any closed path can be shrunk down to zero
size).
 A domain which is not simply connected is said to be multiply
connected region.
Consequences of Cauchy’s theorem
 If 𝑓 𝑧 is analytic in a region R and if P and Q are any two
𝑄
points in it, then 𝑃 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 is independent of the path joining
P and Q.

R  a simply - connected region

y

C2

C1

x
Continued…..
 If 𝐶1, 𝐶2 are two simple closed curves such that 𝐶2 lies entirely
within 𝐶1 and if 𝑓 𝑧 is analytic on 𝐶1, 𝐶2 and in the region
bounded by 𝐶1, 𝐶2 (known as annular region),
then 𝐶1
𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 𝐶2
𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧.

y
R  a multiply - connected region

C2 C1

x
Continued…..
 If 𝐶 is a simple closed curve enclosing non overlapping simple
closed curves 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 , … 𝐶𝑛 and if f 𝑧 is analytic in the annular
region between C and these curves, then

𝐶
𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 𝐶1
𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 + 𝐶2
𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 + … . + 𝐶𝑛
𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧.
The function f is analytic
inside this region.
C

C4

C1

C2
C3
Verify Cauchy’s theorem for the function 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 2 over the
boundary of the triangle with the vertices (0, 0),(1,0) and (0,1)

Solution: y
B (0,1)

𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
𝐶 𝑂𝐴 𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝑂
(0,0) O A (1,0) x
Along OA:
𝑦 = 0, 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 ⇒ 𝑧 = 𝑥
𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥; 𝑥: 0 𝑡𝑜 1
𝑦−0 1−0 𝑦
Along AB: = ⇒ = −1
𝑥−1 0−1 𝑥−1

𝑦 = −𝑥 + 1, 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 ⇒ 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖(−𝑥 + 1)
𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖 −𝑑𝑥 ⇒ 𝑑𝑧 = 1 − 𝑖 𝑑𝑥; 𝑥: 1 𝑡𝑜 0
Continued…..
Along BO:
𝑥 = 0, 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 ⇒ 𝑧 = 𝑖𝑦
𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖𝑑𝑦; 𝑦: 1 𝑡𝑜 0.

1 0 0
𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + [𝑥 + 𝑖 −𝑥 + 1 ]2 (1 − 𝑖)𝑑𝑥 + (𝑖𝑦)2 𝑖𝑑𝑦
𝐶 𝑥=0 𝑥=1 𝑦=1

1 𝑖 1 𝑖
= − − + =0
3 3 3 3
Hence the Cauchy’s theorem is verified.
THANK YOU
MATHEMATICS FOR
ELECTRONIC ENGINEERS
Calculus in the Complex Plane
 Class number #10

TOPICS
 Cauchy’s integral formula
Cauchy’s integral formula
Significance: If a function 𝑓 𝑧 is known to be analytic on the
simple closed curve C, then the values of the function and all its
derivatives can be found at any point of C.
Also an analytic function possesses derivatives of all orders and
these are themselves all analytic.
If 𝑓 𝑧 is analytic inside and on a simple closed curve C and if ‘a’ is
any point within C, then

1 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝑧−𝑎 y
𝐶
r a

0 x
Continued…..

Proof:
Since ‘a’ is point within C, we shall enclose it by a circle C1 with
𝑧 = 𝑎 as centre and r as rdius such that C1 lies entirely within C.
𝑓(𝑧)
The function is analytic inside and on the boundary of the
𝑧−𝑎

annular region between C and C1.

As a consequence of Cauchy’s theorem,
𝑓(𝑧) 𝑓(𝑧)
𝐶 𝑧−𝑎
𝑑𝑧 = 𝐶1 𝑧−𝑎
𝑑𝑧 ---------(i)

The eqution of C1 ( circle with centre ‘a’ and radius r) can be

written in the form 𝑧 − 𝑎 = 𝑟.
Continued…..
𝑧 − 𝑎 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ⇒ 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋
Also 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃.
Using these results in RHS of (i), we have
2𝜋
𝑓(𝑧) 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ) 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖𝑟𝑒
𝑧−𝑎 𝜃=0 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃
𝐶
2𝜋
𝑓(𝑧)
𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑧−𝑎 𝜃=0
𝐶
This is true for any 𝑟 > 0 however small.
Hence as 𝑟 → 0 we get,
2𝜋
𝑓(𝑧)
𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖 𝑓 𝑎 𝑑𝜃 = 2𝜋𝑖 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑧−𝑎 𝜃=0
𝐶

1 𝑓(𝑧)
∴𝑓 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝑧−𝑎
𝐶
THANK YOU
MATHEMATICS FOR
ELECTRONIC ENGINEERS
Calculus in the Complex Plane
 Class number #11

TOPICS
 Generalized Cauchy’s integral formula
 Related problems
Generalized Cauchy’s integral formula
Statement: If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic inside and on a simple closed curve C and
if ′𝑎′ is a point within C, then
𝑛
𝑛! 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 𝑎 = 𝑛+1
𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑧 − 𝑎)
Proof:
We have Cauchy’s integral formula,
1 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑧 ----------(i)
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑧−𝑎
Applying Leibnitz rule for differentiation under the integral sign,
we have
1 𝜕 1
𝑓′ 𝑎 = 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝜕𝑎 𝑧 − 𝑎
1
𝑓′ 𝑎 = 𝑓(𝑧) (−1) 𝑧 − 𝑎 −2 (−1)
𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶
Continued…..

1! 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓′ 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑧 -------------(ii)
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑧−𝑎)2

Applying Leibnitz rule once again for (ii) we have

′′
2! 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 𝑎 = 3
𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑧 − 𝑎)
Continuing like this, after differentiating 𝑛 times we obtain

𝑛 𝑛! 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑧.
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑧−𝑎)𝑛+1
 𝑒 −𝑧
Evaluate 𝐶 (𝑧−1)(𝑧−2)2
𝑑𝑧 where C is 𝑧 = 3.

Solution: y
Let 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑒 −𝑧 is analytic function within and on 𝑧 = 3.
Here, 𝑧 = 3 is a circle with centre (0,0) and radius 3 units.
𝑧 = 1, 𝑧 = 2 are the points lies within 𝑧 = 3. 0 Z=1 Z=2 x
1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
Consider = + +
(𝑧−1)(𝑧−2)2 𝑧−1 𝑧−2 (𝑧−2)2

Solving by partial fractions, we have 𝐴 = 1, 𝐵 = −1, 𝐶 = 1

1 1 −1 1
∴ 2
= + +
(𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 − 2) 𝑧 − 1 𝑧 − 2 (𝑧 − 2)2
Continued…..

𝑒 −𝑧
∴ 2
𝑑𝑧
𝐶 (𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 − 2)

1 −1 1
= 𝑒 −𝑧 + + 2
𝑑𝑧
𝐶 𝑧 − 1 𝑧 − 2 (𝑧 − 2)

= 2𝜋𝑖 𝑓 1 − 2𝜋𝑖 𝑓 2 + 2𝜋𝑖 𝑓 ′ 1 By Cauchy’s integral

formula.
2𝜋𝑖
= 2𝜋𝑖[𝑒 −1 − 𝑒 −2 − 𝑒 −2 = (𝑒 − 2).
𝑒2
THANK YOU
MATHEMATICS FOR
ELECTRONIC ENGINEERS

Rajini M.
Department of Electronics and Communication
COMPLEX ANALYSIS

• Series of complex terms: Taylor’s series

• Related Problems

Rajini M.
Department of Electronics and Communication
 Sequences

• An infinite sequence or a sequence, is obtained by assigning to each positive

integer 𝑛 a number called a term of the sequence, and is written

𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , … or {𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , …} or 𝑧𝑛

• A real/ complex sequence is one whose terms are real/ complex.

• Convergence: A convergent sequence 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , … is one that has a limit c, written

lim𝑛 →∞ 𝑧𝑛 = 𝑐 or 𝑧𝑛 → 𝑐

• A divergent sequence is one that does not converge.

Series

• Given a sequence 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , … , zm , … , we may form the sequence of the sums

𝑠1 = 𝑧1 , s2 = z1 + z2 , s3 = z1 + z2 + z3

• In general

𝑠𝑛 = z1 + z2 + z3 + … + 𝑧𝑛

• Here 𝑠𝑛 is called the nth partial sum of the infinite series or series

෍ 𝑧𝑚 = z1 + z2 + …
𝑚=1

• The 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , … are called the terms of the series.

Series

• A convergent series is one whose sequence of partial sums converges, say,

lim𝑛 →∞ 𝑠𝑛 = 𝑠

𝑠 = ෍ 𝑧𝑚 = z1 + z2 + …
𝑚=1

• We call s the sum or value of the series.

• A series that is not convergent is called a divergent series.
Power Series Expansion

• A power series in powers of (𝑧 − 𝑎) is a series of the form

∞
𝑛 2
෍ 𝑏𝑛 𝑧 − 𝑎 = 𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑧 − 𝑎 + 𝑏2 𝑧 − 𝑎 +⋯
𝑛= 0

Where

• 𝑧 is a complex variable

• 𝑏0 , 𝑏1 , … are complex (or real) constants, called the coefficients of the series

• 𝑎 is a complex (or real) constant, called the center.

Power Series Expansion: Problems

1. σ∞
𝑛= 0 𝑧
𝑛 = 1 + 𝑧 + z 2 + ⋯ is a power series with 𝑏𝑛 = 1, a = 0.

It converges for |𝑧| < 1.

𝑛
∞ −1 𝑛 𝑧 2𝑛 𝑧2 𝑧4 𝑧6 −𝑧 2
2. σ𝑛= 0 =1 − + − + … = σ∞
𝑛= 0 = σ∞
𝑛= 0 𝑤 𝑛
2𝑛 2 4 8 2𝑛

𝑧2
Where 𝑤 = − .
2

• This series converges when |𝑤| < 1, and diverges when 𝑤 ≥ 1.

• Therefore, the original series converges when 𝑧 < √2 and

diverges when |𝑧| ≥ √2
The Radius of Convergence
Power Series Expansion

• An analytic function within a circle can be expanded by

Taylor’s series.

• If a function which is not analytic within a circle is expanded

by Laurent’s series.
Taylor Series

Where do we use Taylor series?

• Sum of a series.
1
For example, σ∞
𝑛=0 𝑛!

• Evaluate limits.
𝑥2𝑒 𝑥
For example, lim
𝑥→0 cos 𝑥 − 1

• To approximate definite integrals.

1
For example, ‫׬‬0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
 Taylor Series

• A Taylor series is a series expansion of a function about a point.

• A one-dimensional Taylor series is an expansion of a real function
𝑓(𝑥) about a point 𝑥 = 𝑎 is given by

′ (𝑥−𝑎)2 ′′ (𝑥−𝑎)3 ′′′

𝑓 𝑥 =𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑥−𝑎 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑓 𝑎 + …+
2! 3!

𝑥−𝑎 𝑛
𝑓𝑛 𝑎 +…
𝑛!

• If 𝑎 = 0, then the expansion is called Maclaurin's series, i.e.,

′ 𝑥 2 ′′ 𝑥 3 ′′′ 𝑥 𝑛 (𝑛)
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 0 + 𝑥𝑓 0 + 𝑓 0 + 𝑓 0 +…+ 𝑓 0 +…
2! 3! 𝑛!
Some well-known Maclaurin’s series
Taylor series expansion of a complex function f(z)

An analytic function within a circle can be expanded by Taylor’s series.

Statement: If a complex function f(z) is analytic inside a circle
𝐶: 𝑧 − 𝑎 = 𝑟, then for all 𝑧 inside 𝐶,
(𝑧−𝑎)2 ′′ (𝑧−𝑎)3 ′′′
𝑓 𝑧 =𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑧−𝑎 𝑓′ 𝑎 + 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑓 𝑎 +…+
2! 3!

(𝑧−𝑎)𝑛 (𝑛)
𝑓 𝑎 +…
𝑛!

• The RHS of the expression above is an infinite series in ascending

powers of 𝑧 − 𝑎 .
• This series is called the Taylor’s series for the function 𝑓(𝑧) about
the point 𝑧 = 𝑎.
Maclaurin’s series

If 𝑎 = 0, then the Taylor series reduced to Maclaurin's series, i.e.,

𝑧 2 𝑧 3 𝑧 𝑛
𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑓 0 + 𝑧𝑓 ′ 0 + 𝑓 ′′ 0 + 𝑓 ′′′ 0 +…+ 𝑓 (𝑛) 0 +……
2! 3! 𝑛!
1. Expand 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑧 about the point 𝑧 = 𝑎.

Solution: Let 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑧 ; 𝑓 𝑎 = 𝑒 𝑎
𝑓′ 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑧; 𝑓′ 𝑎 = 𝑒𝑎
𝑓 ′′ 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑧 ; 𝑓 ′′ 𝑎 = 𝑒 𝑎 .
After differentiating n times, 𝑓 𝑛 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑧 ; 𝑓 𝑛 𝑎 = 𝑒 𝑎
(𝑧−𝑎)2 ′′
By Taylor’s series, 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑧 − 𝑎 𝑓′ 𝑎 + 𝑓 𝑎 +⋯
2!

(𝑧−𝑎)2 𝑎 ∞ 𝑧−𝑎 𝑛
𝑒𝑧 = 𝑒𝑎 + 𝑧−𝑎 𝑒𝑎 + 𝑒 +⋯= 𝑒𝑎 σ𝑛=0
2! (𝑛)!
 𝜋
2. Expand 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑧 about the point 𝑧 =
4

𝜋 𝜋 1
Solution: Let 𝑓 𝑧 = cos 𝑧; 𝑓 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 =
4 4 2

𝜋 1
𝑓′ 𝑧 = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧; 𝑓 ′ =−
4 2

𝜋 1 𝜋 1
Similarly, 𝑓 ′′ =− ; 𝑓 ′′′ =
4 2 4 2

(𝑧−𝑎)2 ′′
By Taylor’s series, 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑧 − 𝑎 𝑓′ 𝑎 + 𝑓 𝑎 +⋯
2!

1 𝜋 1 𝜋 2 1 𝜋 3
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑧 = 1− 𝑧− − 𝑧− + 𝑧− −⋯
2 4 2 4 6 4
 1
3. Expand 𝑓 𝑧 = as a Taylor’s series in the region 𝑧 < 1.
𝑧 2 −3𝑧+2

1
Solution: Let 𝑓 𝑧 =
𝑧 2 −3𝑧+2

1 1 1
𝑓 𝑧 = = − .
(𝑧−1)(𝑧−2) 𝑧−2 𝑧−1

1 1
𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 +
−2 1− 1−𝑧
2

1 𝑧 −1
𝑓 𝑧 =− 1− + (1 − 𝑧)−1
2 2
𝑧
<1 ⟹ 𝑧 <2
2
𝑧 <1
∴ The above expansion is valid for 𝑧 < 1
 Problem 3, Continued

Note that (1 − 𝑥)−1 = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 + ⋯ (when 𝑥 < 1)

(Binomial expression)
Using the expression mentioned above, we get

1 𝑧 𝑧2 𝑧3
𝑓 𝑧 = − 1 + + + + ⋯ + 1 + 𝑧 + 𝑧2 + 𝑧3 + ⋯
2 2 4 8
 𝑧+1
4. Expand 𝑓 𝑧 = as a Taylor’s series about 𝑧 = 2.
(𝑧−3)(𝑧−4)

𝑧+1 𝐴 𝐵
Solution: Let 𝑓 𝑧 = = +
𝑧−3 𝑧−4 𝑧−3 𝑧−4

The points 𝑧 = 3, 𝑧 = 4 are outside 𝑧 = 2.

So, 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic entirely within 𝐶.
𝑧+1 𝐴 𝐵
Use by partial fractions: = +
𝑧−3 𝑧−4 𝑧−3 𝑧−4

⟹ 𝑧+1=𝐴 𝑧−4 +𝐵 𝑧−3

Put z=4, we get 𝐵 = 5
Put z=3, we get 𝐴 = −4
Problem 4, Continued…

−4 5
∴𝑓 𝑧 = +
𝑧−3 𝑧−4

−4 5
⟹𝑓 𝑧 = +
𝑧 − 2 − 1 (𝑧 − 2) − 2

−4 5
⟹ 𝑓(𝑧) = +
−1[1 − 𝑧 − 2 ] −2 1 − 𝑧 − 2
2

−1
−1
5 𝑧−2
⟹ 4[1 − 𝑧 − 2 ] − 1 −
2 2
Problem 4, Continued...

2
2
5 𝑧−2 𝑧−2
⟹𝑓 𝑧 = 4 1+ 𝑧−2 + 𝑧−2 +⋯ − 1+ + +⋯
2 2 2
Convergence: 𝑧 − 2 < 1
 𝑧 2 −1
5. Find the Taylor’s series to represent the function 𝑖𝑛 𝑧 < 2.
(𝑧+2)(𝑧+3)

𝑧 2 −1
Solution: Let 𝑓 𝑧 =
(𝑧+2)(𝑧+3)

The points 𝑧 = −2 , 𝑧 = −3 are outside 𝑧 < 2.

So, f(z) is analytic entirely within C.
𝑧 2 −1 𝑧 2 −1
We solve by partial fractions: 𝑓 𝑧 = =
(𝑧+2)(𝑧+3) 𝑧 2 +5𝑧+6

𝑧 2 + 5𝑧 + 6)𝑧 2 − 1 (1
𝑧 2 +5𝑧 + 6
−5𝑧 − 7
−5𝑧−7
𝑓(𝑧) = 1 + .----------- (1)
𝑧 2 +5𝑧+6
Problem 5, Continued…

𝑧 2 −1 −5𝑧−7
=1+ .----------- (1)
(𝑧+2)(𝑧+3) 𝑧 2 +5𝑧+6

−5𝑧−7
Now solve by partial fractions:
𝑧 2 +5𝑧+6

−5𝑧−7 𝐴 𝐵
= + -----------(2)
𝑧 2 +5𝑧+6 𝑧+2 𝑧+3

−5𝑧 − 7 = A z + 3 + B(z + 2)
Put 𝑧 = −3, we get 𝐵 = −8
Put 𝑧 = −2, we get 𝐵 = 3
Problem-5, Continued…

−5𝑧 − 7 3 −8
∴ 2 becomes 2 = +
𝑧 + 5𝑧 + 6 𝑧 + 2 𝑧 + 3
𝑧2 − 1 3 −8
∴ 1 becomes =1+ +
(𝑧 + 2)(𝑧 + 3) 𝑧+2 𝑧+3
3 8
Therefore, 𝑓 𝑧 is written as 𝑓 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑧 − 𝑧
2(1+2) 3(1+3)
Problem-5, Continued…..

3 𝑧 −1 8 𝑧 −1
𝑓 𝑧 =1+ 1+ − 1+
2 2 3 3

3 𝑧 𝑧 2 𝑧 3 8 𝑧 𝑧 2 𝑧 3
𝑓 𝑧 =1+ 1− + − +⋯ − 1− + − +⋯
2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3

Since (1 + 𝑥)−1 = (1 − (−𝑥))−1 = 1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 + ⋯

(1 − 𝑥)−1 = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 + ⋯
Convergence: 𝑧 < 2 ∩ 𝑧 < 3 = 𝑧 < 2
COMPLEX ANALYSIS

• Series of complex terms: Laurent’s series

• Related Problems

Rajini M.
Department of Electronics and Communication
Laurent’s series

• The generalized version of Taylor series is Laurent’s series .

• If a complex function f(z) is not analytic within a circle, then f(z) can
be expanded by Laurent’s series.
• Laurent series is a series of positive and negative integer powers of
𝑧 − 𝑎.
• To find the Laurent’s series, we expand f(z) by binomial theorem
instead of finding it by complex integration, which is quite
complicated.
LAURENT’S SERIES

Statement: If a complex function f(z) is analytic on 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 , and the annular

region 𝑅 bounded by the two concentric circles 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 with centre at 𝑎 and
radii 𝑟1 , 𝑟2 (𝑟1 > 𝑟2 ). Then for every z in R,
∞ ∞
𝑐𝑛
𝑓 𝑧 = ෍ 𝑏𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛 + ෍ 𝑛
𝑧−𝑎
𝑛=0 𝑛=1

1 𝑓(𝑤)
where 𝑏𝑛 = ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑤;
2π𝑖 𝐶 (𝑤−𝑎)𝑛+1

1 𝑓(𝑤)
𝑐𝑛 = ‫׬‬ dw
2π𝑖 𝐶 (𝑤−𝑎)−𝑛+1

𝑐𝑛
σ∞
𝑛=1 - Principal Part of Singularity
𝑧−𝑎 𝑛
Procedure for finding the Laurent series

1. The given function f(z) which is usually an algebraic function of the form

𝜑(𝑧)/𝜓(𝑧) is resolved into partial fractions.

2. Each of the resulting term is put in the form (1 ± 𝑥)−1 , (1 ± 𝑥)−2 , … so as to

satisfy the validity condition where 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑧 .

3. We use suitable binomial expansion and simplify the like terms which results

in the desired Laurent series comprising terms with positive and negative

powers of z.
Some binomial expansions to be remembered:

When 𝑥 < 1

1. (1 + 𝑥)−1 = 1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 + ⋯

2. (1 − 𝑥)−1 = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 + ⋯

3. (1 + 𝑥)−2 = 1 − 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 3 + ⋯

4. (1 − 𝑥)−2 = 1 + 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 3 + ⋯
 1
1. Find the Laurent’s series for the function 𝑓 𝑧 = for 1 < 𝑧 < 2.
(𝑧−1)(𝑧−2)

Solution:
1 1 1
𝑓 𝑧 = = -
(𝑧−1)(𝑧−2) 𝑧−2 𝑧−1

Given 1 < 𝑧 < 2

1
⇒1< 𝑧 ⇒ <1
𝑧

𝑧
and 𝑧 < 2 ⇒ <1
2
 Problem 1, Continued…

Therefore, f(z) is written as

1 1 1 1
𝑓 𝑧 =- 𝑧 -
2 1− 𝑧 1−1
2 𝑧

−1 −1
1 𝑧 1 1
=− 1− − 1−
2 2 𝑧 𝑧

1 𝑧 𝑧2 𝑧3 1 1 1 1
= − 1+ + + +⋯ − 1 + + + +⋯
2 2 4 8 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧2 𝑧3

1 𝑧 𝑧2 𝑧3 1 1 1 1
=− − − − −⋯ − 2 − 3 − 4 −⋯
2 4 8 16 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
 𝑧−1
2. Find the Laurent’s series for the function 𝑓 𝑧 = for i) z > 3,
𝑧−2 (𝑧−3)2
ii) 2 < 𝑧 < 3.

𝑧−1
Solution: 𝑓 𝑧 =
𝑧−2 (𝑧−3)2

We first resolve f(z) into partial fractions:

𝑧−1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= + +
𝑧−2 (𝑧−3)2 𝑧−2 𝑧−3 𝑧−3 2

⇒𝑧−1=𝐴 𝑧−3 2 + B z − 2 z − 3 + C(z − 2)

Put 𝑧 = 2, we get 𝐴 = 1
Put 𝑧 = 3, we get 𝐶 = 2
Put 𝑧 = 0, we get 𝐵 = −1
Problem 2, Continued...

1 1 2
Thus, 𝑓 𝑧 = − +
𝑧−2 𝑧−3 𝑧−3 2

Case 1: Given 𝑧 > 3. This implies 𝑧 >2 also.

𝑧 𝑧
⇒ > 1; >1
3 2

3 2
⇒ < 1; <1
𝑧 𝑧

1 1 2
Therefore, 𝑓 𝑧 = 2 − 3 + 3 2
𝑧 1− 𝑧 1− 𝑧 1−
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
Problem 2, Continued...

1 2 −1 1 3 −1 2 3 −2
Therefore, 𝑓 𝑧 = 1− − 1− + 2 1−
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧

𝑓 𝑧

1 2 4 1 3 9
= 1+ + 2+⋯ − 1+ + 2+⋯
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧

2 6 18
+ 2 1+ + 2 +⋯
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧

(Since (1 − 𝑥)−2 = 1 + 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 3 + ⋯)
Problem 2, Continued...

Case 2: Given 2 < 𝑧 < 3

⇒2< 𝑧; 𝑧 <3

2 𝑧
⇒ < 1; <1
𝑧 3

1 1 2
Therefore, 𝑓 𝑧 = 2 − 𝑧 + 𝑧 2
𝑧 1− −3 1− −3 1−
𝑧 3 3
Problem 2, Continued...

−1 −1 −2
1 2 1 𝑧 2 𝑧
𝑓 𝑧 = 1− + 1− + 1−
𝑧 𝑧 3 3 9 3

𝑓 𝑧

1 2 4 1 𝑧 𝑧2
= 1+ + 2+⋯ + 1+ + +⋯
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 3 3 9

2 2𝑧 𝑧 2
+ 2 1+ + +⋯
𝑧 3 3

(Since (1 − 𝑥)−2 = 1 + 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 3 + ⋯)
 1
3. Expand 𝑓 𝑧 = in Laurent’s series valid for 0 < 𝑧 + 1 < 2
(𝑧+1)(𝑧+3)

Solution: Put 𝑧 + 1 = 𝑢
∴𝑧+3=𝑢+2
⇒0< 𝑢 <2
|𝑢|
⇒0< <1
2

1
Now, 𝑓 𝑧 = = 𝑔 𝑢 . (Note that partial fraction is not
𝑢(𝑢+2)

necessary)

1
Thus, 𝑔 𝑢 = 𝑢
𝑢∙2 1+ 2

1 𝑢 −1
⇒𝑔 𝑢 = 1 +
2𝑢 2
Problem 3, Continued...

1 𝑢 𝑢2 𝑢3
𝑔 𝑢 = 1 − + − +⋯
2𝑢 2 4 8

1 1 𝑢 𝑢2
⇒𝑔 𝑢 = − + − +⋯
2𝑢 4 8 16

1 1 𝑧+1 (𝑧+1)2
Therefore, 𝑓 𝑧 = − + − +⋯
2(𝑧+1) 4 8 16
 𝑒 2𝑧
4. Find the Laurent’s series for the function 𝑓 𝑧 = about 𝑧 = 1.
(𝑧−1)3

1
Solution: 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑒 2𝑧+2−2
(𝑧−1)3

1
= 𝑒 2 . 𝑒 2(𝑧−1)
(𝑧−1)3

𝑒2 [2 𝑧 − 1 ]2 [2 𝑧 − 1 ]3
= 3
1+2 𝑧−1 + + +⋯
(𝑧 − 1) 2! 3!

1 2 2 4
= 𝑒2 + + + +⋯
(𝑧−1)3 (𝑧−1)2 (𝑧−1) 3
 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑧
5. Find the Laurent’s series for the function 𝑓 𝑧 = about 𝑧 = 0.
𝑧3

Solution:
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑧 1 𝑧2 𝑧4
𝑓 𝑧 = = 1− 1 − + −⋯
𝑧3 𝑧3 2! 4!

1 𝑧2 𝑧4 𝑧6
= 3 − + −⋯
𝑧 2! 4! 6!

1 1 1 1 3
= − 𝑧 + 𝑧 -….
2! 𝑧 4! 6!

∞ (−1)𝑛 𝑧 2𝑛−5
= σ𝑛=2
2𝑛−2 !
 1
6. Expand 𝑓 𝑧 = as a series in the region 𝑧 > 2.
𝑧 2 −3𝑧+2

1
Solution: Let 𝑓 𝑧 =
𝑧 2 −3𝑧+2

1 1 1
𝑓 𝑧 = = − .
(𝑧−1)(𝑧−2) 𝑧−2 𝑧−1

Given 𝑧 > 2 . This implies 𝑧 > 1 also.

𝑧 𝑧
⟹ > 1 and >1
2 1

2 1
⟹ < 1 and <1
𝑧 𝑧

1 1
Thus f(z) is written in the form 𝑓 𝑧 = 2 − 1
𝑧 1−𝑧 𝑧 1−𝑧
Problem 6, Continued….

−1 −1
1 2 1 1
𝑓 𝑧 = 1− − 1−
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧

1 2 4 8 1 1 1 1
𝑓 𝑧 = 1+ + 2+ 3+⋯ − 1+ + 2+ 3+⋯
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧

(Since (1 − 𝑥)−1 = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 + ⋯ (when 𝑥 < 1))

COMPLEX ANALYSIS

• Singularities, poles, and residues

• Related problems

Rajini M.
Department of Electronics and Communication
 Singularity

Singular point:
A singular point or singularity of 𝑓 𝑧 is a point 𝑧 = 𝑎 at which
𝑓 𝑧 is not analytic.
Examples:
𝑧
1. If 𝑓 𝑧 = , then 𝑧 = 2 which is the singular point of 𝑓 𝑧
𝑧−2

(since 𝑓 𝑧 is not analytic at 𝑧 = 2)

𝑧2
2. If 𝑓 𝑧 = , then 𝑧 = 1, 𝑧 = −1, 𝑧 = 2 are the
𝑧−1 𝑧+1 𝑧−2

singular points of 𝑓 𝑧 .
3. If 𝑓 𝑧 = log 𝑧, then 𝑧 = 0 is the singular point of 𝑓 𝑧 .
 Continued…..

Isolated singular point: A singular point ‘a’ of 𝑓 𝑧 is said to be

isolated singular point if there exists a neighbourhood of ‘a’
which does not contain any other singular points of 𝑓 𝑧 .
For example:
2𝑧+1 2𝑧+1
1. 𝑓 𝑧 = =
(𝑧−1)(𝑧 4 +4) (𝑧−1)(𝑧+2𝑖)(𝑧−2𝑖)

Here 𝑓 𝑧 has three isolated singular points 1, −2𝑖, 2𝑖.

1
2. 𝑓 𝑧 = .
(𝑧−1)(𝑧−3)

Here 𝑓 𝑧 has two isolated singular points 1 and 3.

 Pole

• If 𝑓 𝑧 is expanded as a Laurent series about the point 𝑧 = 𝑎

in the form
𝑓 𝑧 = σ∞ 𝑎
𝑛=0 𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎) 𝑛 σ∞
+ 𝑎
𝑛=1 −𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎)−𝑛

• Here, the first term is called the analytic part of 𝑓 𝑧 and the
second term is called the principal part of 𝑓 𝑧 .
• If the principal part of 𝑓 𝑧 contains only a finite number of
terms, say 𝑚, then we say that 𝑧 = 𝑎 is a pole of order 𝑚 of
𝑓 𝑧 .
• In particular, a pole of order one is called a simple pole; and a
pole of order two is called a double pole, and so on.
 Continued…..

1
Note that poles of 𝑓 𝑧 can be found by equating to zero.
𝑓 𝑧

For example, consider

2𝑧 2 +1
1. 𝑓 𝑧 = (𝑧+2)(𝑧−3)
. Here 𝑓 𝑧 has two poles of order one at

𝑧 = −2 and 3.
𝑧
2. 𝑓 𝑧 = (𝑧+2)(𝑧−2)2 . Here 𝑓 𝑧 has a pole of order one at 𝑧 =
− 2 and a pole of order two at 𝑧 = 2.
 Continued…..

𝑧
3. 𝑓 𝑧 = . Here 𝑓 𝑧 has two poles of order two a-
(𝑧+1)2 (𝑧−2)2

𝑧 = −1 and 2.
𝑒𝑧
4. 𝑓 𝑧 = . Here 𝑧 = 0 is a pole of order 3; and solving
𝑧 3 (𝑧 2 +1)

𝑧 2 + 1 = 0, we get 𝑧 = ±𝑖, which are simple poles.

𝑧+1
5. 𝑓 𝑧 = . Here 𝑧 = ±𝑖 are the poles of order 2;
𝑧 2 +1 2 4𝑧 2 −1

1
and solving 4𝑧 2 − 1 = 0, we get 𝑧 = ± , which are simple poles.
2
Types of singularities of f(z)

Essential singularity of f(z)

• If there are infinitely many negative power terms in the

Laurent series expansion of 𝑓 𝑧 about 𝑧 = 𝑎, then 𝑧 = 𝑎 is
called an essential singularity of 𝑓 𝑧 .
For example,
1
𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑒𝑧 .

Then the Laurent series expansion is

1 1 1
𝑓 𝑧 =1+ + 2 + +⋯
1!𝑧 2!𝑧 3!𝑧 3

Here z =0 is an essential singularity of 𝑓(𝑧).

Types of singularities of f(z)

Removable singularity: If there are NO negative power terms in

Laurent series expansion of 𝑓 𝑧 about 𝑧 = 𝑎, then 𝑧 = 𝑎 is
called a removable singularity of 𝑓 𝑧 .
For example,
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑧
𝑓 𝑧 = .
𝑧2

Here 1 − cos 𝑧 = 0 when 𝑧 = 0.

Hence we need to write 𝑓 𝑧 in the form

𝑧2 𝑧4 𝑧6
𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 −2 1− 1− + − +⋯
2! 4! 6!
Continued…..

𝑧2 𝑧4 𝑧6 1 𝑧2 𝑧4
𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 −2 − + −⋯ = − + −⋯
2! 4! 6! 2! 4! 6!

Here the series on R.H.S do not contain negative powers of z.

So, z=0 is a removable singularity of 𝑓 𝑧 .
Zeros

• A zero of an analytic function 𝑓 𝑧 in a domain 𝐷 is a 𝑧 = 𝑧0 in

𝐷 such that 𝑓 𝑧0 = 0.

• A zero has order 𝑛 if not only 𝑓 but also the derivatives

𝑓 ′ , 𝑓 ′′ , … 𝑓 𝑛−1 are all 0 at 𝑧 = 𝑧0 but 𝑓 𝑛 𝑧0 ≠ 0.

• A first order zero is also called a simple zero.

• Example: 𝑓 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑧 2 has simple poles at ±𝑖.

Residues

1
The coefficient of , that is 𝑎−1 , in Laurent series expansion of
𝑧−𝑎

𝑓 𝑧 is called residue of 𝑓 𝑧 at 𝑧 = 𝑎.
Formula for Residue:
1. If 𝑧 = 𝑎 is a pole of order one, then
𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑎 = Lt 𝑧→𝑎 𝑧 − 𝑎 𝑓 𝑧
2. If 𝑧 = 𝑎 is a pole of order 𝑚 𝑚 > 1 , then
1 𝑑 𝑚−1 𝑚 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑎 = Lt 𝑧−𝑎
𝑚−1 ! 𝑧→𝑎 𝑑𝑧 𝑚−1
 Example

2𝑧 2 +1
1. 𝑓 𝑧 =
(𝑧+2)(𝑧+3)

Solution: Here 𝑓 𝑧 has two poles of order one at 𝑧 = −2, −3.

We have 𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑎 = Lt 𝑧→𝑎 𝑧 − 𝑎 𝑓 𝑧

2𝑧 2 + 1
∴ 𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = −2 = Lt 𝑧→−2 𝑧+2
(𝑧 + 2)(𝑧 + 3)

2𝑧 2 +1
= Lt 𝑧→−2
(𝑧+3)

=9
 Continued…..

Similarly,

2𝑧 2 + 1
𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = −3 = Lt 𝑧→−3 𝑧+3
(𝑧 + 2)(𝑧 + 3)

2𝑧 2 +1
= Lt 𝑧→−3
(𝑧+2)

= −19
 𝑧
2. 𝑓 𝑧 =
(𝑧+1)(𝑧−2)2

Solution: Here 𝑓 𝑧 has a pole of one at 𝑧 = −1 and a pole of

order two at 𝑧 = 2.

𝑧
∴ 𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = −1 = Lt 𝑧→−1 𝑧+1
(𝑧 + 1)(𝑧 − 2)2
𝑧
= Lt 𝑧→−1
(𝑧−2)2
1
= −
9
 Continued…..

1 𝑑 𝑚−1 𝑚 𝑓(𝑧)
We have 𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑎 = Lt 𝑧−𝑎
𝑚−1 ! 𝑧→𝑎 𝑑𝑧 𝑚−1

1 𝑑 2
𝑧
∴ 𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = 2 = Lt 𝑧→2 𝑧−2
2−1 ! 𝑑𝑧 (𝑧 + 1)(𝑧 − 2)2
𝑑 𝑧
= Lt 𝑧→2
𝑑𝑧 𝑧+1

1
= Lt 𝑧→2
(𝑧+1)2

1
=
9
 𝑧2
3. 𝑓 𝑧 = (𝑧+2)(𝑧−1)2

Solution: Here 𝑓 𝑧 has a pole of one at 𝑧 = −2 and a pole of

order two at 𝑧 = 1.

𝑧2
∴ 𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = −2 = Lt 𝑧→−2 𝑧+2
(𝑧 + 2)(𝑧 − 1)2

𝑧2
= Lt 𝑧→−2
(𝑧−1)2

4
=
9
 Continued…..

1 𝑑 𝑧 2
𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = 1 = Lt 𝑧→1 𝑧−1 2
2−1 ! 𝑑𝑧 (𝑧 + 2)(𝑧 − 1)2

𝑑 𝑧2
= Lt 𝑧→1
𝑑𝑧 𝑧+2

𝑧+2 2𝑧 −𝑧 2 (1)
= Lt 𝑧→1
(𝑧+2)2

𝑧 2 + 4𝑧
= Lt 𝑧→1
(𝑧 + 2)2

5
=
9
COMPLEX ANALYSIS

• Cauchy’s Residue Theorem

• Related Problems

Rajini M
Department of Electronics and Communication
Cauchy’s Residue Theorem

Cauchy’s residue theorem is used to evaluate line integrals of analytic

functions over closed curves.
Statement: If a complex function 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic inside and on a simple
closed curve 𝐶 except at a finite number of poles 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 lying
within C, then

‫ = 𝑧𝑑 𝑧 𝑓 𝐶׬‬2𝜋𝑖 [𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑎1 )+𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑎2 )+….+𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑎𝑛 )]

⇒ න 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 [ Sum of residues at poles within 𝐶]

𝐶
 𝑧 𝑒𝑧
1. If C is the circle 𝑧 = 2, evaluate ‫ 𝑧( 𝐶׬‬2−1) 𝑑𝑧 using residue theorem.

𝑧 𝑒𝑧 𝑧 𝑒𝑧
Solution: Given 𝑓 𝑧 = =
(𝑧 2 −1) (𝑧−1)(𝑧+1)

Here 𝑓(𝑧) has two poles of order one at 𝑧 = 1, −1.

Further, both these poles lie inside the given circle 𝑧 = 2.
𝑧 𝑒𝑧
∴ 𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = 1 = Lt 𝑧→1 𝑧 − 1
(𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 + 1)
𝑧 𝑒𝑧
= Lt 𝑧→1
𝑧+1
𝑒
=
2
𝑧 𝑒𝑧
𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = −1 = Lt 𝑧→−1 𝑧+1
(𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 + 1)
𝑧 𝑒𝑧
= Lt 𝑧→−1
𝑧−1
−𝑒 −1 1
= =
−2 2𝑒
Problem 1, Continued...

By Cauchy’s residue theorem, we have,

𝑧 𝑒𝑧
න 2
𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖{𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = −1 }
𝐶 (𝑧 − 1)

𝑒 1
= 2𝜋𝑖 +
2 2𝑒
1
= 𝜋𝑖 𝑒 +
𝑒
2. Evaluate ‫ 𝐶׬‬tan 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 using residue theorem, where 𝐶: 𝑧 = 2.

sin 𝑧
Solution: Here, 𝑓 𝑧 = tan 𝑧 =
cos 𝑧

The poles are given by equating cos 𝑧 = 0

𝜋
∴ 𝑧 = (2𝑛 + 1) , 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, …
2

𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
⇒ 𝑧 = ± ,± ,± ,…
2 2 2
𝜋 𝜋
Of these poles, only 𝑧 = & − lies within the given circle.
2 2

Furthermore, these two are the simple poles.

Problem 2, Continued...

𝜋 𝜋 sin 𝑧 0
𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = = Lt 𝑧→𝜋 𝑧 − = , an indeterminate form
2 2 2 cos 𝑧 0

𝜋
𝑧− 2 cos 𝑧 +sin 𝑧
= Lt 𝑧→𝜋 , (LHospital’s rule)
2 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧

= −1
𝜋 𝜋 sin 𝑧 0
𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = − = Lt 𝑧→−𝜋 𝑧 + =
2 2 2 cos 𝑧 0

𝜋
𝑧+ 2 cos 𝑧 +sin 𝑧
= Lt 𝑧→−𝜋
2 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧

= −1
Problem 2, Continued...

By Cauchy’s residue theorem, we have

𝜋 𝜋
න tan 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = + 𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = −
𝐶 2 2

= 2𝜋𝑖 −1 − 1

= −4𝜋𝑖
 𝑧2
3. Evaluate ‫𝐶׬‬ 𝑑𝑧 using residue theorem, where 𝐶: 𝑧 − 2𝑖 = 2.
𝑧+1 2 (𝑧 2 +4)

𝑧2 𝑧2
Solution: Given 𝑓 𝑧 = =
𝑧+1 2 (𝑧 2 +4) 𝑧+1 2 (𝑧+2𝑖)(𝑧−2𝑖)

Here 𝑓(𝑧) has a pole of order 1 at 𝑧 = −2𝑖, 2𝑖; and pole of order 2 at
𝑧 = −1.
Furthermore, only 𝑧 = 2𝑖 lie within the given circle C (since 2𝑖 − 2𝑖 =
0 < 2); and
𝑧 = −1 and 𝑧 = −2𝑖 lie outside the given circle 𝐶 (since −1 − 2𝑖 =
5 > 2; −2𝑖 − 2𝑖 = −4𝑖 = 4 > 2 ).
Problem 3, Continued...
𝑧2
Now, 𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = 2𝑖 = Lt 𝑧→2𝑖 (𝑧 − 2𝑖)
𝑧+1 2 (𝑧+2𝑖)(𝑧−2𝑖)

𝑧2 (2𝑖)2
𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = 2𝑖 = Lt 𝑧→2𝑖 2
=
𝑧 + 1 (𝑧 + 2𝑖) 2𝑖 + 1 2 (2𝑖 + 2𝑖)
−4 −1
= =
2𝑖 + 1 (4𝑖) 𝑖 2𝑖 + 1 2
2
𝑖 1
= 2
, since − = 𝑖
(2𝑖 + 1) 𝑖
By Cauchy’s residue theorem, we have
𝑧2
‫𝐶׬‬ 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖(𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = 2𝑖 )
𝑧+1 2 (𝑧 2 +4)
𝑖
= 2𝜋𝑖
(2𝑖+1)2
2𝜋
= −
(2𝑖+1)2
 𝑧
tan
2
4. Evaluate‫𝐶׬‬ 𝑑𝑧 , where C is the boundary of the square whose
(𝑧−1−𝑖)2
sides are the lines 𝑥 = ±2, 𝑦 = ±2.

𝑧
tan2
Solution: 𝑓 𝑧 =
(𝑧−1−𝑖)2

The poles of 𝑓 𝑧 are given by (𝑧 − 1 − 𝑖)2 = 0

⇒ 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖 is a pole of order 2.

Now, 𝐶 is the square formed by 𝑥 = ±2, 𝑦 = ±2.

Therefore, 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖 lies inside given C.

Continued…..

𝑑 2 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖 = Lt 𝑧→1+𝑖 𝑧−1−𝑖
𝑑𝑧

𝑧
𝑑 tan
= Lt 𝑧→1+𝑖 𝑧−1−𝑖 2 2
𝑑𝑧 (𝑧 − 1 − 𝑖)2
𝑑 𝑧
= lim tan
𝑧→1+𝑖 𝑑𝑧 2

𝑧 1
= lim 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
𝑧→1+𝑖 2 2

1 2 1+𝑖
= 𝑠𝑒𝑐
2 2
Continued…..

By Cauchy’s residue theorem, we have

𝑧
tan
න 2 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖(𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖 )
2
𝐶 (𝑧 − 1 − 𝑖)
1 1+𝑖
` = 2𝜋𝑖 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
2 2

2
1+𝑖
= 𝜋𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑐
2

1
Note: After equating to zero, if no point of lies within the given curve 𝐶,
𝑓(𝑧)

then by Cauchy’s theorem, ‫ = 𝑧𝑑 𝑧 𝑓 𝐶׬‬0.

 𝑧−3
5. Using Cauchy’s residue theorem, evaluate‫ 𝐶׬‬2 𝑑𝑧 ,
𝑧 +2𝑧+5
where 𝐶: 𝑧 = 1.

𝑧−3
Solution: 𝑓 𝑧 =
𝑧 2 +2𝑧+5

The poles of 𝑓 𝑧 are given by 𝑧 2 + 2𝑧 + 5 = 0

⇒ 𝑧 = −1 ± 2𝑖 is a pole of order 1.

Furthermore, 𝑧 = −1 ± 2𝑖 lies outside the given curve 𝐶 (since

−1 + 2𝑖 = 5 ≮1; and −1 − 2𝑖 = 5 ≮1). Therefore, by Cauchy’s

𝑧−3
theorem, ‫ 𝑧 𝐶׬‬2 +2𝑧+5 𝑑𝑧 = 0.
COMPLEX ANALYSIS

Application problems related complex integration

Rajini M
Department of Electronics and Communication
 𝑧2
Find the poles and its residues of the function .
𝑧−1 𝑧−2 2

Solution:
Here 𝑧 = 1 is a pole of order 1.
and 𝑧 = 2 is a pole of order 2.
𝑧2
Residue at 𝑧 = 1 is lim 𝑧 − 1 𝑓(𝑧) = lim 𝑧 − 1 =1
𝑧→1 𝑧→1 𝑧−1 𝑧−2 2
𝑑
Residue at 𝑧 = 2 is lim 𝑧 − 2 2 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑧→2 𝑑𝑧
𝑑 2
𝑧2
= lim 𝑧−2 2
𝑧→2 𝑑𝑧 𝑧−1 𝑧−2
𝑑 𝑧2
= lim
𝑧→2 𝑑𝑧 𝑧 − 1

𝑧 − 1 2𝑧 − 𝑧 2
= lim 2
=0
𝑧→2 𝑧−1
 3𝑧 2 +2
Evaluate‫𝐶׬‬ 𝑑𝑧 , where C is circle 𝑧 − 2 = 2.
(𝑧−1)(𝑧 2 +9)

Solution: By Cauchy’s integral formula:

Here 𝑧 = 1 is inside C

𝑍 = 3𝑖 and 𝑧 = −3𝑖 are outside C

3𝑧2 +2
(𝑧2 +9) 𝑔(𝑧)
∴𝐼=‫׬‬
𝐶 (𝑧−1)
𝑑𝑧 = ‫𝑧( 𝐶׬‬−1) 𝑑𝑧

3+2
𝐼 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑔 1 = 2𝜋𝑖
1+9
𝐼 = 𝜋𝑖
Continued…..
In Cauchy’s Residue Theorem:
Here 𝑧 = 1 is a simple pole (lies inside C)
𝑧 = ±3𝑖 are simple poles (lies outside C)
Residue of 𝑓(𝑧) at 𝑧 = 1 is
3𝑧 2 +2
𝑅1 = lim 𝑧 − 1 𝑓 𝑧 = lim 𝑧 − 1 ×
𝑧→1 𝑧→1 (𝑧−1)(𝑧 2 +9)
1
𝑅1 =
2
By Cauchy’s residue theorem
1
𝐼 = න 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑅1 = 2𝜋𝑖 ×
𝐶 2
𝐼 = 𝜋𝑖
 𝑧−3
Evaluate‫ 𝐶׬‬2 𝑑𝑧 , where C is circle i) 𝑧 = 1,
𝑧 +2𝑧+5
ii) 𝑧 + (1 − 𝑖) = 2.
Solution: Let I denote the given integral

𝑧−3 𝑧−3
𝑓 𝑧 = 2 = (𝑠𝑎𝑦)
𝑧 + 2𝑧 + 5 𝑧−𝛼 𝑧−𝛽
Then α and β are the roots of 𝑧 2 + 2𝑧 + 5.
We find that, 𝛼 = −1 + 2𝑖, 𝛽 = −1 − 2𝑖
Further, α and β are the only poles of 𝑓(𝑧), and these are simple poles.
i) Let C be the circle 𝑧 = 1, we check that
𝛼 = 𝛽 = (−1)2 +22 = 5 > 1.

Thus, both of α and β lie outside C. therefore, I = ‫ = 𝑧𝑑 )𝑧(𝑓 𝐶׬‬0.

Continued…..

ii) By Cauchy’s Residue Theorem:

𝑧−3
𝑓 𝑧 = 2
𝑧 + 2𝑧 + 5
𝑍 = −1 + 2𝑖 and 𝑧 = −1 − 2𝑖 are poles of order 1

𝑧 + (1 − 𝑖) = −1 + 2𝑖 + 1 − 𝑖 = 𝑖 = 1 < 2

∴ 𝑍 = −1 + 2𝑖 lies inside C
𝑧 + (1 − 𝑖) = −1 − 2𝑖 + 1 − 𝑖 = −3𝑖 = 3 > 2

∴ 𝑍 = −1 + 2𝑖 lies outside C
Continued…..
∴ Residue at −1 + 2𝑖 is
𝑅= lim 𝑧 − (−1 + 2𝑖) 𝑓 𝑧
𝑧→−1+2𝑖
or
𝑧−3
= lim 𝑧 − 𝛼 ×
𝑧→𝛼 (𝑧 − 𝛼)(𝑧 − 𝛽)
𝛼−3 −1 + 2𝑖 − 3 −4 + 2𝑖 1
𝑅= = = = +𝑖
(𝛼 − 𝛽) −1 + 2𝑖 + 1 + 2𝑖 4𝑖 2
By Cauchy’s residue theorem
𝛼−3
𝐼 = න 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑅 = 2𝜋𝑖 ×
𝐶 (𝛼 − 𝛽)
𝛼−3 1
𝐼 = 2𝜋𝑖 × = 2𝜋𝑖. + 𝑖 = −2𝜋 + 𝜋𝑖 = 𝜋 𝑖 − 2 .
(𝛼 − 𝛽) 2
THANK YOU

Rajini M.
Department of ECE
rajinim@pes.edu