The value of research into mite harvestmen

Few people have heard of the mite harvestman, and fewer still would recognize it at close range. The insect
is a relative of the far more familiar daddy longlegs. But its legs are stubby rather than long, and its body is
only as big as a sesame seed. To find mite harvestmen, scientists go to dark, humid forests and sift through
the leaf litter. The animals respond by turning motionless, making them impossible for even a trained eye to
pick out.’ They look like grains of dirt.’ said Gonzalo Giribet, an invertebrate biologist at Harvard
University. Dr Giribet and his colleagues have spent six years searching for mite harvestmen on five
continents. The animals have an extraordinary story to tell they carry a record of hundreds of millions of
years of geological history, chronicling the journeys that continents have made around the Earth. The
Earth’s landmasses have slowly collided and broken apart again several times, carrying animals and plants
with them. These species have provided clues to the continents’ paths. The notion of continental drift
originally came from such clues. In 1911, the German scientist Alfred Wegener was struck by the fact that
fossils of similar animals and plants could be found on either side of the Atlantic. The ocean was too big for
the species to have traveled across it on their own. Wegener speculated correctly, as it turned out that the
surrounding continents had originally been welded together in a single landmass, which he called Pangea.
Continental drift, or plate tectonics as it is scientifically known, helped move species around the world.
Armadillos and their relatives are found in South America and Africa today because their ancestors evolved
when the continents were joined. When South America and North America connected a few million years
ago, armadillos spread north, too. Biogeographers can learn clues about continental drift by comparing
related species. However, they must also recognize cases where species have spread for other reasons, such
as by crossing great stretches of water. The island of Hawaii, for example, was home to a giant flightless
goose that has become extinct. Studies on DNA extracted from its bones show that it evolved from the
Canada goose. Having colonized Hawaii, it branched off from that species, losing its ability to fly. This
evolution occurred half a million years ago, when geologists estimate that Hawaii emerged from the Pacific.
When species jump around the planet, their histories blur. It is difficult to say much about where
cockroaches evolved, for example, because they can move quickly from continent to continent. This process,
known as dispersal, limits many studies. ‘Most of them tend to concentrate on particular parts of the world.'
Dr Giribet said. I wanted to find a new system for studying biogeography on a global scale. Access
http://mini-ielts.com for more practices 1 Dr Giribet realized that mite harvestmen might be that system. The
5,000 or so mite harvestmen species can be found on every continent except Antarctica. Unlike creatures
found around the world like cockroaches, mite harvestmen cannot disperse well. The typical harvestman
species has a range of fewer than 50 miles. Harvestmen are not found on young islands like Hawaii, as these
types of islands emerged long after the break-up of Pangea. According to Assistant Professor Sarah Boyer, a
former student of Dr Giribet. ‘It’s really hard to find a group of species that is distributed all over the world
but that also doesn’t disperse very far.' What mite harvestmen lack in mobility, they make up in age. Their
ancestors were among the first land animals, and fossils of daddy longlegs have been found in 400 million-
yearago rocks. Mite harvestmen evolved long before Pangea broke up and have been carried along by
continental drift ever since they’ve managed to get themselves around the world only because they’ve been
around for hundreds of millions of years, Dr Boyer said. Dr Boyer, Dr Giribet and their colleagues have
gathered thousands of mite harvestmen from around the world, from which they extracted DNA. Variations
in the genes helped the scientists build an evolutionary tree. By calculating how quickly the DNA mutated,
the scientists could estimate when lineages branched off. They then compared the harvestmen's evolution to
the movements of the continents. ‘The patterns are remarkably clear.’ Dr Boyer said. The scientists found
that they could trace mite harvestmen from their ancestors on Pangea. One lineage includes species in Chile
South Africa, Sri Lanka and other places separated by thousands of miles of ocean. But 150 million years
ago, all those sites were in Gondwana which was a region of Pangea. The harvestmen preserve smaller
patterns of continental drift, as well as bigger ones. After analyzing the DNA of a Florida harvestman,
Metasiro americanus, the scientists were surprised to find that it was not related to other North American
species. Its closet relatives live in West Africa. Dr Boyer then began investigating the geological history of
Florida and found recent research to explain the mystery. Florida started out welded to West Africa near
Segenal. North America than collied into them Pangea was forming. About 170 million years ago, North
America ripped away from West Africa, taking Florida with it. The African ancestors of Florida’s
harvestmen came along the ride. Dr Giribet now hopes to study dozens or even hundreds of species, to find
clues about plate tectonics that a single animal could not show.
QUESTIONS 1-6 Choose the correct letter A, B, C or D.
Write the correct letter in boxes 1-6 on your answer sheet.
1. Why is it difficult to find mite harvestmen?
A they are too small to see with naked eye.
B they can easily be confused with daddy longlegs.
C they are hard to distinguish from their surroundings.
D they do not exist in large numbers in any one place.
2. Why are mile harvestmen of interest to Dr Giribet and his colleagues?
A they have been studied far less than most other species.
B they show the effects of climate on the evolution of animals.
C they have an unusual relationship with plants and other animals.
D they provide evidence relating to a field of study other than insects.
3. What factor contributed to Wegener’s idea that present-day continents used to form a single landmass? A
changes in the level of the ocean
B the distance that species could travel
C the lack of certain fossils on one side of the Atlantic
D similarities in living conditions on both sides of the Atlantic
4. What point is made by the reference to armadillos?
A regions have both separated and become connected.
B certain animals could travel longer distances than others.
C the oldest species of animals are likely to be found in Africa.
D there is a tendency for animals to spread in a particular direction.
5. Which of the following is stated in the fifth paragraph?
A Hawaii is a habitat that cannot support large birds.
B Hawaii is an attractive habitat for certain species of birds.
C flightless birds are more likely to become extinct than others.
D the Hawaiian goose became flightless after it had reached Hawaii.
6. Why is evidence from cockroached of limited value?
A they spread too fast.
B they multiply too quickly.
C they are found in too few places.
D they have divided into too many species.

QUESTIONS 7-10 Do the following statements agree with the claims of the writer in Reading Passage 1 In
boxes 7-10 on your answer sheet, write
YES if the statement agrees with the claims of the writer
NO if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer
NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this
7..................... The colonization of Hawaii by geese provides evidence of continental drift.
8..................... The reason why mite harvestmen don’t exist on Hawaii can be explained.
9..................... The DNA of certain species has evolved more quickly than that of others.
10..................... Dr Boyer’s theory concerning the origins of Florida is widely accepted.

QUESTIONS 11-14 Complete the summary using the list of words A-I below. Write the correct letter A-I in
boxes 11-14 on your answer sheet.
List of words
A branches B fossils C drift D DNA E evolution F Pangea
G dispersal H ancestors I continents
The age and evolution of mite harvestmen Some of the first creatures to live on land were the
11..................... of mite harvestmen. Boyer, Giribet and others study differences in the 12..................... of
these insects, and trace the development of a number of 13..................... of the species. Their evolution
appears to reflect changes in the location of 14...................... For example, the same type of mite harvestman
is found in places that are now far apart but used to form Gondwana, part of a huge landmass.
PART 2
READING PASSAGE 2
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 14-27, which are based on Reading Passage 1 below.
 Australian parrots and their adaptation to habitat change
A Parrots are found across the tropic and in all southern hemisphere continents except Antarctica, but
nowhere do the display such a richness of diversity and form as in Australia. One- sixth of the world's 345
parrot species are found there, and Australia has long been renowned for the number and variety of its
parrots.
B In the 16th century, the German cartographer Mercator made a world map that included a place,
somewhere near present-day Australia, that he named Terra Psittacorum - the Land of Parrots - and the first
European settlers in Australia often referred to the country as Parrot Land. In 1865, the celebrated British
naturalist and wildlife artist John Gould said: "No group of birds gives Australia so tropical and benign an
air as the numerous species of this great family by which it is tenanted.
C Parrots are descendants of an ancient line. Due to their great diversity, and since most species inhabit
Africa, Australia and South America, it seems almost certain that parrots originated millions of years ago on
the ancient southern continent of Gondwana, before it broke up into the separate southern hemisphere
continents we know today. Much of Gondwana comprised vast rainforests intersected by huge slow-flowing
rivers and expansive lakes, but by eight million years ago, great changes were underway. The center of the
continent of Australia had begun to dry out, and the rainforests that once covered it gradually contracted to
the continental margins, where, to a limited extent, they still exist today.
D The creatures that remained in those shrinking rainforests had to adapt to the drier conditions or face
extinction. Reacting to these desperate circumstances, the parrot family, typically found in jungles in other
parts of the world, has populated some of Australia's harshest environments. The parrots spread from
ancestral forests through eucalypt woodlands to colonies the central deserts of Australia, and as a
consequence they diversified into a wide range of species with adaptations that reflect the many changes
animals and plants had to make to survive in these areas.
E These evolutionary pressures helped mould keratin, the substance from which breaks are made into a
range of tools capable of gathering the new food types favored by various species of parrot. The size of a
parrot's short, blunt beak and the length of that beak's do curved upper section are related to the type of food
each species eats. Some have comparatively long beaks that are perfect for extracting seeds from fruit;
others have broader and stronger beaks that are designed for cracking hard seeds.
F Differently shaped beaks are not the only adaptations that have been made during the developing
relationship between parrots and their food plants. Like all of Australia's many honey eating birds, the
rainbow-coloured lorikeets and the flowers on which they feed have long coevolved with features such as
the shape and colour of the flowers adapted to the bird's particular needs, and physical a example, red is the
most I attractive colour to birds, and thus flowers which depend on birds for pollination are more often red,
and lorikeets' to gues have bristles which help them to collect as much pollen as possible.
G Today, most of Australia's parrots inhabit woodland and open forest, and their numbers decline towards
both deserts and wetter areas. The majority are nomadic to some degree, moving around to take advantage
of feeding and breeding places. Two of the dry country parrots, the pink and grey galah and the pink, white
and yellow corella have expanded their ranges in recent years. They are among the species that have adapted
well to the changes brought about by European settlement forest telling created grasslands where galahs and
corellas thrive.
H But other parrot species did not fare so well when their environments were altered. The clearing of large
areas of rainforest is probably responsible for the disappearance of the double-eyed fig parrot, and numbers
of ground parrots declined when a great part of their habitat was destroyed by the draining of coastal
swamps. Even some parrot species that benefited from forest clearing at first are now comforted by a
shortage of nesting sites due to further man-made changes.
I New conditions also sometimes favour an incoming species over one that originally inhabited the area. For
example, after farmers cleared large areas of forest on Kangaroo Island off the coast of South Australia, the
island was colonised by galahs. They were soon going down holes and destroying black cockatoo eggs in
order to take the hole for their own use. Their success precipitated a partial collapse in the black cockatoo
population when the later lost the struggle for scarce nesting hollows.
J There may be no final answer to ensuring an equitable balance between parrot species. Nest box
programmers help ease the shortage of nesting sites in some places, but there are not enough, they are
expensive and they are not an adequate substitute by large, old trees, such as the habitat they represent and
nectar, pollen and seeds they provide. Competition between parrots for nest sites is a result of the changes
we humans have made to the Earth. We are the most widespread and dangerous competitors that parrots
have ever had to face, but we also have the knowledge and skill to maintain the wonderfully rich diversity of
Australia's parrots. All we need is the wild to do so.
Questions 15-20

Reading Passage has ten paragraphs A-J

Which paragraph contains the following information?
Write the correct letter, A-J in boxes 15-20 on your answer sheet
15. An example of how one parrot species may survive at the expense of another.
16. A description of how plants may adapt to attract birds
17. Example of two parrot species which benefited from changes to the environment
18. How the varied Australian landscape resulted in a great variety of parrot species
19. A reason why most parrot species are native to the southern hemisphere
20. An example of a parrot species which did not survive changes to its habitat
Questions 21-23
Choose the correct letter A, B, c, or D
Write the correct letter in boxes 21-23 on your answer sheet
21. The writer believes that most parrot species
A. Move from Africa and South America to Australia
B. Had ancestors in either Africa, Australia or South America
C. Had ancestors in a continent which later split up
D. Came from a continent now covered by water
22. What does the Writer say about parrot's beak?
A. They are longer than those of other birds
B. They are made of a unique material
C. They are used more efficiently than those of other species
D. They are specially adapted to suit the diet
23. Which of the following is NOT mentioned by the writer as a disadvantage of nesting boxes?
A. They cost too much
B. They need to be maintained
C. They provide only shelter, not food
D. They are too few of them
Questions 24-27

Complete the summary below

Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS AND/OR A NUMBER from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 24-27 on your answer sheet
There are 345 varieties of parrot in existence and, of these, 24. live in Australia. As early as the
25. , the mapmaker 26. recognized that parrots lived in that part of the world. .
, the famous painter of animals and birds, commented on the size and beauty of the Australian parrot family.
Reading Passage 3

You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 27-40 which are based on Reading Passage 3 below.

Can Hurricanes be Moderated or Diverted?

A
Each year, massive swirling storms bringing along winds greater than 74 miles per hour wipe across tropical
oceans and land on shorelines—usually devastating vast swaths of territory. When these roiling tempests
strike densely inhabited territories, they have the power to kill thousands and cause property damage worth
of billions of dollars. Besides, absolutely nothing stands in their way. But can we ever find a way to control
these formidable forces of nature?
B
To see why hurricanes and other severe tropical storms may be susceptible to human intervention, a
researcher must first learn about their nature and origins. Hurricanes grow in the form of thunderstorm
clusters above the tropical seas. Oceans in low-latitude areas never stop giving out heat and moisture to the
atmosphere, which brings about warm, wet air above the sea surface. When this kind of air rises, the water
vapour in it condenses to form clouds and precipitation. Condensation gives out heat in the process the solar
heat is used to evaporate the water at the ocean surface. This so-called invisible heat of condensation makes
the air more buoyant, leading to it ascending higher while reinforcing itself in the feedback process. At last,
the tropical depression starts to form and grow stronger, creating the familiar eye — the calm centre hub that
a hurricane spins around. When reaching the land, the hurricane no longer has a continuous supply of warm
water, which causes it to swiftly weaken.

C
Our current studies are inspired by my past intuition when I was learning about chaos theory 30 years ago.
The reason why long-range forecasting is complicated is that the atmosphere is highly sensitive to small
influences and tiny mistakes can compound fast in the weather-forecasting models. However, this sensitivity
also made me realise a possibility: if we intentionally applied some slight inputs to a hurricane, we might
create a strong influence that could affect the storms, either by steering them away from densely populated
areas or by slowing them down. Back then, I was not able to test my ideas, but thanks to the advancement of
computer simulation and remote-sensing technologies over the last 10 years, I can now renew my
enthusiasm in large-scale weather control.

D
To find out whether the sensitivity of the atmospheric system could be exploited to adjust such robust
atmospheric phenomena as hurricanes, our research team ran simulation experiments on computers for a
hurricane named Iniki that occurred in 1992. The current forecasting technologies were far from perfect, so
it took us by surprise that our first simulation turned out to be an immediate success. With the goal of
altering the path of Iniki in mind, we first picked the spot where we wanted the storm to stop after six hours.
Then we used this target to generate artificial observations and put these into the computer model.

EThe most significant alteration turned out to be the initial temperatures and winds. Usually, the
temperature changes across the grid were only tenths of a degree, but the most noteworthy change, which
was an increase of almost two degrees Celsius, took place in the lowest model layer to the west of the storm
centre. The calculations produced wind-speed changes of two or three miles per hour. However, in several
spots, the rates shifted by as much as 20 mph due to minor redirections of the winds close to the storm’s
centre. In terms of structure, the initial and altered versions of Hurricane Iniki seemed almost the same, but
the changes in critical variables were so substantial that the latter one went off the track to the west during
the first six hours of the simulation and then travelled due north, leaving Kauai untouched.
F
Future earth-orbiting solar power stations, equipped with large mirrors to focus the sun’s rays and panels of
photovoltaic cells to gather and send energy to the Earth, might be adapted to beam microwaves which turn
to be absorbed by water vapour molecules inside or around the storm. The microwaves would cause the
water molecules to vibrate and heat up the surrounding air, which then leads to the hurricane slowing down
or moving in a preferred direction.

G
Simulations of hurricanes conducted on a computer have implied that by changing the precipitation,
evaporation and air temperature, we could make a difference to a storm’s route or abate its winds.
Intervention could be in many different forms: exquisitely targeted clouds bearing silver iodide or other
rainfall-inducing elements might deprive a hurricane of the water it needs to grow and multiply from its
formidable eyewall, which is the essential characteristic of a severe tropical storm.
Questions27-30
ReadingPassage3hassevenparagraphs,A-G
Choose the correct heading for each paragraph from the list of headings below
Write the correct number, i-viii, in boxes 27-33 on your answer sheet.