Tropical Climates

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Tropical Climates

Humid Tropical environment

Humid tropical climates, or tropical rainforest climates, are found between


5°N and 5°S of the equator. These regions experience consistently high
temperatures, averaging 25°C to 30°C year-round, with little temperature
variation due to direct sunlight all year. Rainfall is abundant, often exceeding
2000 mm annually, and is evenly distributed throughout the year due to the
Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), where trade winds converge, causing
frequent convectional rainfall. Humidity remains high, typically over 80%,
due to constant evaporation from rainfall and surrounding water bodies.

Unlike other tropical climates, humid tropical areas do not have a distinct dry
season. While some regions may experience slightly varying rainfall, the
climate generally remains wet throughout the year, with afternoon
thunderstorms common. The high warmth and moisture support lush
vegetation, including tropical rainforests, which thrive due to the stable
climate. Despite this, soils are often nutrient-poor because nutrients are
rapidly absorbed by plants or washed away by rain.

Overall, humid tropical climates are characterized by high temperatures,


high humidity, and abundant rainfall, supporting diverse ecosystems like
tropical rainforests, influenced by the ITCZ and trade winds.

Seasonally humid tropical environment

Seasonally tropical environments, or tropical savanna climates, are found


between 5° and 20° latitude, just outside the humid tropical zone. They
experience distinct wet and dry seasons driven by the seasonal movement of
the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and monsoon winds. The wet
season brings heavy rainfall, high humidity, and temperatures around 25°C
to 30°C, while the dry season sees little to no rainfall and temperatures often
exceeding 30°C.

The ITCZ's position controls rainfall: when it’s overhead, the region receives
rain, but as it moves away during the dry season, humidity and rainfall drop
significantly. This causes a dramatic shift in weather, with the wet season
providing relief after drought-like conditions.

During the dry season, vegetation shrinks, and the landscape changes from
lush grasslands to sparser vegetation. Soils in seasonally tropical climates
are less fertile than in humid tropics due to limited rainfall, inhibiting nutrient
cycling. These areas support grasslands, savannas, and scattered trees
adapted to seasonal water stress.

Temperatures are consistent, but greater variation occurs between day and
night during the dry season. The combination of seasonal rainfall and
temperature variation creates ecosystems suited to grasslands and scrub
vegetation, with plant desiccation during the dry season.

In summary, seasonally tropical environments are marked by the alternating


wet and dry seasons driven by the ITCZ and monsoon winds, creating
landscapes and ecosystems adapted to these seasonal shifts.

Role of ITCZ

The Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) is a region near the equator


where the trade winds from both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres
meet. This convergence of winds forces the warm, moist air upwards,
creating a low-pressure zone. As the air rises, it cools and condenses, leading
to the formation of clouds and heavy rainfall. This process is crucial in
shaping the climate of the tropical regions, as it leads to the consistent high
rainfall that characterizes humid tropical environments. The ITCZ is
responsible for frequent thunderstorms, which often occur in the afternoon,
and for maintaining the high humidity levels that are typical in these areas.
The temperature in these regions remains relatively constant, usually
ranging between 25°C and 30°C, due to the direct sunlight received
throughout the year. The constant rising of warm air and subsequent
precipitation creates the lush vegetation typical of tropical rainforests.

The ITCZ does not remain stationary; it shifts seasonally in response to the
Earth’s tilt and the movement of the sun. During the Northern Hemisphere’s
summer, the ITCZ moves northward, bringing more rainfall to the northern
tropics. In contrast, during the Southern Hemisphere’s summer, the ITCZ
shifts southward, leading to increased rainfall in the southern tropics. This
seasonal movement is a significant factor in the variation of rainfall patterns
in different tropical regions. The shift of the ITCZ also causes a marked
contrast between wet and dry seasons in areas on the margins of the
equatorial zone. While some tropical regions receive consistent rainfall
throughout the year, others experience a more seasonal distribution of
rainfall, with drier periods occurring when the ITCZ moves away from the
region.
In sum, the ITCZ plays a pivotal role in the weather and climate of tropical
regions, contributing to the constant warmth, high humidity, and abundant
rainfall typical of equatorial climates. Its seasonal movement influences not
only the intensity of rainfall but also the timing of wet and dry seasons in
many tropical and subtropical areas. The ITCZ is thus central to the formation
of tropical ecosystems, including rainforests, and has a profound impact on
the biodiversity and agriculture in the regions it affects.

Role of subtropical anticyclones:

Subtropical anticyclones, also known as subtropical high-pressure belts, play


a significant role in shaping the climate of many regions, particularly those
located around 30°N and 30°S latitude. These areas are characterized by
clear skies, dry conditions, and hot temperatures. The subtropical
anticyclones are formed due to the descending air from the upper
atmosphere, which results from the movement of warm air from the tropics
toward higher latitudes. This descending air creates areas of high pressure at
the Earth's surface.

The mechanism of subtropical anticyclones is tied to the global circulation


system, particularly the Hadley cells. In the tropics, warm air rises and
moves toward the poles at higher altitudes. As this air cools, it sinks around
30° latitude in both hemispheres. This descending air creates areas of high
pressure and suppresses cloud formation, resulting in clear skies and low
rainfall. These conditions create some of the world’s most well-known desert
climates, such as the Sahara and the Arabian Desert in the Northern
Hemisphere, and the Kalahari and Sonoran Deserts in the Southern
Hemisphere.

Because the subtropical anticyclones are associated with descending, dry air,
they contribute significantly to the arid and semi-arid climates found in
regions under their influence. These areas typically experience hot summers,
with temperatures regularly exceeding 30°C, and mild winters. The lack of
rainfall is another key feature, as the descending air inhibits cloud formation
and precipitation. In addition to deserts, the subtropical high-pressure belts
are responsible for dry seasons in many other regions, where rainfall is highly
seasonal or nearly absent.
The position and strength of subtropical anticyclones can also influence
monsoon systems. For example, the weakening or shifting of subtropical
high-pressure systems can influence the onset of the monsoon rains in
regions such as South Asia. The subtropical high-pressure zones are
dynamic, often shifting slightly in response to seasonal changes or
temperature variations between the land and oceans, contributing to
seasonal climate shifts.

Role of monsoons:

Monsoons are seasonal wind systems that bring dramatic changes in


precipitation patterns and play a crucial role in the climate and agriculture of
affected regions. They occur due to the differential heating of land and sea,
which causes shifts in atmospheric pressure, particularly during the
transition between summer and winter. The monsoon winds are primarily
driven by the land-sea temperature contrast, with warm landmasses heating
up faster than the oceans, creating areas of low pressure over land and high
pressure over the cooler oceans.

During the summer monsoon, the land heats up rapidly, creating a low-
pressure area over the continent. This low pressure draws in moist air from
the ocean, causing heavy rainfall as the moisture-laden winds rise and cool,
leading to convectional rainfall. The summer monsoon can bring months of
heavy rains, which are crucial for agriculture, especially in regions that rely
on seasonal rainfall for crop growth. However, the intensity and timing of the
monsoon rains can vary, sometimes leading to flooding or droughts
depending on their strength and duration.

In contrast, the winter monsoon occurs when the land cools down, creating a
high-pressure area over the continent, while the ocean remains warmer. This
reversal of pressure causes dry, cool air to blow from the land to the sea,
resulting in dry conditions and little to no rainfall in the affected areas. The
winter monsoon is often associated with cooler temperatures and dry
seasons in regions that experience a summer monsoon.

Monsoons are critical for the water supply and agriculture of many countries,
particularly in Asia and parts of Africa. They provide the necessary rainfall to
sustain crops, but their variability can also pose significant challenges, with
too much rainfall causing floods and too little leading to droughts. Thus, the
timing, strength, and duration of the monsoon are key to the livelihoods and
economic stability of millions of people in monsoon-affected regions.
3 different types of climates:

The equatorial climate, also known as the tropical rainforest climate, is


characterized by consistent and high rainfall throughout the year, with no
distinct dry season. This climate type is typically found between 5°N and 5°S
of the equator in regions such as the Amazon Basin, Central Africa, and
Southeast Asia. The rainfall is intense, often exceeding 2000 mm annually
and in some areas, even up to 10,000 mm. The primary cause of this
frequent precipitation is convectional rainfall: the high temperatures near the
equator cause intense heating, leading to rising warm air that cools and
condenses to form rain. As a result, daily thunderstorms are common, and
rainfall is almost uniform throughout the year. Temperature in equatorial
regions remains high, usually between 25°C and 30°C, with little variation
between day and night. This climate experiences minimal annual
temperature fluctuations due to the near-constant solar angle throughout the
year.

In contrast, the seasonally humid (savanna) climate occurs just outside the
equatorial zone, typically between 5° and 20° latitude, in regions such as
sub-Saharan Africa, parts of India, and northern Australia. This climate is
characterized by a distinct seasonal pattern of rainfall, with a pronounced
wet season and a dry season. During the wet season, which typically aligns
with the summer months, the region receives between 500 mm to 1500 mm
of rainfall. This is when the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), a band of
low pressure that moves north and south of the equator, brings moisture-
laden winds. The dry season follows when the ITCZ moves away and the area
comes under the influence of high-pressure systems, leading to little or no
rainfall. Temperatures in savanna regions are high throughout the year,
generally ranging from 20°C to 30°C, but there is a greater variation
compared to equatorial regions, particularly between the wet and dry
seasons. The daily temperature range can also be more pronounced,
especially in areas with less cloud cover and vegetation.

The monsoon climate, found in regions such as South and Southeast Asia,
parts of West Africa, and northern Australia, is characterized by highly
seasonal rainfall that is both intense and concentrated. The defining feature
of this climate is the monsoon—seasonal winds that reverse direction based
on temperature differences between land and sea. In the wet season, which
usually spans from June to September, moist air is drawn from the oceans
over the land, bringing heavy rainfall that can range from 1500 mm to over
4000 mm annually. The wet season is often associated with strong storms
and prolonged periods of rain. The dry season, occurring from October to
May, is marked by cool, dry winds from the land. These winds reduce
humidity and suppress rainfall. The temperature in monsoon regions remains
high, usually between 25°C and 30°C, with moderate variation due to the
cooling effects of rainfall during the wet season. However, during the dry
season, temperatures can rise sharply due to reduced cloud cover and
rainfall.

Landforms of tropical environment


Landforms in granite develop over long periods of time through a
combination of weathering, erosion, and rock characteristics. Granite is
an igneous rock formed from the cooling of magma beneath the Earth's
surface. It is relatively hard and resistant to weathering compared to other
rocks, but over time, even granite undergoes processes that shape the
landscape.

Granite is a hard, coarse-grained rock made up mainly of quartz, feldspar,


and mica. Over time, weathering (the breakdown of rock into smaller
particles) acts on the granite through both chemical and physical processes.

Types of Weathering:

 Physical Weathering:

o Thermal Expansion and Contraction: Granite experiences changes in


temperature (day-night cycles or seasonal temperature
fluctuations), causing it to expand and contract. This leads to the
cracking and fracturing of the rock.

o Exfoliation: As overlying material is removed (through erosion), the


pressure on the granite decreases, causing it to expand and break
off in thin, curved layers, like the peeling of an onion. This is a
prominent process in the formation of landforms such
as bornhardts and tors.

 Chemical Weathering:

o Hydrolysis: The feldspar and other minerals in granite react with


water and acids in the environment, breaking down into clay
minerals and other products. This process weakens the granite,
especially at its surface.
o Oxidation: Iron-bearing minerals in granite can react with oxygen,
leading to rust-like weathering that weakens the rock.

 Biological Weathering: Plant roots or burrowing animals can exploit


fractures in the granite, further breaking it down.

1. Tors

Granite forms tors through a combination of weathering and erosion over


long periods of time. Granite is a hard rock, but it weathers and breaks down
when exposed to the elements. Physical weathering, such as freeze-thaw
cycles or temperature changes, causes cracks to form in the rock. Chemical
weathering also weakens the granite, especially along these cracks. As the
surrounding softer rock and weathered material (regolith) are eroded away
by wind and rain, the harder, more resistant granite blocks remain. These
blocks are shaped into jagged, isolated rock outcrops called tors. The
formation of a tor takes millions of years, as erosion slowly removes the
surrounding material, leaving the harder granite exposed.

2. Inselbergs

Inselbergs are isolated hills or mountains of resistant rock that rise abruptly
from the surrounding lowland. Granite forms inselbergs through long-term
erosion of surrounding rocks and weathering of the granite itself. Initially,
granite is buried beneath layers of softer rock. Over time, weathering and
erosion remove the overlying softer rocks, exposing the harder granite
beneath. As the granite weathers, it can break down into smaller pieces, but
the core remains more resistant to erosion. The process continues, with the
surrounding softer material being eroded away, and eventually, the granite
forms an isolated hill or mountain, known as an inselberg. This takes
millions of years, as both the granite and the surrounding landscape are
slowly worn down.

3. Bornhardts

Bornhardts are massive, rounded granite outcrops typically found in areas


that have been subject to long periods of weathering and erosion. Granite
forms bornhardts through a process called exfoliation, which occurs over
millions of years. When granite is deeply buried, pressure from above keeps
it compact, but as erosion removes the overlying layers, the granite begins
to expand and crack. This release of pressure causes the outer layers of
granite to peel off in curved sheets, much like layers of an onion. Over time,
the granite continues to weather, and the exposed core becomes a smooth,
dome-shaped structure. The harder granite at the center is more resistant
to erosion, so it remains standing as a bornhardt while the surrounding,
weaker material is gradually eroded away.

4. Etchplains

Etchplains are vast, gently sloping areas of granite that have been eroded
to create a surface of pockmarks, shallow depressions, or grooves. Granite
forms etchplains through the process of chemical weathering. Over time,
water, acids, and other natural elements break down the surface of the
granite, especially along fractures and joints. This chemical weathering
weakens the granite, causing small depressions or grooves to form on the
rock's surface. These pitted or etched patterns develop as the minerals in the
granite, like feldspar, are slowly broken down into clay. The surface of the
granite becomes uneven and textured, creating the etchplain. This process
takes millions of years, as the weathering and erosion gradually shape the
granite into a smooth yet irregular landscape. Hydrolysis (reaction with
water) and oxidation (reaction with oxygen) cause the minerals to break
down, leaving behind a weakened surface. This can result in the formation of
small depressions or grooves on the granite surface.

5. Pediplains

Pediplains are large, relatively flat areas of granite, often characterized by a


covering of weathered material (regolith). These landforms typically form in
regions with stable, arid or semi-arid climates. Granite forms pediplains
through long-term weathering and erosion. Over millions of years, granite
weathers and breaks down into a layer of loose, broken material called
regolith. This weathering occurs both chemically, where minerals like
feldspar break down into clay, and physically, where the rock cracks and
fractures. As erosion removes the regolith, the underlying granite remains,
forming a relatively flat surface. Over time, this process creates a pediplain,
which is a broad, gently sloping area of weathered granite. Pediplains
develop in regions where weathering is slow, and the land remains flat as the
softer, eroded material is carried away.Weathering: In the formation of
pediplains, deep weathering of granite leads to the breakdown of the rock
into a thick regolith. The weathering involves both chemical and physical
processes. The granite breaks down into a soft layer, which may contain clay
and other weathered minerals. Over time, this layer thickens and spreads out
to create a relatively flat surface.

2. Formation of Weathered Layers (Regolith)


As weathering proceeds, the surface of granite becomes covered with a layer
of regolith (loose, weathered material). This can be a mixture of small
granite fragments, clay, and minerals formed during chemical weathering.
The regolith can vary in thickness, and it is this weathered material that is
often eroded away, exposing more resistant granite layers underneath.

3. Erosion and Removal of Weathered Material

The weathered material (regolith) is prone to erosion by wind, water, and


gravity. Erosion removes the softer, more easily weathered layers, while the
more resistant parts of granite, often in the form of large blocks or exposed
outcrops, remain intact. This leads to the development of prominent features
like tors, inselbergs, and pediplains.

Erosion Processes:

 Water Erosion: Rainwater or rivers can wash away the finer,


weathered material, especially in regions with high rainfall. This can
result in the exposure of harder granite outcrops.

 Wind Erosion: In arid regions, wind can remove loose weathered


material, contributing to the formation of landforms such
as pediplains.

 Gravitational Erosion: On steep slopes, gravity can cause landslides


or the downhill movement of regolith, exposing harder granite
beneath.

4. Rock Characteristics Influencing Landform Development

Granite is characterized by its coarse-grained texture and the presence


of joints (natural fractures in the rock), which play a significant role in
landform development. The weathering of granite is concentrated along
these joints, causing the rock to break apart more easily along these lines.

Important Rock Characteristics:

 Jointing: Granite often exhibits a system of vertical and horizontal


fractures, forming a network of blocks or slabs. Weathering along these
joints contributes to the development of landforms like tors (isolated
rock outcrops) and bornhardts (large rounded granite domes).

 Feldspar and Quartz: These minerals are relatively resistant to


weathering, but over long periods of time, feldspar can break down
into clay, altering the rock's composition and weakening it. Quartz,
however, remains more resistant.

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