STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN

CES 523
TOPIC 2: WIND LOADING
MOHD AZUAN TUKIAR
FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
UNIIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA (PULAU PINANG)
BKBA 2.12
012 – 5149 452
azuan.tukiar@uitm.edu.my

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 TOPIC 2: WIND LOADING

Learning Outcome:

1. Describe the main feature which influence the wind load imposed
on a structure. (CO1-PO2)

2. Determine and analyze wind loading on a structure. (CO1-PO2)

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 TYPES OF LOADING
PERMANENT VARIABLE ENVIRONMENTAL

Due to variable effects.

Due to environment and its
Description Due to effects of gravity Inherently less accurate than
source is out of human control.
the assessment of dead loads

Movement of people, furniture,

i.e. the self-weight of all
equipment and traffic. The Soil Pressure, Water, Seismic,
permanent structural
Example values adopted are based on Temperature, Pressure From
elements, walls, roofs and
observation and Fluid, Snow, Wind
finishes
measurement

EC1 EC1
Guideline / ANNEX A: Tables for nominal Section 6 : Imposed Loads On MS1553 : 2001
Reference density of construction Building (Wind Loading)
materials

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WHY DO WE NEED TO
CONSIDER FOR WIND
LOADING?

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www.penang.uitm.edu.my
The best known structural collapse due to wind was the Tacoma Narrows Bridge which
occurred in 1940 at a wind speed of only about 19 m/s. It failed after it had developed a
coupled torsional and flexural mode of oscillation. – P. Mandis et al (2007)

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 CASE IN MALAYSIA

Total number of windstorm occurrences in Peninsular Malaysia between the study periods is 74 cases. In six years
data period, it shows that the highest number of occurrence is in year 2012 which is 21 occurrences, followed by
year 2011 (16 cases), year 2009 (12 cases), year 2008 (10 cases), year 2010 (9 cases) and the lowest number of
occurrence is in year 2007 by 6 occurrences.

Majority low rise buildings among the building structures in Malaysia face the great impact during the event. It was
identified that 80% of the cases caused damaged to the roofing systems due to the thunderstorm in Peninsular
Malaysia. Damage breakdown shows that 47% damage in steel sheet roofing, 30% damage on trusses system, 13%
damage on roof tiles and 20% for other related damages

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 FACTORS INFLUENCE
1. Geographical location - China, Russia, Australia, Malaysia, ….
2. Physical location - city center, small town, open country, ...
3. Topography - exposed hill top, escarpment, valley floor, ...
4. Roof Pitch - shallow, steep, mono-pitch, duo-pitch, multi-bay…
5. Wind speed and Direction
6. Building Dimension
7. Building Shape

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INTRODUCTION TO MS1553:2002
The Malaysian Standard was developed by the Working
Group on Code of Practice on Wind Loading for Building
Structure supervised by the Technical Committee on
Structure Loading under the authority of the Building and
Civil Engineering Industry Standards Committee.
Development of this Standard was carried out by the
Construction Industry Development Board Malaysia
(CIDB) which is the Standards-Writing Organisation
(SWO) appointed by SIRIM Berhad to develop standards
for the construction industry.

During the development of this Malaysian Standard,

reference was made to AS/NZS 1170.2 Structural design
– General requirements and design actions.

There are still many studies carry out to improve and

update the code from time to time especially to improve
the coefficient factor base on local climate and our
widespread material that been used in Malaysia.

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 INTRODUCTION TO MS1553:2002

1.1 Scope
This Malaysian Standard sets out procedures for determining wind speeds and resulting wind actions to be
used in the structural design for structures subjected to wind action other than those caused by tornadoes
and typhoons. The standard covers structures within the following criteria:

a) building less than 200 m high;

b) structures with roof spans less than 100 m; and
c) structures other than off-shore structures, bridges and transmission towers

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 INTRODUCTION TO MS1553:2002

Flow chart B1. Information in using this standard Flow chart B3. Determination of design wind
pressure using simplified procedure

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 SIMPLIFIED PROCEDURE
A1. Limitations

The simplified procedure of analysis shall be applied to the design of cladding and main structural system
of building structures, which meet all of the following criteria:

a) the buildings are rectangular in plan, or a combination of rectangular units;

b) the average roof height of a structure, h, is not greater than 15.0 m;
c) the ratio of the average roof height to the least horizontal dimension does not exceed 3;
d) the location of structure is not at unusually exposed locations such as hill-crest or at headland; and
e) the following types of building are not considered in this section:
i) buildings and structures where the primary occupancy is one in which more than 300 people
congregate in one area;
ii) essential buildings and structures;
iii) hospital and medical facilities;
iv) fire and police stations;
v) structures and equipment in civil defence;
vi) communication centres and facilities for emergency response;
vii) power stations and other emergency utilities; and
viii) defence shelter.

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 STANDARD METHOD MS1553:2002

SECTION 2 : CALCULATION OF WIND ACTIONS

2.1 General

This Section gives the procedure for determining wind actions, W, on structures and elements
of structures or buildings as follows:
a) determine site wind speeds (see 2.2);
b) determine design wind speed from the site wind speeds (see 2.3);
c) determine design wind pressures and distributed forces (see 2.4); and
d) calculate wind actions (see 2.5)

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 SITE WIND SPEED
2.2 SITE WIND SPEED

The site wind speeds, Vsit, is defined at the level of the average roof height above ground (see
Figure 2.1) by the expression:

Vsit = Vs (Md) (Mz,cat) ( Ms) ( Mh) (eq. 1)

where,

Vs - Basic Wind Speed, 33.5 m/s zone I and 32.5 m/s zone II respectively, see Figure 3.1;
Md - Directional Multiplier, 1;
Mz,cat - terrain/height multiplier as given in Section 4;
Mh - hill shape multiplier as given in Section 4; and
Ms - shielding multiplier as given in Section 4.

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 SITE WIND SPEED
Determine Basic Wind Speed, Vs

Figure 3.1 – Zone Map for Peninsular Malaysia

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 SITE WIND SPEED
Determine Terrain / Height Multiplier, Mz,cat
4.2.2 Determination of terrain/height multiplier, Mz,cat

The variation with height, z, of the effect of terrain roughness on wind speed (terrain/height multiplier), Mz,cat,
shall be taken from the values for fully developed profiles given in Table 4.1. Designers shall take account of
known future changes to terrain roughness in assessment of terrain category.
Table 4.1. Terrain/height multipliers for gust wind speeds in fully developed terrain. Serviceability
limit state design and ultimate limit state

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 SITE WIND SPEED
Determine Terrain / Height Multiplier, Mz,cat

4.2.1 Terrain category definitions

Terrain, over which the approach wind flows towards a structure, shall be assessed on the basis of the following
category descriptions:

a) Category 1 : Exposed open terrain with few or no obstructions.

NOTE. For serviceability considerations, water surfaces are included in this category.

b) Category 2 : Water surfaces, open terrain, grassland with few well scattered obstructions having height generally
from 1.5 m to 10.0 m.

c) Category 3 : Terrain with numerous closely spaced obstructions 3.0 m to 5.0 m high such as areas of suburban
housing.

d) Category 4 : Terrain with numerous large, high (10.0.m to 30.0 m high) and closely spaced obstructions such as
large city centres and well-developed industrial complexes

Selection of terrain category shall be made with due regard to the permanence of the obstructions which constitute
the surface roughness, in particular some vegetation and buildings in tropical regions shall not be relied upon to
maintain surface roughness during wind events.

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 SITE WIND SPEED
Shielding Multiplier, Ms

4.3.1 General

The shielding multiplier, Ms, appropriate to a particular direction, shall be as given in Table 4.3. Where the
effects of shielding are ignored, or are not applicable for a particular wind direction, or where the average
up-slope ground gradient is greater than 0.2, Ms shall be equal to 1.0

Table 4.3 Shielding multiplier, Ms

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 SITE WIND SPEED
Shielding Multiplier, Ms

4.3.3 Shielding parameter

The shielding parameter, s, in Table 4.3 shall be determined from :

(6)

(7)

ls average spacing of shielding buildings;

hs average height of shielding buildings;
bs average breadth of shielding buildings normal to the wind stream;
ht height from the ground to the top of the structure; and
ns number of upwind shielding buildings within a 45 sector of radius 20ht and with hs ≥ ht.

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 SITE WIND SPEED
Determine Hill Shape Multiplier, Mh

The hill shape multiplier, Mh, shall be taken as 1.0 except that for the particular cardinal direction in the
local topographic zones shown in Figures 4.3 and 4.4, the value shall be as follows:

(8)

(9)

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 SITE WIND SPEED
Summary
Vsit = Vs (Md) (Mz,cat) ( Ms) ( Mh) (eq. 1)

1.0
Table 4.3
Clause 4.4
(Ms, shall be taken as 1.0 )
(Mh, shall be taken as 1.0 )
Figure 3.1

Table 4.1

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 DESIGN WIND SPEED
2.3 Design wind speed

The building design wind speeds, Vdes shall be taken as the maximum site wind speed, Vsit multiplied by the
importance factor, I, which can be obtained from Table 3.2.
Table 3.2 Importance factor, I

Nature of Occupancy Category of Structures Example of Building I

Buildings and structures that represent low hazard to human life in the
Agricultural facilities,
event of failure such as agricultural facilities, temporary facilities and I 0.87
storage facilities
minor storage facilities.

All buildings and structure except those listed in category I, III and IV. II Residential House 1.0

Buildings and structures where the primary occupancy is one in which Shopping Mall,
III 1.15
more than 300 people congregate in one area. Cinema, Mosque
Essential buildings and structures
Hospital and medical facilities
Fire and police stations
Structures and equipment in civil defense As listed in category
IV 1.15
Communication centers and facilities for IV
emergency response
Power stations and other emergency utilities
Defense shelter.

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 DESIGN WIND PRESSURE
2.4.1 General

The design wind pressures, in Pascals, shall be determined for structures and parts of structures using the following
equation:

p = (0.5 ρair) [Vdes]2Cfig Cdyn Pa

ρair density of air which can be taken as 1.225 kg/m3 ; and

0.5 ρair 0.613 (This value is based on standard air conditions and typical ground level atmospheric pressure).

Vdes = Vsit x I

I Importance factor given in Table 3.2

Cfig aerodynamic shape factor as given in Section 5; and

Cdyn dynamic response factor which shall be taken as 1.0 unless the structure is wind sensitive (see Section 6), when
the values shall be as defined in Section 6

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 DESIGN WIND PRESSURE
SECTION 5 : AERODYNAMIC SHAPE FACTOR

5.1 General

This Section provides methods for evaluating aerodynamic shape factor, Cfig, for structures or parts of structures. The
values of Cfig are used in determining the pressures applied to each surface (see Figure 5.1). The wind action effects
used for design shall be the sum of values determined for different pressure effects such as the combination of
internal and external pressures on enclosed buildings.

Clauses 5.3, 5.4 and 5.5 provide values for enclosed rectangular buildings. Methods for particular cases for buildings,
free walls, free roofs, exposed members and other structures are given in the appropriate appendices.

Normal pressures on enclosed buildings Frictional drag on enclosed buildings

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 DESIGN WIND PRESSURE
SECTION 5 : AERODYNAMIC SHAPE FACTOR

5.2 Evaluation of aerodynamic shape factor

The aerodynamic shape factor, Cfig shall be determined for specific surfaces or parts of surfaces as
below:

a) Enclosed buildings (see this Section 5 and Appendix C):

Cfig = Cp,e Ka Kc Kl Kp for external pressures;
Cfig = Cp,I Kc for internal pressures; and
Cfig = Cf Kc for frictional drag forces.

c) Free standing hoardings, walls canopies and roofs (see Appendix D):
Cfig = Cp,n Ka Kl Kp for pressure normal to surface;
Cfig = Cf for frictional drag forces

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 DESIGN WIND PRESSURE
External pressure for enclosed buildings
Cfig = Cp,e Ka Kc Kl Kp for external pressures
External pressure coefficients, Cp,e for rectangular enclosed buildings
Table 5.2 (a) Windward wall, W Table 5.2 (b) Leeward wall, L

Table 5.2 (c) Side walls, S

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 DESIGN WIND PRESSURE
External pressure for enclosed buildings

5.4.2 Area reduction factor, Ka, for roofs and side walls

For roofs and side walls, the reduction factor, Ka, shall be as given in Table 5.4. For all other cases, Ka, shall be taken as
1.0. Tributary area is the area contributing to the force being considered.

Table 5.4 Area reduction factor, Ka

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 DESIGN WIND PRESSURE
External pressure for enclosed buildings
5.4.3 Combination factor, Kc

Where wind pressures acting on two or more surfaces of an enclosed building (e.g. windward wall, upwind roof, side
wall, internal pressure, etc.) contribute simultaneously to a structural action effect (e.g. member force or stress) on a
major structural element, the combination factor Kc given in Table 5.5 may be applied to the combined forces
calculated for the critical external and internal surfaces. This factor shall not be applied to cladding or immediate
supporting structure such as purlins.
For any roof or side wall surface, Kc shall not be less than 0.8/Ka (see 5.4.2)

Table 5.5 Action combination factors for wind pressure contributing from two or more building surfaces to effects on major
structural elements

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 DESIGN WIND PRESSURE
External pressure for enclosed buildings

5.4.4 Local pressure factors, Kl for cladding

The local pressure, Kl, shall be taken as 1.0 in all cases except when determining the wind forces applied to claddings,
their fixings, the members which directly support the cladding, and the immediate fixings of these members. In these
cases, Kl shall either be taken from Table 5.6 for the area and locations indicated, or be taken as 1.0, whichever gives
the most adverse effect when combined with the external and internal pressures. Where more than one case applies,
the largest value of Kl from Table 5.6 shall be used.
Table 5.6 Local pressure factor, Kl

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 DESIGN WIND PRESSURE
External pressure for enclosed buildings

5.4.5 Porous cladding reduction factor, Kp, for roofs and side walls

The porous cladding reduction factor, Kp, shall be taken as 1.0 except that where an external surface consists of permeable
cladding and the solidity ratio is less than 0.999 and exceeds 0.99, the values given in Table 5.8 may be used for local
negative pressure. The solidity ratio of the surface is the ratio of solid area to total area of the surface. Figure 5.4 shows the
dimension da.

Table 5.8 Porous cladding reduction factor, Kp

Figure 5.4 Notation for permeable surfaces

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 DESIGN WIND PRESSURE
Internal pressure for enclosed buildings

Cfig = Cp,I Kc for internal pressures

Internal pressure coefficients, Cp,i for rectangular enclosed buildings

5.3.1 General

Aerodynamic shape factors for internal pressures Cp,i shall be determined from Table 5.1.

Table 5.1(a) shall be used for the design case where openings are shut and the wall permeability dominates. Table
5.1(b) shall be used for the design case where openings are assumed to be open. The reference height, h, at which
the wind speed is determined, shall in all cases be taken as the average height of the roof

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 DESIGN WIND PRESSURE
Internal pressure for enclosed buildings
Table 5.1 (a) Cases for permeable walls Table 5.1 (b) dominant openings on one surface

5.3.2 Openings
Combinations of openings shall be assumed to give internal pressures
that together with external pressures give the most adverse wind
actions. Potential openings include doors, windows and vents.

5.3.3 Dominant openings

A surface is considered to contain dominant openings if the sum of all
openings in that surface exceeds the sum of openings in each of the
other surfaces taken one at a time.

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 DESIGN WIND PRESSURE
Summary
p = (0.613) [Vdes]2Cfig Cdyn Pa

From clause 2.3 Consider for static analysis, take 1.0

Cfig = Cp,e Ka Kc Kl Kp Cfig.e – Cfig.i Cfig = Cp,i Kc Table 5.5

Table 5.2 (a), (b), (c)

Table 5.1 (a) , (b)
Table 5.4
Table 5.8

Table 5.6
Table 5.5
Design Wind Pressure
1. pw.w = (0.613) [Vdes]2Cfig(w.w) Cdyn (Pa)
2. pl.w = (0.613) [Vdes]2Cfig(l.w) Cdyn (Pa)
3. ps.w = (0.613) [Vdes]2Cfig(s.w) Cdyn (Pa)

2.4.2 Minimum design wind load

The wind load in the design of main wind force resisting system shall not be less than 0.65 kN/m2 multiplied by
the area of the building or structure projected on a vertical plane normal to the wind direction

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 WIND ACTION
2.5.1 Directions to be considered
Structures shall be designed to withstand wind forces derived by considering wind actions from no fewer than four
critical orthogonal directions aligned to the structure.

2.5.2 Forces on building elements

To determine the action effects, W, the forces, F, in Newton, on a building element, such as a wall or a roof, shall be
calculated from the pressures applicable to the assumed areas as follows:

F = Σ pz Az

pz the design wind pressure at height z, in Pascals

(pe – pi) for enclosed buildings or (pn) where net pressure is applicable. Given pe, pi, pn are the
external, internal and net pressures respectively as determined in 2.4;

Az area of a structure or a part of a structure, in meters squared, at height z, upon which the pressure at that
height (pz) acts.
For enclosed buildings, internal pressures shall be taken to act simultaneously with external pressures including the
effects of local pressure factors, Kl (see 5.4.4). The most severe combinations of internal and external pressures shall be
selected for design.

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 WIND PRESSURE
Free standing hoardings, walls canopies and roofs
Free standing hoardings, walls canopies and roofs (see Appendix D)

D1.1 Application
This appendix provides methods for evaluating aerodynamic shape factors, Cfig, for the following:
a) free roofs, including hyperbolic paraboloid roofs;
b) canopies, awnings and carports (adjacent to enclosed buildings);
c) cantilevered roofs; or
d) hoarding and free standing walls
D2.1 Aerodynamic shape factor for normal net pressure on free standing hoardings and walls
The aerodynamic shape factor, Cfig, for calculating net pressure across free standing rectangular hoardings or walls (see
Figure D1), is as follows:

Cfig = Cp,n Ka Kl Kp (D2)

Cp,n net pressure coefficient acting normal to the surface, obtained from Table D2 using
the dimensions in Figure D1;
Kp porous cladding reduction factor given in D1.4;
Ka 1.0; and
Kl 1.0

The resultant of the pressure should be taken to act at half the height of the hoarding or wall, (c/2), with a horizontal
eccentricity, e

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 WIND PRESSURE
Free standing hoardings, walls canopies and roofs

Table D2(a). Wind normal to hoarding or wall, θ = 0o

*Cp,n always acts normal to the surface regardless of the wind direction

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 DESIGN WIND PRESSURE
Summary
p = (0.613) [Vdes]2Cfig Cdyn Pa

From clause 2.3 Consider for static analysis, take 1.0

Cfig = Cp,n Ka Kl Kp

Table D2(a). Wind normal to hoarding or wall, θ = 0o

2.4.2 Minimum design wind load

The wind load in the design of main wind force resisting system shall not be less than 0.65 kN/m2
multiplied by the area of the building or structure projected on a vertical plane normal to the wind
direction

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 REFERENCES

1. Holmes J.D., Wind Loading of Structures, Taylor & Francis, Second Edition, United State of America
2. Majid, T. A.*, Zakaria, S. A. S., Wan Chik, F. A., Deraman, S. N. C., Muhammad, M. K. A. (2016), Past
Windstorm Occurrence Trend, Damage, And Losses In Penang, Malaysia. Journal of Engineering
Science and Technology, Vol. 11, No. 3 (2016) 397 – 406
3. Mendis, P., Ngo, T., Haristos, N., Hira, A., Samali, B. and Cheung, J. (2007), Wind Loading on Tall
Building, EJse Special Issue: Loading on Structures, 2007
4. T.A. Majid, Noram I. Ramli, M. I. Ali, M. Syamsyul H. Saad, Malaysia Country Report 2012: Wind
Related Disaster Risk Reduction and Wind Environmental Issues
5. Zhou, Y., Kijewski, T. and Kareem, A. (2002), Along-Wind Load Effect on Tall Building: Comparative
Study of Major International Codes and Standard, Journal of Structural Engineering, June 2002
6. MS1553:2002 “Malaysia Standard Code of Practice on Wind Loading for Building”, Department of
Standards Malaysia

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