Nano-Structures & Nano-Objects 34 (2023) 100980

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Nano-Structures & Nano-Objects

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/nanoso

An introduction to triboelectric nanogenerators

∗
Syed Nasimul Alam a , , Arka Ghosh a , Pankaj Shrivastava a , Uddeshya Shukla a ,
Kamal Garg b,c , Abhay Chowdary Edara a , Nityananada Sahoo a
a
Metallurgical and Materials Engineering Department, National Institute of Technology Rourkela, Rourkela, Odisha, 769008, India
b
Mechanical Engineering Department, National Institute of Technology Rourkela, Rourkela, Odisha, 769008, India
c
Schenck Process India Limited, Bengaluru, Karnataka, 560058, India

article info a b s t r a c t

Article history: Today, there is a continuous rise in the requirement for upgraded healthcare systems that are self-
Received 28 December 2022 driven, dynamic and very low in maintenance. With a steep rise in the evolution of devices and
Received in revised form 1 April 2023 their applications, such as sensors, there is an increment in the supply of sustainable energy without
Accepted 20 April 2023
the replacement and recharging of the installed charge storage devices. Among the various energy
Keywords: scavengers, triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) have garnered huge attention as they have a high
Triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) instantaneous output power and can be developed from a broad selection of available materials, like
Renewable energy aluminium (Al) and copper (Cu) metal films, fluorinated ethylene propylene (FEP), polytetrafluoroethy-
Triboelectricity lene (PTFE) and green materials like cellulose-based materials. TENGs have a great ability to convert
Modes of TENGs extracted mechanical energies into electrical energies very effectively due to the coupling effects of
contact electrification and electrostatic induction. They have tremendous potential in a diverse range
of applications, such as medical therapies that include biomedical applications, energy scavenging
and active sensing. TENGs are devices made of self-energizing materials that are non-polluting, long-
lasting and small sized. They can be developed through inexpensive fabrication processes and are
environmentally friendly. In this paper, the mechanism by which the triboelectric nanogenerators
perform their applications and how strategies are being developed to improve their performance have
been discussed. We have also discussed the future research directions that are being undertaken to
advance development in this field. So far, TENGs have mainly been used as mechanical and chemical
stimuli to detect sensors and as an electrical source for electronic equipment and devices. Most of
the studies found in the literature have reported that TENGs are primarily focused on optimization of
systems and circuit designs or on the application of TENGs. A thorough review of the fundamentals of
TENGs has been presented here.
© 2023 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction For instance, batteries are expected to be around 70 GWh by

the end of 2030 [1–6]. Efficient conversion techniques for energy
Today, there is a great demand for self-powered devices and and their storage have drawn the attention of researchers for
energy harvesters, or scavengers. A lot of effort is being put a very long time. Electromagnetic generators (EMGs) were the
into converting the available environmental energy into electrical conventional approach to generating electricity. They scavenge
energy so that the increased global demand for cleaner and sus- electrical energy very effectively from the input of high-frequency
tainable energy can be fulfilled. Combustion has been the most mechanical energy. Several mechanisms of energy harvesting,
important energy conversion in human history. Fuels like coal and like the piezoelectric effect, the electrostatic effect and elec-
oil have been combusted for energy, which is not only inefficient tromagnetic induction, have already been developed. However,
but also causes environmental problems. these technologies require complicated structures and operate
In addition, by the end of 2025, it is expected that there will under high-frequency stimuli with a low transducing efficiency
be around 70 billion devices that are connected to the internet, and low voltage output in the low-frequency domain, which
such as mobile phones, digital cameras and IoT devices. This constrains their potential applications. TENGs have the ability to
will not only cause problems with electronic waste (e-waste) overcome these drawbacks and so have attracted the attention
management but also increase the demand for sources of power. of researchers worldwide. They are a breakthrough technology in
the areas of energy harvesting and nanoenergy and nanosystems
∗ Corresponding author. (NENS). The term ‘‘nanogenerator’’, coined by researchers, refers
E-mail addresses: nasimulalam@yahoo.com, syedn@nitrkl.ac.in (S.N. Alam). to a tiny electronic chip or a tiny circuit board that can harvest

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoso.2023.100980
2352-507X/© 2023 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
S.N. Alam, A. Ghosh, P. Shrivastava et al. Nano-Structures & Nano-Objects 34 (2023) 100980

electrical energy by capturing a variety of mechanical energy

sources, including human motion such as walking, breathing, jog-
ging and heartbeat [7,8], raindrops [9], vibration [10], wind [11],
water wave [12], etc. These generators are tiny and the ‘‘nano’’
prefix suggests that the dimension or size of the material used
in these generators is in nanometers. The dimensions of TENGs
depend on the specific design and application, and can vary in
the range of a few millimetres to several centimetres, depending
on the application. The shapes of the TENGs can be rectangular,
circular or even irregular, and their thickness can vary from a few
micrometres to a few millimetres, depending on the materials
used and the application requirement. The area of the TENG
electrodes can range from a few square millimetres to several
square centimetres. The distance between the two electrodes of
the TENGs also lies in the range of a few microns to several
millimetres, depending on the application of the TENG. Even the
most advanced and potent nanogenerators in the market today
can be grasped between two fingers. There is an abundance
of low-frequency mechanical energy from various sources, such
as, vibrations, wind, water waves, human and vehicle motions,
etc. These cannot be effectively harvested using an EMG, and
nanogenerators (NG) provide the most effective solution to this Fig. 1. Application of triboelectric nanogenerators in various fields.
problem. The first nanogenerator, developed in 2006, was based
on zinc oxide (ZnO). In ZnO nanorod-based nanogenerators, the
mechanical deformation of the ZnO nanorods induces a flow of energy is an eco-friendly method to generate energy for many
electrons in the external load [13–18]. of the devices that we are using today and will be using in the
The term ‘nanogenerator’ is used to describe a small electronic future. With the rapid development of the internet of things
chip that can generate electricity from the mechanical move- (IoTs), the number of sensors utilized is expected to exceed 200
ments of the body. The chip has an integrated circuit etched billion by 2025 [21]. Sustainable energy sources without the
on its flexible surface. A nanogenerator converts mechanical or need to recharge and replace the electric storage device have
thermal energy produced by small-scale physical changes into become increasingly important. TENGs would be especially useful
electricity. There are three main types of nanogenerators: piezo- for the development of wearable electronics and sensor networks
electric, triboelectric and pyroelectric nanogenerators. Even the for the IoTs. Triboelectric nanogenerators were first invented in
most complex and powerful nanogenerators that have been de- 2012 by Wang Zhonglin’s nano research team, and can very
veloped are small enough to be held between two fingers. The effectively convert various forms of ambient mechanical energy
major components inside a nanogenerator are nanowires or a into electrical energy by following the principles of the coupling
similar structure made of a piezoelectric ceramic material. The effects of electrostatic induction and contact electrification [22–
piezoelectric nanogenerator can convert energy from mechanical 26]. Fig. 1 is a schematic diagram showing a comprehensive list
movement into electrical energy that could self-power nanode- of the application of TENGs in various sectors.
vices and nanosystems. Such movements include, body or muscle Since their invention, TENGs have made many breakthroughs
movement, blood pressure, energy from the vibrations of acoustic in the basic mechanism of self-driving systems. TENGs have many
or ultrasonic waves, hydraulic energy from the flow of body fluids advantages in micro-nanoenergy harvesting and can be widely
or dynamic fluids, etc. Piezoelectric nanogenerators with ceramic- used in sensors, portable devices, etc. They use a simple, ef-
type materials like lead zirconate titanate (PZT), lead magnesium ficient and environmentally friendly new technique for energy
niobate-lead titanate (PMN-Pt), etc., have a higher output and harvesting, active sensing, environmental monitoring manage-
have been used for developing several self-powered systems. ment and biomedical therapy. TENGs can convert a wide variety
Polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) is a piezoelectric polymer that of ambient mechanical energies into electricity [27,28]. The tri-
shows good output. Hundreds of nanowires can be packed side- boelectric effect is also known as triboelectric charging. It is a
by-side in a space less than the width of a human hair. As type of contact electrification in which certain materials become
the dimensions of nanogenerators are so small, the slightest electrically charged when separated from a different material
movement can generate current. with which they were in contact. Rubbing the two materials
Triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) and piezoelectric nano- together increases the contact between them. Electricity is gener-
generators (PENGs) are two recently developed technologies for ated due to friction between the two dissimilar surfaces; hence,
effective harvesting of ambient mechanical energy in order to it is called triboelectricity. Triboelectricity is the scientific term
create self-powered systems. TENGs can generate a large open- for the occurrence where two materials come into contact, get
circuit output voltage. They are a breakthrough technique to electrically charged and then separate from one another. Most of
harvest mechanical energy. They are inexpensive and easy to fab- the static electricity that we generate in our day-to-day lives is
ricate, have a low cost, and possess a high conversion efficiency triboelectric. The polarity and the strength of the charge depend
rate, which enables their application as new flexible sensors, on the materials. This may be the result of a number of factors,
wearable devices, soft robotics and machines [19,20]. Lightweight such as contact electrification, in which electric charge is trans-
and wearable power supply modules with a high-energy storage ferred between two materials when they come into contact, and
capability are highly desirable for wearable technology. electrostatic induction, in which electric charge is redistributed
Developing clean and efficient energy is a major challenge within a material as a result of the presence of an external electric
today. TENGs are based on collecting and using energy lost by field. While tribology, the study of friction and wear between
friction. It is an environmentally friendly and effective way to surfaces, and flexoelectricity, the generation of electric charge
improve energy efficiency. Harvesting environmental mechanical due to mechanical strain, can both play a role in the triboelectric
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S.N. Alam, A. Ghosh, P. Shrivastava et al. Nano-Structures & Nano-Objects 34 (2023) 100980

and charges are exchanged. When one of the surfaces is de-

tached from the other material surface, the detached surfaces
can either become positively or negatively charged. Contact with
an oppositely charged surface may cause an electric discharge.
Triboelectricity, therefore, is the generation of electricity between
two dissimilar materials due to the collision between them, giv-
ing rise to a high flow of electrons across the materials and
maintaining the potential difference. Rubbing the two materials
against each other increases the surface contact between them,
which generates electric charge due to the triboelectric effect.
The effect is well experienced by rubbing a plastic comb through
hair, which can produce static electricity. The static electricity
that we generate in our daily lives is triboelectric. The charge
strength and charge polarity produced generally depend on the
type of material, straining in the material, temperature of the
material, surface roughness, etc. The triboelectric effect paved the
way for the development of a triboelectric generator during 2012
at the Georgia Institute of Technology [32–35]. Fig. 5 explains the
triboelectric effect, which is the generation of electricity caused
by adhesion or triboelectric charging.
The mechanism of triboelectricity or contact-electricity has
Fig. 2. Hybrid triboelectric nanogenerators used in different energy sectors. been widely studied and the possible mechanisms that were
proposed are based on ion, electron or material’s species transfer.
However, recent studies have confirmed that electron transfer is
effect, they are not the primary mechanisms responsible for the the dominant mechanism of the triboelectric effect between two
dissimilar solids. Let us consider some examples of triboelectricity
phenomenon. Instead, it is the combination of contact electrifi-
that we come across in our day-to-day lives. We must have seen
cation and electrostatic induction that leads to the triboelectric
that when we rub a balloon back and forth on our hair and later
effect [29,30]. TENG has been found to be a unique and cost-
take it close to our hair, our hair stands up (Fig. 6). The hair is now
effective technique for harvesting triboelectric energy and TENG
attracted to the balloon. This is known as the triboelectric effect.
devices will become a major player in the field of renewable and
This effect happens with many other materials when rubbed
green energy, along with other renewable resources of energy,
against each other due to the transfer of charge. When the balloon
like solar, wind and water. Fig. 2 shows various TENGs that are
and the hair come in contact with each other and are rubbed
being used for harvesting energy.
against each other, the balloon collects electrons from the hair,
For instance, Yao et al. [31] fabricated a generator by assem-
and as a result, the balloon is slightly negatively charged and the
bling thin cellulose nanofibrils (CNF) and films of fluorinated
hair is positively charged. This is due to the properties of both
ethylene propylene (FEP) and connecting them in a circuit using
the balloon and the hair. As the balloon and the hair are now
copper tapes and spacers. By virtue of an external force, both the
oppositely charged, they get attracted, and the hair stands up
assembly parts connect together and the CNF yields electrons. when the balloon is brought close to it. If the same balloon that
After releasing the externally applied force, current is generated was charged by rubbing against our hair is brought close to the
in order to restore the charge balance. Figs. 3 and 4 explain the bottom part of a thin stream of water running from a water tap
assembly and functioning of a TENG. and slowly moved up and down without touching the water, we
will observe that the stream of water bends towards the balloon.
2. Triboelectric effect This is again due to the attraction between the balloon and the
stream of water. The water molecules get attracted to the balloon,
The act of electricity generation caused by adhesion is called which had already been charged by rubbing against our hair.
the triboelectric effect or triboelectric charging. It generates elec- The simple electrical phenomenon behind this trick is also the
tricity through contact electrification, where one of the materials principle behind the generation of electricity using TENGs [35,
gets electrically charged upon being separated from the adjacent 36]. The schematic diagram in Fig. 7 explains the generation of
contact material. When two dissimilar materials come in con- triboelectricity by sliding surfaces.
tact with each other, electrons migrate from one to the other. Over the past decade, scientists have attempted to develop
This transfer of charge takes place due to friction. The elec- a device that could harness this energy and power electronic
trical potential is balanced between both connected materials devices, sensors and, when generated on a large scale, this energy

Fig. 3. Triboelectric nanogenerator.

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S.N. Alam, A. Ghosh, P. Shrivastava et al. Nano-Structures & Nano-Objects 34 (2023) 100980

is a harvester of mechanical input and provides an electrical

output without the use of any transducer or additional con-
verter. It can potentially develop self-energy generating sensors,
such as motion sensors, acceleration sensors, acoustic sensors,
chemical sensors, photoelectric sensors, etc., without using any
external power source. TENGs have a power output range of 0.1–
100 mW/cm2 . Therefore, it is essential to enhance the capability
of TENGs to provide a better output by optimizing the input
variables, thereby regulating the output performance. To improve
the performance, the materials that provide a triboelectric effect
should be strong and exhibit a low permittivity substrate while
under the tribo-contact layer. The challenge is to optimize both of
these parameters within a single material [40–44]. Fig. 8 shows
the various operating modes of TENGs.
Fig. 4. TENG assembly.

3. Working principle of TENGs

The operation of a TENG is based on the triboelectrification

or charge transfer between the two materials in contact under
ambient conditions. The triboelectrification of materials can be
explained using a triboelectric series. During physical contact be-
tween two materials or frictional sliding, triboelectric charges are
generated on the surfaces and they become oppositely charged,
with varying degrees of charge strength for different materials.
This results in a potential difference between the two electrode
materials. This is the property of the material that assists in
energy harvesting. The TENG is composed of an energy harvesting
module, a power management module and an energy storage
Fig. 5. Triboelectric effect. module [45–49]. When it comes to the output of TENG devices,
the majority of them produce an alternating current (AC) output.
An AC output is more common because it can be easily trans-
could also power our homes. The triboelectric effect is based on formed into different voltages and frequencies, which makes it
the accumulation of charges on dissimilar surfaces when they are more versatile for various applications. There are two main types
in contact with each other. When these surfaces are separated, a of TENG devices that can produce AC output, namely, contact-
high voltage is created that can trigger a flow of electrons. After separation mode TENGs and sliding mode TENGs. In contact-
the invention of TENGs in 2012, the field has been extensively separation mode TENGs, two different materials are brought into
researched. The first TENG device that was developed was a contact and then separated, generating an AC output due to the
contact separation mode device with Kapton and polyester as alternating transfer of electrons between the two materials. The
the active layers. The other modes of TENGs were invented in AC output can be collected through an external circuit. On the
2013 on further investigation [37,38]. There is less area in contact other hand in sliding mode TENGs, two surfaces slide against
whenever the force of contact between adjacent electrodes or each other, generating an AC output due to the repeated contact
materials is low, due to which a lower triboelectric charge density and separation of the materials. The AC output can be collected
is generated. On the other hand, under the opposite condition, through an external circuit. In both these types of TENGs, the
an amount of triboelectric charge density is generated, which AC output can be used directly for low-power applications or it
reaches a maximum value and gets saturated. This is why we see can be rectified into a direct current (DC) using a rectifier circuit
hysteretic behaviour in the contact force response in TENGs [39]. for charging electronic devices. The main difference between an
TENGs consist of four basic modes. AC-TENG and a DC-TENG is in the way they operate. AC-TENGs
i. A vertical contact-separation mode generate electrical energy through the periodic contact and sep-
ii. Lateral sliding mode aration of two materials, typically with the use of an external
iii. Single-electrode mode mechanical oscillator or vibration source. The oscillation causes
iv. Self-supporting triboelectric layered mode or the free- the two materials to repeatedly come into contact and separate,
standing mode generating an AC output. On the other hand, DC-TENGs generate
The various designs of TENGs with respect to the various a DC output through continuous contact and separation of two
operating modes for generating electric power can be used as materials. In DC-TENGs, the two materials are typically placed
portable and wearable power sources. Since the initial invention in a fixed position with respect to each other and are subject
in 2012, with the above-mentioned modes of TENG and based on to external mechanical deformation, such as bending or twisting,
them, self-power generating systems have also been developed. to generate a continuous flow of electrical energy [50]. Fig. 9
Firstly, during the development of TENGs, various mechanical shows the design and the various modules in a TENG. The various
inputs were used to meet the requirements of the various aspects components of a TENG are given in Table 1.
of applications, and a set of structures such as saw tooth, arched, When the two surfaces are separated, electrons are forced to
multi-layered and grating structures were designed. Secondly, flow into the electrode in order to counteract the subsequent
these self-power generating systems were designed to collect drop in potential. The four distinct TENG modes are as follows [51,
inputs from various energy sources like human motion, wind 52].
energy, engine revolution, etc., to do their work. Thirdly, a large i. Contact Separation Mode: In the presence of a physical con-
number of applications, mainly sensors that can be categorized as tact between two materials that have different electron affinities,
physical or chemical, have been successfully developed. A TENG their surfaces develop opposing charges. When they are provided
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S.N. Alam, A. Ghosh, P. Shrivastava et al. Nano-Structures & Nano-Objects 34 (2023) 100980

Fig. 6. Attraction between water molecules and the balloon.

Fig. 7. Sliding surface generating triboelectricity.

Fig. 8. Modes of TENGs.

with a gap, a potential is developed in the interfacial region back as the triboelectric potential is destroyed. An alternating
under the effect of an external force. The electrodes that are output on the external load is possible when a periodic force is
back deposited allow electrons to move via the external circuit, applied.
balancing the electrostatic charge field. Every time these two ii. Linear-Sliding Mode: The area of contact between the
materials come back into contact, the induced electrons move two parts changes as a result of the two parts moving from
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S.N. Alam, A. Ghosh, P. Shrivastava et al. Nano-Structures & Nano-Objects 34 (2023) 100980

Table 1
Various components of a TENG.
Energy Sources for a TENG Modes of Working of the TENG Triboelectrification
Contact-Separation Mode
Motion of the Human Body Electron Transfer
Single Electrode Mode
Wind Linear-Sliding Mode Ion Transfer
Water Freestanding Triboelectric-Layer
Material Transfer
Sound Mode

Fig. 9. Design of TENGs.

vertical contact separation to lateral relative slides. Moreover, polyvinylidene fluoride or polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF), and
this may throw off the electrostatic balance, creating a poten- potassium niobate (KNbO3 ) nanofibers are utilized to develop
tial that makes electrons pass through the outside circuit. Many a high output voltage flexible nanogenerator [49]. It should be
grating patterns are created for particular energy collection ap- noted that the size of a nanogenerator is not in nanometers, but
plications or quantitative sensing, but as they are derived with the piezoelectric material that is attached to the substrate is in
the basic linear-sliding method, disc or cylindrical rotations and the nanoscale range. The substrate is a flexible surface containing
sliding motions in a planar direction can also be present. How- components made of silicone and piezoelectric ceramic materi-
ever, because of wear and tear, frequent friction may impair the als. Wang [47,53–56] and his team at the Georgia Institute of
robustness and durability. Technology developed ZnO nanowires having a diameter in the
iii. Single-Electrode Mode: Both the linear-sliding mode and range of 100 to 300 nm and a length of around 100 µm. An array
the vertical contact separation mode employ a pair of connected of nanowires is affixed to the substrate and a zigzag pattern of
electrodes with a relative displacement, which may restrict their silicone electrodes is connected to the ends of the nanowires.
applicability, particularly for moveable items in biological sensors When a slight physical pressure is exerted on the nanogenerator,
and health management information systems (HMIS). The dielec- the nanowires in the nanogenerator flex and produce an elec-
tric component is mobile in the single-electrode mode because trical charge. The developed electrical charge is captured by the
there is only one loaded electrode that is connected to ground electrode and sent to the other components of the nanogenerator
and does not have a secure electrical connection. When the di- circuit. There could be multiple electrodes in a nanogenerator
electric component travels erratically towards and away from the using millions of nanowires to generate power [57,58]. Self-
electrode in a vertical or lateral direction, charges are transferred charging sensors are sensors that have the ability to generate
between the stationary electrode and the ground. Although this their own power and can operate without any external power
mode has greater flexibility, the output performance is less. source or battery replacement. These sensors are designed to
iv. Freestanding Triboelectric-Layer Mode: In this mode, the harvest energy from the environment around them, such as light,
pair of electrodes can be kept largely fixed and ground-free. A heat, motion or vibrations, and convert it into usable electrical
load is used to link the pair of symmetric electrodes. Induction energy to power their internal components. There are several
produces an asymmetric charge distribution when the dielectric types of self-charging sensors.
component moves back and forth between the two electrodes, i. Solar-powered sensors: These sensors use photovoltaic cells
generating a charge transfer between them via the external load. to convert sunlight into electrical energy to power their internal
Based on its characteristics, this mode was created for grating components.
structures and is always used for sliding motions. ii. Thermoelectric sensors: These sensors generate electric-
In order to boost the piezoelectricity of the nanowires in a ity by using the temperature difference between their internal
piezoelectric nanogenerator, nanostructured piezoelectric mate- components and the environment around them.
rials are used. Nanowires having different structures are used iii. Kinetic energy sensors: These sensors generate electric-
in piezoelectric nanogenerators, such as wurtzite-structured ZnO ity through motion or vibrations. They use piezoelectric materi-
nanowires [47] and perovskite-structured barium titanate (BaTiO3 ) als that generate electrical charges when they are mechanically
nanowires [48]. In some cases, polymeric nanofibers, such as stressed.
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S.N. Alam, A. Ghosh, P. Shrivastava et al. Nano-Structures & Nano-Objects 34 (2023) 100980

Self-charging sensors have several advantages over traditional

battery-powered sensors, including reduced maintenance costs
and increased reliability. They are ideal for use in remote or hard-
to-reach locations where replacing batteries may be difficult or
expensive. They are also environmentally friendly because they
do not require the disposal of toxic batteries.

4. Application of TENGs

Mechanical energy is generated all around us, however it is

not harvested and as a result it is wasted. TENGs can harvest this
energy and become a promising technique to use this energy that
is being wasted in our daily lives. Several applications are being
explored by various researchers in different fields to scavenge
renewable energy for numerous applications. Based on the recent
important advancements in the field of TENGs, they can be used
for power in the four fields given below. Fig. 10. E-skin.
i. Micro or nano power sources for self-energy generating
systems
ii. Active, self-powered or self-charging sensors for human–
an external force input of 1 kgf is given. They also reported that
machine interaction (HMI), infrastructure, medical and environ-
the TENG-based E-skin provided a continuous output without any
mental monitoring
deviation in its characteristic values, even when a repeated pres-
iii. Basic network units for scavenging large-scale blue energy, sure of 4500 cycles was applied. The requirements of an E-skin
like hydraulic wave energy and large-scale oceanic energy are that it should be highly flexible, non-allergic, highly sensitive
iv. Extraction of direct power for high-voltage (HV) applica- to biomechanical inputs and deliver a stable output under adverse
tions conditions. E-skins are capable of charging capacitors and driving
TENG-based implanted symbiotic pacemakers (SPM) are ex- an electronic watch. The strain sensor, electrophysiological sen-
amples of micro and nano power sources for self-powered sys- sor, skin hydration sensor and temperature sensor make up the
tems that harvest biomechanical and ambient energy. The SPM TENG part of the E-skin and have been highlighted in Fig. 10.
developed by Ouyang et al. [53] can successfully harvest and store Strain sensors are an important part of E-Skin technology, as
energy using a TENG for cardiac pacing in a large-animal model. they allow the skin to detect and measure an external force or
The SPM consists of an implantable TENG (iTENG) for harvesting pressure. There are several types of strain sensors that are used
energy from cardiac triggers, a power management unit (PMU) in E-Skin. Some of them are listed below.
and a pacemaker unit. TENGs can convert mechanical triggers in
electrical signals. This is why research is being extensively done 1. Resistive Strain Sensors: These sensors measure the changes
to use them in self-powered sensors. These sensors could be for in electrical resistance in response to changes in strain
or pressure. They are made of conductive materials such
touch, acoustic, motion and acceleration, as well as for sensing
as carbon nanotubes (CNTs) or graphene, which change
chemicals [59,60]. TENGs can also be used to harvest natural
their electrical resistance when they are stretched or com-
mechanical energy from wind, raindrops or wave energy in the
pressed.
ocean. Blue energy is important because of the high efficiency
2. Capacitive Strain Sensors: These sensors measure changes
of TENGs for harvesting low-frequency vibration energy [61,62].
in capacitance in response to changes in strain or pressure.
As the output performance of TENGs exhibits high voltage (HV)
They consist of two conductive plates separated by a di-
and low current, it has potential application in high voltage electric material, which changes its thickness when it is
power sources. Compared to conventional high voltage power stretched or compressed. The change in capacitance can be
sources, TENGs can generate a high voltage of up to thousands measured and used to calculate the strain or pressure.
of volts without using sophisticated power converters. TENG- 3. Piezoelectric Strain Sensors: These sensors generate an
based high voltage power sources are also portable and have a electrical charge in response to mechanical stress, such as
lower cost [63]. Some of the TENGs that have been designed for strain or pressure. They are made of materials that exhibit
harvesting energy in different applications are discussed below. piezoelectric properties such as quartz or ceramics.

4.1. Electronic Skin (E-Skin) In E-Skin, strain sensors are typically integrated into flexible
substrates, such as a polymer or elastomer, to achieve conformal
E-Skin is a type of electronic skin that can mimic the func- contact with the skin. They can be arranged in an array to provide
tionality and properties of human skin. As TENGs are capable spatial information about the location and magnitude of the strain
of generating electrical energy from a mechanical source, they or pressure. Overall, strain sensors are critical components of E-
give rise to the generation of electricity through self-powered Skin technology, as they enable the skin to detect and respond
sensors. With an increase in the use of portable electronic devices, to external stimuli in a way that is similar to human skin. Tem-
there is a linear growth in the demand for wearable sensor perature sensors in E-Skin typically work by measuring changes
in electrical resistance or capacitance that occur in response to
technologies that can increase the interaction between humans
changes in temperature. Three temperature sensors that can be
and electronic devices. However, there is a lack in delivering the
used in E-Skin are listed below.
required output by the different sensory wearables like E-skin
and flexible electronics. On the other hand, TENG-based E-skin 1. Thermistors: These are resistive temperature sensors that
(Fig. 10) is highly flexible and able to self-harvest biomechanical use materials whose resistance depends on temperature,
energy and perform self-pressure sensing without the input of such as ceramics or polymers. The electrical resistance
any applied power. Park et al. [64] have reported that the E-skin of the material changes with temperature, which can be
developed by them gives a power output of 154 mW/m2 when measured and used to calculate the temperature.
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S.N. Alam, A. Ghosh, P. Shrivastava et al. Nano-Structures & Nano-Objects 34 (2023) 100980

2. Thermocouples: These are temperature sensors that use 2. Impedance sensors: These sensors use two or more elec-
two different metals joined together at the sensing end. trodes that are placed on the surface of the skin. A small
When the junction is exposed to a temperature gradient, electrical current is applied between the electrodes, and
it generates a voltage that is proportional to the tempera- the impedance of the skin is measured. Changes in skin
ture difference. This voltage can be measured and used to hydration can be detected by changes in skin impedance.
calculate the temperature.
3. Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs): These are resis- In E-skin, a skin hydration sensor can be integrated into a
tive temperature sensors that use platinum (Pt) or nickel flexible substrate along with other sensors, such as temperature
(Ni) metal wires whose resistance depends on the tem- sensors and pressure sensors, to provide a complete picture of the
perature. The resistance of the wire varies with temper- skin’s environment. They can be arranged in an array to provide
ature, which can be measured and used to calculate the spatial information about the hydration level of different regions
temperature. of the skin. Skin hydration sensors allow the skin to detect and
respond to changes in skin hydration, which is important for
Temperature sensors are critical components of E-Skin technol- maintaining healthy skin [65].
ogy, as they enable the skin to detect and respond to changes
in temperature, which is an important aspect of our interaction 4.2. TENG-based shoe
with the environment. Electrophysiological sensors used in E-skin
technology can detect and measure electrical signals generated by Triboelectric energy harvesters are being used to harvest the
the body. The temperature sensors are typically used to measure energy generated during human motion. The TENG consists of a
signals related to muscle activity, brain activity or cardiovascular number of films made of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), nylon,
function. Three types of electrophysiological sensors that can be copper (Cu) and aluminium (Al) assembled together. It produces
used in E-skin are mentioned below.
and collects the charge during vertical motion. These TENGs are
1. Electromyogram (EMG) Sensors: These sensors measure implanted in the soles of shoes so that we can harness the
the electrical activity of muscles. They typically use elec- energy we generate when we move. Zou et al. [54] have proposed
trodes that are attached to the surface of the skin or im- in their paper the development of TENG-enabled smart shoes
planted directly into the muscle tissue. EMG sensors can for wearable electricity generation (Fig. 11). When a TENG is
be used to detect and measure muscle contractions, which pinned to the shoe’s insole, it generates electricity while walking.
can provide information about the muscle strength and It collects energy and also purifies the insole [19]. As TENGs
activity. can track the acceleration and frequency of the person when
2. Electroencephalography (EEG) Sensors: These sensors mea- they are running, acceleration-sensor-based TENGs can be used
sure the electrical activity of the brain. They typically use underneath the shoe.
electrodes attached to the surface of the scalp or implanted
directly into the brain tissue. EEG sensors can be used 4.3. Fully packed water-proof TENGs
to detect and measure brain waves, which can provide
information about cognitive function, emotions and other TENGs have several drawbacks that are being removed by
aspects of brain activity. introducing advanced techniques of synthesis and various fabri-
3. Electrocardiography (ECG) Sensors: These sensors measure cation designs. One of the major drawbacks of TENGs has been
the electrical activity of the heart. They generally use elec- their poor performance under humidity. The introduction of solu-
trodes attached to the surface of the skin. ECG sensors can tions in the fabrication of TENGs increased their performance un-
be used to detect and measure heart rate, rhythm and other der such conditions. Fully packed waterproof TENGs (WP-TENGs)
aspects of cardiovascular function. have the ability to work underwater, in deep-water pressures and
in high-humidity conditions. A WP-TENG device made up of a
In E-skin, electrophysiological sensors can be integrated into a nickel (Ni) foam-based positive triboelectric layer and a micro-
flexible substrate with other sensors, such as temperature sensors rough film of a silicone elastomer (PDMS) acts as a negative
and pressure sensors, to provide a comprehensive picture of the triboelectric layer. The TENG device is sealed with a pouch lami-
body’s activity. They can be arranged in an array to provide spatial nator and packed from either side using a polymer casing. Due
information about the location and magnitude of the electrical to the application of WP-TENGs in higher humidity conditions
signals. Electrophysiological sensors are a key component of the and their better stability inside water, they are used in different
E-skin technology. They enable the skin to detect and respond real-time applications [66]. The sealed and packed TENG provides
to electrical signals generated by the body, providing valuable
good protection to TENG devices against humidity and other
information about health and well-being. A skin hydration sensor
environmental conditions. This silicon elastomer TENG (SE-TENG)
is a type of sensor used in E-skin technology that detects and
when used as resistant from water is called a water-repellent
measures the moisture level of the skin. These sensors are impor-
or water-resistant SE-TENG, i.e., WR-SE-TENG. Both SE-TENG and
tant for maintaining healthy skin, as proper hydration is essential,
WR-SE-TENG devices are used to harvest mechanical energy from
preventing conditions such as dry skin or eczema. Skin hydra-
the mechanical motions of human bodies.
tion sensors typically work by measuring changes in electrical
impedance that occur in response to changes in skin hydration.
4.4. A cloth-based wearable triboelectric nanogenerator
When the skin is dry, the electrical impedance is high and when
the skin is moist, the electrical impedance is low. Two types of
skin hydration sensors that can be used with E-skin are described Cui et al. [67] fabricated a nylon and fabric-based TENG by
below. scavenging the body’s relative motion. These cloth-based TENGs
are attached anywhere on the surface of the clothes, and from
1. Capacitive Sensors: These sensors use two conductive plates the motion of the body, they scavenge mechanical energy. The
separated by a dielectric material such as silicone or a poly- friction generated during relative motions, like those of the arms
mer. When the skin comes into contact with the sensor, and legs of the body, is detected by the TENGs and this frictional
the dielectric material absorbs moisture, which changes the energy is converted into electrical energy. The maximum output
capacitance of the sensor. current, maximum voltage and charging rate were reported to be
8
S.N. Alam, A. Ghosh, P. Shrivastava et al. Nano-Structures & Nano-Objects 34 (2023) 100980

Fig. 11. TENG-based energy harvester.

Fig. 12. Fabrication process of an edible TENG device with its various layers.

0.2 mA, 2 kV and 69 µC/s, respectively. This cloth-based wear- pollution; in E-TENGs, these polymers are instead used as a
able nanogenerator was foldable like other clothes and could be substrate or as an active layer. Biodegradable and edible TENGs
washed; it was also flexible like other commonly worn garments. can prevent pollution due to plastic. TENGs have a single pair
The cloth-based triboelectric nanogenerator has the potential to of edible electrodes and are interlayered with materials of daily
become a new source of energy for portable electronic devices use that act as functional materials, like PVCs, tissue paper, flu-
and a unique energy supply network. A specific material, which orinated ethylene propylene (FEP), etc. A TENG having an FEP
forms TENGs, was used to produce heat for clothes with electrical layer provides a maximum electrical output of 23 V and 315 nA
signals. These signals were derived from the friction of the body’s (Fig. 12).
tasks. TENG reduces the static electricity formed on clothes by
absorbing it. It works as an energy collector. TENGs can be used 4.6. Wind energy harvesting
in gloves to identify the signs made with fingers. The principle
behind this is that when a finger is stretched, the contact area For decades, turbine-based generators have been used to pro-
between the attached TENG and the finger changes, which in turn duce electricity from wind energy. These generators have many
causes a change in that particular voltage. The change in voltage drawbacks pertaining to power generation, such as complex-
is different for different hand movements [68]. ity of structure, huge value, flashy sound and a huge price for
production and installation. Hence, triboelectric nanogenerators
4.5. Edible TENGs (e-TENGs) are introduced for the better efficiency and modularized gen-
eration of power through wind energy. Various models were
There has been a recent advancement in the field of edible and manufactured and fabricated for harvesting energy from wind,
biodegradable TENG materials. TENGs are generally made either which consist of flutter, galloping, buffeting and vortex shedding
from polymers or metals and usually pollute the environment triboelectric nanogenerators. Zhang et al. [69] have suggested a
in different ways, depending on the type of metal used and hybrid nanogenerator that consists of a thermoelectric generator
the environment they are employed in. Less than a decade ago, and a triboelectric nanogenerator driven by the flow of gases.
edible and biodegradable TENGs were developed by Khandelwal Furthermore, harvesting wind energy by the use of TENGs is very
et al. [55], who created a fully bioresorbable, single-electrode, sustainable for various functionality and structure designs. For
lightweight TENG using edible materials. Edible TENGs (E-TENGs) example, a TENG used for harvesting wind energy that is driven
can be eaten and are easily metabolized. The triboelectric layer by wind and cantered on the fluttering bet of polytetrafluoroethy-
is made of layer — an edible seaweed. It works as the active lene (PTFE) was introduced; and it could also harvest breeze
layer and is coated with edible silver foil, which acts as the energy. For harvesting energy from wind, TENG designs are dif-
electrode, and there is an active layer of rice sheet acting as ferentiated as follows: design of devices based on wind wheel
the substrate. Since, these edible TENGs are non-toxic and highly structure, design of devices based on wind-induced vibration
suitable for implant devices, they exhibit multiple applications mode, etc. If the rotation speed is low, then using a wind wheel
related to human illness diagnosis via biomedical and electronic TENG based on a rough structure will have great benefits over any
technologies. The TENGs do not react with the body’s cells due to other generator. Structures are primarily based on the fluttering,
their non-toxic nature. The electrical energy harvested through rotation and bionicity of wind energy-based systems. A wind-
these edible TENGs is used to provide power to small electronic rolling-based TENG (WR-TENG) was used to harvest wind energy
devices, like wristwatches, hygrometers and green and UV LEDs. by Yong et al. [56]. In a WR-TENG, electricity is generated from
TENGs that are mostly made of polymers contribute to plastic wind by using a dielectric sphere, which is very light in weight.
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S.N. Alam, A. Ghosh, P. Shrivastava et al. Nano-Structures & Nano-Objects 34 (2023) 100980

Fig. 13. TENG for wind energy harvesting [65].

This sphere rotates via the vortex of the whistle substrate. With
an increase in the kinetic energy of the spherical dielectric, more
conversion of the wind energy takes place, which will increase
the efficiency of the WR-TENGs. An open circuit voltage and a
closed-circuit current of about 11.2 V and 1.86 µA, respectively,
are produced by a single unit WR-TENG. Fig. 13shows the TENG
developed by Yong et al. [56] to harvest wind energy.

4.7. Water energy harvesting

In most cases, normal electromagnet-based harvesters are em-

ployed to harvest energy; these have a low efficiency of con-
version over a range of low frequencies. Due to this, energy
harvesters are heavy and bulky. To overcome these drawbacks,
TENGs were introduced. TENGs have also been designed for har- Fig. 14. Schematic of droplet-based electricity generator.
vesting water-related energies. Many distinctive prototypes have
been proposed and recommended with exceptional output per-
formance, better flexibility and enhanced stability. Harvesting
design resembles a field-effect transistor, a water droplet strikes
energies from ocean waves is an important source for on-site
the PTFE surface and connects the indium tin oxide (ITO) and Al
energy requirements for optoelectronic and organic-based elec-
electrodes, creating a closed circuit to discharge the stored charge
tronic devices. Water-based energy can be extracted from ocean
(Fig. 14). This is how electricity can be generated. This technology
waves, raindrops, river or lake water, etc. For water-based TENGs,
can be applied to structures close to the coast, the hull of a ferry,
researchers have tapped into the friction between a solid and a
and the top of an umbrella. This innovative study can be highly
liquid. A finger-sized plastic tube filled with deionized water can
effective in addressing the energy problem.
produce electricity as the water sloshes around between the two
electrodes. This versatile and high-performance device has been
named by researchers as a water-tube-based triboelectric nano- 4.8. Application of TENGs in sports
generator (WT-TENG) [70]. Deionized water was encapsulated
in a fluorinated ethylene-propylene tube. Since water is highly Advanced ping-pong tables have been designed using sensors
available everywhere and also has high flexibility, WT-TENGs that are based on wood-based triboelectric nanogenerators (W-
can be operated in multiple modes and can be utilized to har- TENG). These tables can help in locating the path of the ping-pong
vest mechanical energy and provide power output. By constantly ball, and the sensors used in the tables are placed in a manner
maintaining a good water/solid contact, a very high volumetric that enables them to sense the velocity of the ball and the prob-
output of 9 mC/m3 at a frequency of 0.25 Hz can be obtained. ability of it falling at a particular position. This helps the referees
Multiple finger-sized WT-TENG units can be integrated into a make decisions [74].
single device and provide multiplied output.
4.9. Application of TENGs in the health sector
4.7.1. Droplet-based electricity generator
Water is employed as a renewable, climate-friendly and sus- TENG can be used to make face masks. There are two types of
tainable energy source for the generation of power throughout face masks based on TENGs. One is used for safety from ultrafine
the world. A drop of water with a volume of 100 microlitres that dust particles and the other is for safeguarding from viruses.
is released from a height of 15 cm can produce 140 V, which Factories and industries contaminate the environment and the
can illuminate 100 tiny LED light bulbs. It is well known that suspensions released from these industries cause health hazards.
the force of moving water may produce electricity. However, the Since these ultrafine particles are toxic, they cause problems like
conversion rate of a standard droplet energy generator is not very asthma and lung infections related to the respiratory system.
effective. Xu et al. [71] have found two approaches to deal with In order to protect against these toxic impurities, triboelectric
these problems. The approach is based on utilizing polytetrafluo- technology was used in the development of PPE (personal pro-
roethylene (PTFE), an electret material that can retain its electric tection equipment). Liu et al. [75] developed the self-powered
polarization after being subjected to a strong electric field and electronic adsorption face mask (SEA-FM), which works with the
having an almost quasi-permanent electric charge [72,73]. When help of triboelectric technology. Ghatak et al. [76] have developed
the water droplets strike the PTFE surface, the charges build up a self-powered mask using multilayer filters comprising tribo-
gradually until they reach a saturation point. Secondly, as the electric series material (TSM) (Fig. 15). One of the layers in a
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S.N. Alam, A. Ghosh, P. Shrivastava et al. Nano-Structures & Nano-Objects 34 (2023) 100980

Fig. 15. 15 TENG-based face mask [69].

TSM is always positive, while the remaining two adjacent to the due to charge-generating stimuli that have variable intensities.
positive tribo layer remain negative. The three inner layers are Therefore, the most important challenge is to increase the output
triboelectric filters, while the peripheral metallic mesh comprises power and current of TENGs. The degradation and mechanical
of electrocution layers (ELs). The triboelectric filter also restricts damage due to the cyclic mechanical pressure is another major
viruses and foreign particles from getting inside or outside – in disadvantage of TENGs. In TENGs, inevitable heat is generated
the aerosols – and hence protects the wearer. The triboelectric between the contact layers due to friction, and there is a pos-
built-in potential of the electrocution mesh layer can deactivate sibility that the structural and mechanical properties may get
the viruses in the aerosols. Health monitoring is quite important altered affecting the output performance. Due to this, self-healing
because without the results obtained from it, doctors would materials are being used in TENGs so that the life-span of the
be unable to treat patients. However, in today’s world, health TENGs can be prolonged [79]. Other disadvantages include lower
monitoring should be efficient and cost-effective, due to which durability, post-stress conditions, the unreliability of the devices
the demand for TENGs in the field is rapidly increasing. The in the long-term, etc. [80,81]. Advanced TENGs have to be fab-
rapid enhancement and development of electronics and materials ricated economically for lifetime survival in various practical
is trying to minimize the size and reduce the use of power in environments. Researchers have put in a lot of effort to develop
health-based monitors. Self-powered health sensing devices are devices that convert environmental energy into electricity in
manufactured by combining TENGs with health-based sensors order to meet the increasing demand for cleaner energy and
and energy-storing devices, in which the TENGs generate energy more sustainable sources of power. Harvesting environmental
by harvesting it from the environment outside to power the mechanical energy is an eco-friendly method and a promising
sensors. TENGs would, therefore, be used by health monitoring solution to the rising demand for energy. These devices play a
devices for pulse detection, heart rate monitoring, respiration significant role in developing wearable electronics and sensor
detection, gait monitoring and much more [77]. networks for the internet of things (IoTs).

4.10. Application of TENGs in smart homes 6. Future of TENGs

In most modern homes, all light switches are operated by In the near future, TENGs have promising potential to become
two types of control switches — voice-controlled switches and the most widely employed energy scavenging machines. A lot of
light control switches. However, these need to automatically turn research is being done to enhance the productivity of TENGs by
off when there is no one at home, otherwise the consumption fabricating them with new suitable materials that would increase
of electricity will increase. In order to overcome this problem, their areas of application. Some of the proposed TENG-based
a TENG is placed under the wooden floor as a sensor. When devices that are soon going to become a part of our daily lives are
people walk on the floor, electricity can be harvested by con- TENGs used as flexible sources of energy and TENG-based health
verting mechanical energy into electrical energy. Therefore, there monitoring systems. Liu et al. [82,83] fabricated an advanced
is no need for a switch anymore, and we can avoid the loss of TENG system to measure the static current output by coupling
electricity. TENGs are capable of controlling the systems in smart electrostatic breakdown with the triboelectrification effect; they
homes. They can be incorporated into the glass frame, wherein obtained a very high electric charge density with respect to what
they can detect even tiny blinking motions and convert them was generated from conventional TENGs. The charge density of
into voltage signals [78]. TENGs can also minimize the risk of conventional TENGs is limited by electrostatic breakdown. This
robbery when they are hidden under a carpet at the main door would miniaturize the self-powered systems that would be used
or on the door handle. It can locate an outsider’s position with in IoTs. In the future, TENGs could provide human–machine in-
an electrical signal when it is used under the floor by creating a terfacing [84]. Although the output of TENGs is low, they have
matrix and this information can be passed wirelessly using Wi- enough output for self-powered systems. Enormous research is
Fi or Bluetooth. This information can also be passed to a camera being done to enhance the productivity of TENGs by fabricating
control system in order to have visual evidence, which often helps them with new suitable materials that would increase their area
in many investigations. The pressure inside the house can also of application in the future. In the coming future, TENG-based
be measured from the voltage generated by the TENG due to devices will be in high demand and an integral part of our daily
externally applied force. lives. There are numerous advantages of TENGs and conventional
TENGs manage to sustain themselves in the modern world de-
5. Disadvantages of TENGs spite lacking the ability to exhibit higher contact intimacy, lower
material abrasion and multi-mode operations. Researchers have
One of the major disadvantages of TENGs is their low elec- explored a wide range of materials like polymers, metals and
trical power outputs as compared to other sustainable energy semiconductor for the use as triboelectric materials. Significant
devices. The electrical output of TENGs remains very low and research has also been done on properties like triboelectric charge
is usually < 500 W/m2 with respect to other equipment having density and durability of these materials, which make them suit-
similar outputs. In addition to this, the power output is unstable able for use in TENGs. In addition, researchers have also explored
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S.N. Alam, A. Ghosh, P. Shrivastava et al. Nano-Structures & Nano-Objects 34 (2023) 100980

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