P.Priyanandini| A.

Jahnavi|Lalitha Aradhini

FM MOD 2:
PART B:

1)What is MPEG-4? State at least three differences between MPEG-1 and

MPEG-2 compression standards.

Ans) MPEG-4:

MP4, MPEG4, or MPEG-4 is an audio and video compression standard. It was

introduced in 1998 and agreed upon as a standard by the MPEG (Motion Picture
Experts Group) shortly after.

Parameters of MPEG1 MPEG2

Comparison

Encoding For the encoding of For the encoding of

convenient gadgets and DVDs, MPEG2 is used.
web streaming, MPEG1 is
utilised.

Size The size of MPEG1 The size of MPEG2

recordings is more recordings is greater in
modest in contrast with contrast with MPEG4.
MPEG2.

Bandwidth Requirement MPEG1 requires a more MPEG2 requires a more

modest transfer speed in extensive data
contrast with MPEG2. transmission in contrast
with MPEG1.

Quality Video records of MPEG1 Video documents of

are not as great as video MPEG2 are greater.
documents of MPEG2.
 Extensions Instances of expansions Instances of expansions
of MPEG1 are: .mp1, of MPEG2 are .mp2,
.mp2, .mp3, .m1v, mp3, .mpeg, and so on
.m1a,.m2a, .mpa, .mpv
and so forth.

2)What is the difference between “lossless” and “lossy” compression? Why

are “key frames” so important to interframe compression?

Ans)Compression is a technique that is used to reduce the size of a digital file or

signal by removing redundant or unnecessary data. There are two main types of
compression: lossless and lossy.

Lossless compression is a type of compression that allows the original data to be

fully reconstructed from the compressed file. This means that there is no loss of
quality or accuracy when the data is decompressed. Lossless compression is often
used for text, images, and other types of data where accuracy is critical.

Lossy compression, on the other hand, is a type of compression that sacrifices

some quality or accuracy in order to achieve a higher level of compression. Lossy
compression is often used for audio and video files, where the loss of some quality
may not be noticeable to the human ear or eye.

Key frames are important to interframe compression, which is a type of compression

that is commonly used for video. Interframe compression involves compressing the
difference between consecutive frames in a video rather than compressing each
frame individually. Key frames are a type of frame that is fully encoded and not
based on any other frame. They are used to establish a reference point for the video
and allow the other frames to be compressed based on their differences from the
key frame.

Overall, the difference between lossless and lossy compression is that lossless
compression allows the original data to be fully reconstructed from the compressed
file, while lossy compression sacrifices some quality or accuracy in order to achieve
a higher level of compression. Key frames are important to interframe compression
because they establish a reference point for the video and allow the other frames to
be compressed based on their differences from the key frame.
3) Explain MP3 compression Scheme.

Ans) MP3 (MPEG-1 Audio Layer 3) is a popular audio compression format that is
used to reduce the size of audio files while maintaining a reasonable level of quality.
MP3 uses a combination of techniques, including psychoacoustic modeling,
Huffman coding, and filter banks, to achieve its high level of compression.

The psychoacoustic model used in MP3 compression is based on the idea that the
human auditory system is more sensitive to certain frequencies and less sensitive to
others. The MP3 encoder uses this model to identify the frequencies that can be
removed or reduced without significantly affecting the overall quality of the audio.

Huffman coding is a technique that is used to encode data in a way that reduces the
overall size of the file. In the case of MP3, Huffman coding is used to further
compress the data after the psychoacoustic model has been applied.

Filter banks are used to divide the audio signal into multiple frequency bands, which
can then be processed and encoded separately. This allows the MP3 encoder to
apply different levels of compression to different frequency bands, depending on the
sensitivity of the human auditory system to those frequencies.

Overall, the MP3 compression scheme uses a combination of psychoacoustic

modeling, Huffman coding, and filter banks to reduce the size of audio files while
maintaining a reasonable level of quality.

4) How is the information lost in JPEG compression of images, explained

using all the coding steps? (doubt)

Ans) JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group) is a popular image compression

format that is used to reduce the size of image files while maintaining a reasonable
level of quality. JPEG uses a combination of techniques, including discrete cosine
transformation (DCT), quantization, and Huffman coding, to achieve its high level of
compression.

The first step in JPEG compression is to apply a discrete cosine transform (DCT) to
the image. The DCT is a mathematical operation that converts the image data from
the spatial domain (i.e. the pixel values) to the frequency domain. This allows the
JPEG encoder to identify the frequencies that are present in the image and apply
different levels of compression to them.

The second step in JPEG compression is quantization, which involves reducing the
precision of the DCT coefficients. This is done by dividing the coefficients by a set of
predefined values and rounding down to the nearest integer. This process results in
some loss of information, as some of the original data is discarded.

The final step in JPEG compression is Huffman coding, which is a technique that is
used to encode data in a way that reduces the overall size of the file. In the case of
JPEG, Huffman coding is used to further compress the data after the DCT and
quantization have been applied.

Overall, the information lost in JPEG compression of images is a result of the

quantization and Huffman coding steps. The quantization step discards some of the
original data by reducing the precision of the DCT coefficients, while the Huffman
coding step further compresses the data by encoding it in a more efficient way.
These steps are necessary in order to achieve the high level of compression that is
characteristic of the JPEG format.

5) What is Inter Frame Correlation? Explain the I, P and B-frames technique of

MPEG-s Video Compression Technique.

Ans)Inter frame correlation refers to the relationship between consecutive frames in

a video. In video compression, inter frame correlation is used to identify and exploit
the similarities between frames in order to achieve a higher level of compression.

Use of I, P, and B-frames in Video Compression:

1. Refreshing Video Quality: I-frames are generally inserted to designate the end of
a GOP (Group of Pictures) or a video segment (refer to our article on ABR streaming
fundamentals). Because I-frame compression is not dependent on
previously-encoded pictures, it can “refresh” the video quality. Encoders are typically
tuned to favor I-frames in terms of size and quality because they play a critical role in
maintaining video quality.

2. Recovery from Bitstream Errors: If a P-frame or a reference B-frame is

corrupted, then all the frames that are dependent on them cannot be decoded
satisfactorily, and this leads to glitches in the video. The video usually cannot recover
from such problems. However, when a corrupted video stream reaches an I-frame, it
can

independently encode-decode it and recover from the problem. This is a clean

restart of the decoding process, and IF all the frames from that point onwards refer to
frames after the I-frame, then the video can recover.

3. Trick Modes (Seeking Forward and Back): if you seek a P or a B-frame and the
decoder has already dumped its reference frames from memory, how are you going
to reconstruct them? The video player will naturally seek a starting point (an I-frame)
to decode successfully and start playing back from that point onwards. If you place
Keyframes far apart in the video – say every 20 seconds, then your users can seek
in increments of 20 seconds only. That’s a terrible user experience! However, if you
place too many key-frames, the seeking experience will be great, but the video’s size
will be too big and might result in buffering!

Overall, the I, P, and B-frames technique is a way of exploiting inter frame correlation
in video compression. It involves using three different types of frames, each of which
is encoded differently based on its relationship to the other frames in the video. This
technique is used in the MPEG video compression standard and is designed to
achieve a high level of compression while maintaining a reasonable level of quality.

6) Describe the quantization process in the JPEG Compression Scheme.

Ans) The quantization process is a key step in the JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts
Group) compression scheme. It involves reducing the precision of the discrete
cosine transform (DCT) coefficients, which are obtained from the image data in the
first step of JPEG compression.

The DCT coefficients represent the frequencies present in the image, and the
quantization process is used to reduce the number of bits required to represent
these coefficients. This is done by dividing the coefficients by a set of predefined
values and rounding down to the nearest integer. The predefined values are called
quantization tables, and they are chosen based on the desired level of compression
and the characteristics of the image data.

The quantization process results in some loss of information, as some of the original
data is discarded. This loss is typically more significant for the high-frequency
coefficients, which represent the fine details and texture in the image. As a result, the
quantization process can have a significant impact on the visual quality of the
image.

Overall, the quantization process in the JPEG compression scheme is used to reduce
the precision of the DCT coefficients in order to achieve a higher level of
compression. It involves dividing the coefficients by quantization tables and rounding
down to the nearest integer, which results in some loss of information. The specific
values of the quantization tables and the impact on the visual quality of the image
can be adjusted to achieve the desired level of compression.
7) State how the compression algorithm used with MPEG-2 differs from that
used in the MPEG-1.(doubt)

Ans)The compression algorithm used in MPEG-2 (Motion Picture Experts Group)

differs from that used in MPEG-1 in several ways:

1. Bit rate: One of the main differences between the two standards is the
maximum bit rate that they support. MPEG-2 supports higher bit rates than
MPEG-1, which allows for a higher level of quality and more detailed images.
2. Sampling rates: Another difference is the sampling rates that are supported by
the two standards. MPEG-2 supports a wider range of sampling rates than
MPEG-1, which allows for better quality audio.
3. Frame sizes: Another difference is the frame sizes that are supported by the
two standards. MPEG-2 supports larger frame sizes than MPEG-1, which
allows for more detailed images.
4. Audio coding: The audio coding algorithms used in the two standards are also
different. MPEG-2 uses more advanced algorithms than MPEG-1, which allows
for better quality audio.
5. Error resilience: MPEG-2 includes additional error resilience features that are
not present in MPEG-1. These features allow the video to be more resistant to
errors or disruptions in the transmission or storage of the data.

Overall, the compression algorithm used in MPEG-2 differs from that used in MPEG-1
in terms of the maximum bit rate, sampling rates, frame sizes, audio coding, and
error resilience features that are supported. These differences allow for a higher level
of quality and more advanced features in the MPEG-2 standard.

8) Discuss Compression of synthetic. (doubt)

Ans)Compression of synthetic data refers to the process of reducing the size of

digital data that has been generated or synthesized rather than being directly
captured or recorded. Synthetic data can include computer-generated images,
simulations, animations, and other types of digital content that are not based on
real-world data.

There are several techniques that can be used to compress synthetic data, including
lossless and lossy compression. Lossless compression is a type of compression
that allows the original data to be fully reconstructed from the compressed file.
Lossless compression is often used for synthetic data that needs to be preserved
with high accuracy, such as computer-aided design (CAD) files or scientific data.
Lossy compression, on the other hand, is a type of compression that sacrifices some
quality or accuracy in order to achieve a higher level of compression. Lossy
compression is often used for synthetic data that can tolerate some loss of quality,
such as images or audio files.

Some common techniques that are used to compress synthetic data include:

1. Run-length encoding: Run-length encoding is a technique that is used to

compress data by identifying and encoding repeating patterns or sequences
of data. This technique is often used for synthetic data that includes a large
number of repeating patterns, such as computer-generated images or
simulations.
2. Huffman coding: Huffman coding is a technique that is used to encode data
in a way that reduces the overall size of the file. In the case of synthetic data,
Huffman coding can be used to further compress the data after other
techniques, such as run-length encoding, have been applied.
3. Predictive coding: Predictive coding is a technique that is used to compress
data by predicting the values of subsequent data based on the values of
previous data. This technique is often used for synthetic data that exhibits
patterns or trends, such as time-series data or simulations.

The specific techniques used to compress synthetic data will depend on the
characteristics of the data and the desired level of compression. Synthetic data can
be compressed using lossless or lossy techniques, depending on the needs of the
application.

9) Why was padding introduced in MPEG-4 VOP-based coding? Name some

potential problems of padding

Ans)Padding is a technique that is used in MPEG-4 (Motion Picture Experts Group)

video coding to fill in the gaps between video objects (VOPs) in order to maintain a
constant frame rate. In MPEG-4, video objects are independently coded blocks of
video data that can be combined to form a complete video frame. Padding is used to
ensure that the VOPs are delivered at a constant rate, even if some VOPs are lost or
delayed during transmission.

Padding was introduced in MPEG-4 VOP-based coding for several reasons:

 1. To maintain a constant frame rate: One of the main purposes of padding is to
maintain a constant frame rate, which is important for smooth playback of the
video. Without padding, the frame rate may fluctuate if VOPs are lost or
delayed, which can lead to jerky or irregular playback.
2. To improve error resilience: Padding can also improve error resilience by
allowing the video decoder to recover from losses or errors in the transmitted
VOPs. This is because the padding VOPs can be used as a reference for the
lost or damaged VOPs, which can help to reduce the impact of errors on the
overall quality of the video.
3. To support variable bit rate (VBR) coding: Padding can also be used to
support variable bit rate (VBR) coding, which allows the bit rate of the video to
vary over time. By using padding, the bit rate can be adjusted to match the
complexity of the video, which can result in more efficient use of the available
bandwidth.

There are several potential problems of padding, including:

1. Increased data size: Padding can increase the size of the video data, which
can lead to a higher bit rate and longer transmission times.
2. Reduced quality: Padding can also reduce the overall quality of the video, as
the padding VOPs may not match the content of the surrounding VOPs. This
can result in visible artifacts or distortions in the video.
3. Increased decoding complexity: Padding can also increase the complexity of
the decoding process, as the decoder must process and display the additional
VOPs. This can lead to increased computational demands and lower
performance.

Padding was introduced in MPEG-4 VOP-based coding to maintain a constant frame

rate, improve error resilience, and support VBR coding. However, padding can also
lead to increased data size, reduced quality, and increased decoding complexity.

10) How does MPEG-4 perform VOP-based motion compensation? Outline the
necessary steps and draw a block diagram illustrating the data flow.

Ans)

In MPEG-4 (Motion Picture Experts Group), motion compensation is a technique that

is used to reduce the amount of data that needs to be encoded by exploiting the
similarities between consecutive video frames. In MPEG-4, motion compensation is
performed using video objects (VOPs), which are independently coded blocks of
video data that can be combined to form a complete video frame.

The steps involved in performing VOP-based motion compensation in MPEG-4 are as

follows:

1. Decode the reference frame: The first step is to decode the reference frame,
which is a previously encoded frame that will be used as a reference for the
current frame. The reference frame is typically the previous frame in the video
sequence, but it can also be a future frame or a combination of multiple
frames.
2. Compute the motion vectors: The next step is to compute the motion vectors,
which represent the movement of the objects in the current frame relative to
the reference frame. The motion vectors are computed by comparing the
content of the current frame to the content of the reference frame and
identifying the areas of the frame that have changed.
3. Encode the motion vectors: The motion vectors are then encoded using a
lossless or lossy compression technique. This allows the motion vectors to be
transmitted more efficiently and reduces the overall size of the video data.
4. Encode the difference between the current frame and the reference frame:
The final step is to encode the difference between the current frame and the
reference frame, which is called the residual frame. The residual frame is
computed by subtracting the reference frame from the current frame, and it
represents the remaining differences between the two frames that cannot be
explained by the motion vectors. The residual frame is then encoded using a
lossless or lossy compression technique.

A block diagram illustrating the data flow in VOP-based motion compensation in

MPEG-4 is shown below: Draw as a block diagram

[Decoder] <-- [Reference Frame] <-- [Motion Vectors] <-- [Residual Frame] <-- [Encoder]

Overall, VOP-based motion compensation in MPEG-4 involves decoding the reference

frame, computing the motion vectors, encoding the motion vectors, and encoding the
residual frame. This process allows the video encoder to exploit the similarities
between consecutive frames and achieve a higher level of compression.
11) Explain the importance of data compression in multimedia.

1. Multimedia files are usually very large in size. Therefore for the purpose of the
storage and transfer of large-sized multimedia files, the file sizes need to be
reduced.

2. Files which contain text and other files may also sometimes need to be encoded
or compressed for the purpose of sending e-mail and also for other multimedia
applications. In the field of computer science, the term data compression is also
known as source coding. The term data compression or source coding is defined as
the process by which information is encoded using fewer bits (or other units which
bear information) that a more obvious representation would use.

3. This is due to the fact that the process of compression of data uses specific
schemes for the encoding of the information.

The phrase data compression is also defined as the process by which data is
converted from one format to another format which is physically smaller in size.

4. The same logical information is stored using less physical information.

12) How is the information lost in JPEG compression of images, explain using
all the coding steps?

Ans)PART B QN-4

13) Describe the use of various types of frames used for video encoding in
MPEG.

Ans) In MPEG (Motion Picture Experts Group) video encoding, various types of
frames are used to represent the video data in a compressed form. The specific
types of frames used in MPEG depend on the version of the standard, but the most
common types of frames include:

1. I-frames (intra frames): I-frames are fully encoded frames that are not based
on any other frame. They are used to establish a reference point for the video
and allow the other frames to be compressed based on their differences from
the I-frame.
2. P-frames (predictive frames): P-frames are partially encoded frames that are
based on the differences between the current frame and the previous I- or
 P-frame. P-frames can be used to predict the content of the current frame
based on the content of the previous frame.
3. B-frames (bi-predictive frames): B-frames are partially encoded frames that
are based on the differences between the current frame and both the previous
and the following I- or P-frame. B-frames can be used to predict the content of
the current frame based on both the previous and the following frame.
4. D-frames (delta frames): D-frames are a type of frame that is used in some
versions of MPEG to represent the differences between the current frame and
the previous frame. D-frames are similar to P-frames, but they are used in a
different way in the encoding process.

The various types of frames used in MPEG video encoding are designed to exploit
the similarities between consecutive frames in order to achieve a higher level of
compression. The specific types of frames that are used depend on the version of
the standard and the characteristics of the video data.

14) How are the following frames used in MPEG compression?

i) I-frame ii) P-frame iii) B-frame

Ans)REFER PART B QN-13

15) How does Compression of synthetic

Ans) REFER PART B QN-8

16) What is MPEG-4? State at least three differences between MPEG-1 and
MPEG-2 compression standards.

Ans) PART B QN-1

17) What is the difference between “lossless” and “lossy” compression? Why
are “key frames” so important to interframe compression?

Ans) REFER PART-B QN 2

18) Describe the quantization process in JPEG Compression Scheme.

Ans) REFER PART B QN 6

19) What is frequency masking and temporal masking? What does MPEG
Layer 3 (MP3) audio do differently from Layer 1 in order to incorporate
temporal masking?

Ans) Frequency/Auditory masking:

Frequency masking and temporal masking are two types of masking that can occur
in audio data. Masking is a phenomenon that occurs when the perception of one
sound is affected by the presence of another sound.

Frequency masking occurs when the perception of one sound is affected by the
presence of another sound that occurs at a similar frequency. This can occur when
two sounds overlap in the frequency domain and one sound masks the other.
Frequency masking is a common issue in audio encoding, as it can make it difficult
to accurately represent the different sounds in the audio data.

Temporal masking:

Temporal masking occurs when the perception of one sound is affected by the
presence of another sound that occurs shortly before or after it. This can occur when
two sounds overlap in time and one sound masks the other. Temporal masking is
also a common issue in audio encoding, as it can make it difficult to accurately
represent the different sounds in the audio data.
MPEG Layer 3 (MP3) audio and Layer 1 are two different audio encoding standards
that are used to compress audio data. Both standards use techniques such as
frequency-domain quantization and psychoacoustic modeling to reduce the size of
the audio data, but they differ in the way that they incorporate temporal masking.

Layer 3 is one of three coding schemes (layer 1, layer 2 and layer 3) for the
compression of audio signals. Layer 3 uses perceptual audio coding and
psychoacoustic compression to remove all superfluous information (more
specifically, the redundant and irrelevant parts of a sound signal. The stuff the human
ear doesn’t hear anyway).

MP3 incorporates temporal masking by using a psychoacoustic model to predict the

masking effect of different sounds on each other, and then using bit allocation and
Huffman coding to compress the audio data based on these predictions. This allows
MP3 to achieve a higher level of compression while maintaining a high level of audio
quality.

PART-A

1)Briefly explain how the Discrete Cosine Transform Operates, and why is it so
important in data compression in Multimedia applications.
Ans)The Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT) is a mathematical transformation that is
used to represent a signal or image in the frequency domain. It is a widely used
technique in data compression, particularly in multimedia applications, because it
allows the data to be represented more efficiently by removing redundancy and
exploiting the natural correlations between the data samples.

The DCT operates by decomposing a signal or image into a series of sinusoidal

functions, each of which corresponds to a different frequency component of the
data. The coefficients of these sinusoidal functions are called DCT coefficients, and
they represent the amplitude and phase of each frequency component in the data.
The DCT is typically applied to the data in blocks, and the resulting DCT coefficients
are quantized and encoded using a lossy or lossless compression technique. This
allows the data to be represented more efficiently and reduces the overall size of the
data.

There are several reasons why the DCT is so important in data compression in
multimedia applications:

1. Efficient representation: The DCT allows the data to be represented more

efficiently by removing redundancy and exploiting the natural correlations
between the data samples. This can significantly reduce the size of the data
and improve the efficiency of the compression process.
2. Frequency-domain representation: The DCT represents the data in the
frequency domain, which can be more suitable for certain types of data, such
as audio and images. The frequency-domain representation allows the data to
be analyzed and processed in terms of the different frequency components,
which can be more intuitive and provide better results in some cases.
3. Widely used: The DCT is a widely used technique in data compression, and it
is supported by many different standards and tools. This makes it a practical
and flexible choice for many different applications.

The DCT is an important technique in data compression in multimedia applications

because it allows the data to be represented more efficiently, it provides a
frequency-domain representation of the data, and it is widely supported and flexible.

2)Explain about graphical objects in compression.

Ans)Graphical objects are elements that are used to represent visual information in a
computer-generated image or video. These objects can include simple shapes such
as lines, circles, and rectangles, as well as more complex objects such as text,
images, and 3D models.

In the context of compression, graphical objects can be used to represent the visual
information in a more efficient way, allowing the data to be compressed and stored
more compactly. There are several techniques that can be used to compress
graphical objects, including lossless and lossy compression techniques.

Lossless compression techniques are designed to preserve all of the original

information in the graphical objects, allowing them to be reconstructed exactly as
they were before the compression. These techniques are commonly used for
graphical objects that contain important or sensitive information, such as text or
images that need to be preserved in their original form.

Lossy compression techniques, on the other hand, are designed to sacrifice some of
the original information in the graphical objects in order to achieve a higher level of
compression. These techniques are commonly used for graphical objects that can
tolerate some loss of quality, such as images or video that are intended for display
on a screen or other device.

Overall, graphical objects are an important element in the compression of

multimedia data, and the choice of compression technique will depend on the
requirements of the application and the desired level of quality and efficiency.

3)What does MPEG Layer 3 (MP3) audio do differently from Layer 1 to

incorporate temporal masking?

Ans)MPEG Layer 3 (MP3) audio and Layer 1 are two different audio encoding
standards that are used to compress audio data. Both standards use techniques
such as frequency-domain quantization and psychoacoustic modeling to reduce the
size of the audio data, but they differ in the way that they incorporate temporal
masking.

MPEG Layer 3 (MP3) audio incorporates temporal masking in the following way:

1. Psychoacoustic model: MP3 uses a psychoacoustic model to predict the

masking effect of different sounds on each other. This model takes into
account the characteristics of the audio data, such as the frequency, intensity,
and duration of the sounds, as well as the characteristics of the human
auditory system.
2. Bit allocation: Based on the predictions of the psychoacoustic model, MP3
uses a bit allocation algorithm to assign a specific number of bits to each
frequency band in the audio data. The number of bits assigned to each band
is based on the masking effect of the other bands and the desired level of
quality for the encoded audio.
3. Huffman coding: After the bit allocation, MP3 uses Huffman coding to further
compress the audio data. Huffman coding is a technique that assigns shorter
code words to more frequently occurring data and longer code words to less
frequently occurring data, which can further reduce the size of the encoded
audio.
Layer 3 is one of three coding schemes (layer 1, layer 2 and layer 3) for the
compression of audio signals. Layer 3 uses perceptual audio coding and
psychoacoustic compression to remove all superfluous information (more
specifically, the redundant and irrelevant parts of a sound signal. The stuff the human
ear doesn’t hear anyway).

MP3 incorporates temporal masking by using a psychoacoustic model to predict the

masking effect of different sounds on each other, and then using bit allocation and
Huffman coding to compress the audio data based on these predictions. This allows
MP3 to achieve a higher level of compression while maintaining a high level of audio
quality.

4)How are the following frames used in MPEG compression?

i) I-frame ii) P-frame iii) B-frames
Ans)REFER PART B 14th qn

5)What are D-frames and in which type of applications are these used?

Ans)D-frames, also known as predicted frames, are a type of frame used in video
encoding standards such as H.264/AVC and H.265/HEVC. D-frames are used to
predict the content of a frame based on the content of previous frames, and they are
used to reduce the amount of data that needs to be encoded.

D-frames are used in a variety of applications, including video streaming, video

conferencing, and video on demand. They are particularly useful in applications
where the data rate is limited or the bandwidth is constrained, as they can
significantly reduce the amount of data that needs to be transmitted or stored.

D-frames are an important element in video encoding standards, and they are used
to reduce the amount of data that needs to be encoded and transmitted in a variety
of applications.

6)What are some of the enhancements of MPEG-2, compared with MPEG-l?

Why hasn’t the MPEG-2 standard superseded the MPEG-l standard?

Ans)MPEG-2 is a video and audio compression standard that was developed as an

enhancement to the original MPEG-1 standard. Some of the enhancements of
MPEG-2 compared with MPEG-1 include:
 1. Higher resolution: MPEG-2 supports higher resolution video than MPEG-1,
allowing it to encode and decode video with a higher level of detail and clarity.
2. Improved compression: MPEG-2 includes a number of enhancements to the
compression algorithms used in MPEG-1, which allows it to achieve a higher
level of compression while maintaining a similar level of quality.
3. Support for interlaced video: MPEG-2 includes support for interlaced video,
which is a common format used in traditional television broadcasting. This
allows MPEG-2 to be used for a wider range of applications, including the
transmission of video over broadcast television networks.
4. Improved error resilience: MPEG-2 includes a number of enhancements to
improve the error resilience of the encoded video, allowing it to better handle
transmission errors and other disruptions.

Despite these enhancements, MPEG-2 has not fully superseded the MPEG-1
standard. This is because MPEG-1 is still widely used in many applications, and it
has a large installed base of equipment and software that support it. Additionally,
MPEG-1 is a simpler and more efficient standard than MPEG-2, which makes it
suitable for certain types of applications where simplicity and efficiency are
important.

7)Draw block diagrams for an MPEG-2 encoder and decoder for

(a) SNR and spatial hybrid scalability
(b) SNR and temporal hybrid scalability(DOUBT)

Ans)SNR (signal-to-noise ratio) scalability refers to the ability of a video encoding

standard to encode and decode video at different levels of quality. In an SNR
scalable system, the quality of the decoded video can be adjusted by changing the
bitrate of the encoded data.

Spatial scalability refers to the ability of a video encoding standard to encode and
decode video at different resolutions. In a spatial scalable system, the resolution of
the decoded video can be adjusted by changing the resolution of the encoded data.

Temporal scalability refers to the ability of a video encoding standard to encode and
decode video at different frame rates. In a temporal scalable system, the frame rate
of the decoded video can be adjusted by changing the frame rate of the encoded
data.
Hybrid scalability refers to the combination of SNR, spatial, and temporal scalability
in a single system. Hybrid scalable systems allow the quality, resolution, and frame
rate of the decoded video to be adjusted independently, providing a flexible and
adaptable solution for a wide range of applications.

MPEG-ENCODER

MPEG-2 SNR decoder

8)Describe briefly about coding techniques.

Ans)Coding techniques in multimedia refer to the methods used to compress and

encode audio, video, and other types of data for efficient storage and transmission.
These techniques are used to reduce the size of the data, allowing it to be
transmitted or stored more efficiently.

There are several different coding techniques that are commonly used in multimedia,
including:

1. Lossless compression: Lossless compression techniques are designed to

preserve all of the original information in the data, allowing it to be
reconstructed exactly as it was before the compression. Lossless
compression techniques are commonly used for data that needs to be
preserved in its original form, such as text or images.
2. Lossy compression: Lossy compression techniques are designed to sacrifice
some of the original information in the data in order to achieve a higher level
of compression. Lossy compression techniques are commonly used for data
that can tolerate some loss of quality, such as images or audio.
3. Audio coding: Audio coding techniques are used to compress and encode
audio data for efficient storage and transmission. These techniques can
include lossless and lossy compression, as well as techniques such as
 perceptual coding, which exploits the characteristics of the human auditory
system to achieve a higher level of compression.
4. Video coding: Video coding techniques are used to compress and encode
video data for efficient storage and transmission. These techniques can
include lossless and lossy compression, as well as techniques such as
motion compensation, which exploits the redundancy between successive
frames of video to achieve a higher level of compression.

Coding techniques are an important element in the storage and transmission of

multimedia data, and they are used to reduce the size of the data and improve the
efficiency of the process.

9)Explain different types of audio compression methods.

Ans)There are several different types of audio compression methods that are used to
reduce the size of audio data for efficient storage and transmission. These methods
can be classified into two main categories: lossless and lossy compression.

Lossless compression techniques are designed to preserve all of the original

information in the audio data, allowing it to be reconstructed exactly as it was before
the compression. These techniques are commonly used for audio data that needs to
be preserved in its original form, such as music or spoken word. Examples of
lossless audio compression methods include:

● Huffman coding: Huffman coding is a type of entropy coding technique that

assigns shorter codes to more frequently occurring symbols in the data,
allowing it to be compressed more efficiently.
● Run-length encoding: Run-length encoding is a technique that reduces the
size of data by replacing sequences of repeating values with a single value
and a count of the number of repetitions.

Lossy compression techniques are designed to sacrifice some of the original

information in the audio data in order to achieve a higher level of compression.
These techniques are commonly used for audio data that can tolerate some loss of
quality, such as speech or music that is intended for playback on a device with
limited capabilities. Examples of lossy audio compression methods include:

● Perceptual coding: Perceptual coding is a type of audio compression

technique that exploits the characteristics of the human auditory system to
 achieve a higher level of compression. This is done by removing or reducing
the information in the audio data that is less perceptible to the human ear.
● Psychoacoustic modeling: Psychoacoustic modeling is a type of audio
compression technique that uses a mathematical model of the human
auditory system to predict which parts of the audio data are less perceptible
to the human ear. The information in these parts is then removed or reduced,
allowing the data to be compressed more efficiently.

Overall, audio compression methods are used to reduce the size of audio data for
efficient storage and transmission, and they can be classified into lossless and lossy
techniques depending on the requirements of the application and the desired level of
quality.

10)Explain MPEG audio coders with a neat diagram.

Ans)An MPEG audio encoder is a software or hardware tool that is used to compress
and encode audio data using an MPEG audio coding standard. The purpose of an
MPEG audio encoder is to reduce the size of the audio data for efficient storage and
transmission, while maintaining a good level of quality.

There are several different MPEG audio encoding standards, including MPEG-1 Audio
Layer 3 (MP3), Advanced Audio Coding (AAC), and Enhanced AC-3 (E-AC-3). Each of
these standards uses a different combination of lossy and lossless compression
techniques, psychoacoustic modeling, and advanced coding techniques to achieve a
high level of compression while maintaining a good level of quality.

To use an MPEG audio encoder, the user typically provides the encoder with a raw
audio signal as input, and specifies the desired encoding parameters such as bitrate
and audio quality. The encoder then processes the audio signal using the selected
encoding standard, and outputs a compressed audio file that can be stored or
transmitted more efficiently than the original raw audio data.

Overall, an MPEG audio encoder is a tool that is used to compress and encode audio
data for efficient storage and transmission, and it is used in a wide range of
applications including music playback, internet streaming, and television
broadcasting.
An MPEG audio decoder is a software or hardware tool that is used to decode and
decompress audio data that has been encoded using an MPEG audio coding
standard. The purpose of an MPEG audio decoder is to reconstruct the original audio
data from the compressed audio file, allowing it to be played back or used in other
applications.

There are several different MPEG audio decoding standards, including MPEG-1 Audio
Layer 3 (MP3), Advanced Audio Coding (AAC), and Enhanced AC-3 (E-AC-3). Each of
these standards uses a different combination of lossy and lossless compression
techniques, psychoacoustic modeling, and advanced coding techniques to achieve a
high level of compression while maintaining a good level of quality.

To use an MPEG audio decoder, the user typically provides the decoder with a
compressed audio file as input, and specifies the decoding parameters such as the
audio quality and bitrate. The decoder then processes the audio file using the
selected decoding standard, and outputs the reconstructed audio data as a raw
audio signal.

Overall, an MPEG audio decoder is a tool that is used to decode and decompress
audio data that has been compressed and encoded using an MPEG audio coding
standard, and it is used in a wide range of applications including music playback,
internet streaming, and television broadcasting.