EEIR11 – Basics of Electrical and Electronics

Engineering

Dr. P. Maheswaran
Assistant Professor, Dept. of ECE
NIT Trichy

mahes@nitt.edu
 Overview of the unit
Unit 5:

Digital Electronics: Introduction to numbers systems, basic Boolean laws, reduction of

Boolean expressions and implementation with logic gates.
Decimal number system:
Any number is represented in units, tens, hundreds, thousands and so on.

5678.9 can be represented as

A Decimal number can be written as (5678.9)10. Subscript indicates radix or base.

In powers of ten we can write

The position of a digit with reference to decimal point determines its value/weight.

Sum of all digits multiplied by their weights give the total number.
Binary number system:
Decimal system with its ten digits is a base ten system.

Binary systems with its two digits is a base-two system.

Two binary digits (bits) are 1 and 0.

Weight of binary numbers is expressed as power of 2.

(1101.101)2 in powers of 2 and its decimal equivalent.

Octal number system:
Decimal number system uses ten symbols (0 to 9).

The octal number system uses the first eight digits of decimal number system: (0 to 7).

It uses base as 8.

(567)8 in powers of eight and its decimal equivalent.

Hexadecimal number system:
Base of 16.

16 digits: 0 to 9, A, B, C, D, E, F.

Useful for human communication with a computer.

Its base is a power of 2 (24), it is easy to convert to

binary and vice versa.
Number base conversions: Binary to Octal
Base of octal is 8. The base for binary number is 2.

Base for octal is third power of the base for binary numbers.

By grouping 3 digits of binary numbers, and then converting each group digits to its octal
equivalent, one can convert binary number to its octal equivalent.
Number base conversions: Octal to Binary
Reversal of the process explained in the previous section.

Each digit of the octal number is individually converted to its binary equivalent to get octal to
binary conversion.

(634)8 to binary:

(725.63)8 to binary:
Number base conversions: Binary to Hexadecimal
The base of hexadecimal number is 16.

Base of binary numbers is 2.

The base of hexadecimal number is the fourth power of the base for binary numbers.

By grouping 4 digits of binary numbers and then converting each group digit to its
hexadecimal equivalent, binary number can be converted to its hexadecimal equivalent.
Number base conversions: Hexadecimal to Binary
This is the reverse process of what was done for hex to binary conversion.

Each digit in the hexadecimal number is individually converted to its binary equivalent to get
hexadecimal to binary conversion of the number.

Convert (5A9.B4)H to binary

Number base conversions: Octal to Hexadecimal
Convert octal number to its binary equivalent.

Convert binary number to its hexadecimal equivalent.

Example: (615)8 to hexadecimal.

Number base conversions: Hexadecimal to Octal
Convert hexadecimal number to its binary equivalent.

Convert binary number to its octal equivalent.

Example: (25B)H to its octal equivalent.

Number base conversions: Converting any radix to decimal
In general, numbers can be represented as

A number with any radix can be converted into its decimal equivalent.

(3102.12)4 to its decimal.

Number base conversions: Conversion of decimal numbers to any radix number

Successive division for integer part:

Repeatedly divide the integer part of the decimal number ty r (new radix) until quotient is
zero.
The remainder of each division becomes the numeral in the new radix.
The remainders are taken in the reverse order to form a new radix number.

First remainder is least significant digit (LSD) and last remainder is the most significant digit
(MSD).
Number base conversions: Conversion of decimal numbers to any radix number

Successive division for integer part: Convert (37)10 to its binary

Number base conversions: Conversion of decimal numbers to any radix number

Successive division for integer part: Convert (214)10 to its octal equivalent
Number base conversions: Conversion of decimal numbers to any radix number

Successive multiplication for fractional part:

The number to be converted is multiplied by the radix of the new number.

This produces an integer part and a factional part.

The integer part (carry) of the product becomes a numeral in the new radix number.
The fractional part is again multiplied by the radix.

This process is repeated until fractional part reaches 0 or until new radix number is carried
out to significant digits.
The integer part (carry) of each product is read downward to represent the new radix
number.
Number base conversions: Conversion of decimal numbers to any radix number

Successive multiplication for fractional part: Convert (0.8125)10 to its binary form

Binary fraction = 0.1101, which is equivalent to 0.8125 in decimal.

Number base conversions: Conversion of decimal numbers to any radix number

Successive multiplication for fractional part: Convert (0.95)10 to its binary form

0.8 is repeated. Further multiplication gives repeated sequence.

The sequence is stopped at 7 digits = 0.1111001
This answer is approximate.
Complements:

• Complements are used in digital computers to simplify the subtraction operation.

• Two types of complements:
• The radix complement – aka r’s complement.
• The diminished radix complement – aka (r-1)’s complement.
• For binary system, r = 2. We take 2’s complement and 1’s complement.
• In decimal system, r = 10. We take 10’s complement and 9’s complement.
• 1’s complement representation:

• 2’s complement representation:

• 2’s complement is used to represent negative numbers.

Complements: 1’s complement subtraction

• Subtraction can be performed with addition using 1’s complement method.

• Two cases:
• Case 1: A – B, where A > B
• Case 2: A – B, where B > A
• Case 1: Method:
• Determine the 1’s complement of the smaller number.
• Add the 1’s complement to the larger number.
• Remove the carry and add it to the result. This is called end-around carry.
Complements: 1’s complement subtraction

• Case 2: Method:
• Determine the 1’s complement of the larger number.
• Add the 1’s complement to the smaller number.
• Answer is in 1’s complement form. To get the answer in true form, take the 1’s
complement and assign negative sign to the answer.
Complements: 2’s complement subtraction

• The subtraction is obtained by only addition.

• Case 1: A – B, A > B.
• Determine the 2’s complement of a smaller number.
• Add the 2’s complement to the larger number.
• Discard the carry.
Complements: 2’s complement subtraction

• Case 2: A – B, B > A.
• Determine the 2’s complement of the larger number.
• Add the 2’s complement to the smaller number.
• Answer is in the 2’s complement form. To get the answer in the true form, take the 2’s
complement and assign negative sign to the answer.
Binary arithmetic:

• Rules for binary addition:

Binary arithmetic:

• Rules for binary subtraction:

• If the signs are same, we add the two magnitudes and give the sum the common sign.
• If the signs are different, we subtract the smaller magnitude from the larger and give the result the sign
of the larger number.
• (+24) + (-32) = -(32-24) = -8
• This process requires the comparison of the signs and the magnitudes and then performing addition or
subtraction.
Binary arithmetic:

• But with signed complement arithmetic does not require comparison or subtraction.
• Only addition is needed.
• 2’s complement arithmetic for all cases:
Binary coded decimal (8-4-2-1):

• Each digit position of the number represents a specific weight.

• Each digit of a decimal number is represented by a separate group of bits.
• Each decimal digit is represented by a 4 bit binary number.
• It is called 8-4-2-1 BCD because the weights associated with 4 bits are 8-4-2-1 from left to right.

• The pure binary representation of (58)10 = (111010)2, only 6 bits are required.
• BCD requires 8 bits, less efficient.
• But easy for conversion between BCD and decimal.
BCD addition:

• The addition of two BCD numbers is best understood by considering the three cases that occur when
two BCD digits are added.
• Sum equals 9 or less with carry 0:

• The addition is carried out as in normal binary addition and the sum is 1001, which BCD for 9.
• Sum greater than 9 with carry 0:

• Whenever the sum exceeds 9, it has to be corrected by adding (0110) in the invalid BCD.
BCD addition:
• Sum equals 9 or less with carry 1:

• The result (0001 0001) is a valid BDC number, but it is incorrect.

• To get the correct BCD result, correction factor of 6 has to be added to the least significant digit sum.

In summary:
• Add two BCD numbers using ordinary binary addition.
• If four-bit sum is equal to or less than 9, no correction is needed. The sum is in proper BCD form.
• If the four-bit sum is greater than 9 or if a carry is generated from the four-bit sum, the sum is invalid.
• To correct the invalid sum, add 0110 2 to the four-bit sum. If a carry results from this addition, add it to
the next higher–order BCD digit.
BCD addition:
In summary:
• Add two BCD numbers using ordinary binary addition.
• If four-bit sum is equal to or less than 9, no correction is needed. The sum is in proper BCD form.
• If the four-bit sum is greater than 9 or if a carry is generated from the four-bit sum, the sum is invalid.
• To correct the invalid sum, add 0110 2 to the four-bit sum. If a carry results from this addition, add it to
the next higher–order BCD digit.
BCD subtraction:
• A negative BCD number can be expressed by taking the 9’s or 10’s complement methods.
• 9’s complement if found by subtracting the decimal number from 9.
• When 9’s complement of smaller number is added to the larger number, carry is generated.
• Add this carry to the result (end-around carry).
• When larger number is subtracted from smaller number, there is no carry.
• The result is in 9’s complement form and negative.
BCD subtraction:
BCD subtraction:
• The 10’s complement of a decimal number is equal to the 9’s complement plus 1.
• The 10’s complement can be used to perform subtraction by adding the minuend to the 10’s
complement of the subtrahend and dropping the carry.

In summary:
• Find the 10’s complement of a negative number.
• Add two number using BCD addition.
• If carry is not generated find the 10’s complement of the result.
Boolean postulates and laws:
• The postulates are basic assumptions from which it is possible to deduce the rules, laws, theorems,
and properties of the system.
• Boolean algebra formulated by:
• Defined set of elements.
• Two binary operators (+ and .).
Rules of Boolean algebra:
Rules of Boolean algebra:
Rules of Boolean algebra:
Laws of Boolean algebra:
Three of the laws of Boolean algebra are the same as in ordinary algebra.
Commutative laws:

Law 2: AB = BA: order in which the variables are ANDed makes no difference.

Commutative laws can be extended to any number of variables.

A+B+C = B+A+C, ABCD = BCDA, etc.
Laws of Boolean algebra:
Three of the laws of Boolean algebra are the same as in ordinary algebra.
Associative laws:
Laws of Boolean algebra:
Three of the laws of Boolean algebra are the same as in ordinary algebra.
Distributive law:
Additional rules of Boolean algebra:
Theorems in Boolean algebra:
DeMorgan’s theorems:
Consensus theorem:

Dual of Consensus theorem:

Principle of duality:

It says that starting with a Boolean relation, you can derive another Boolean relation by:

1. Changing each OR sign to an AND sign

2. Changing each AND sign to an OR sign and
3. Complementing any 0 or 1 appearing in the expression

For instance, Rule 1 says A + 0 = A

The dual is A.1 = A
Boolean Expression and Boolean Function:

• Boolean expressions are constructed by connecting the Boolean constants and variables with Boolean
operations.
• These Boolean expressions are also known as Boolean formulas.
• Boolean expressions are used to describe Boolean functions:

• Literals: each occurrence of variable in complemented or un-complemented form.

• Product term: Either a literal or a product (aka conjunction) of literals.
Boolean Expression and Boolean Function:
• Sum term: Either a literal or a sum (aka disjunction) of literals.

• The literals can be arranged in one of the two forms:

• Sum of product form (SOP)
• Product of sum form (POS)
• Sum of product form (SOP)

• Sum of product form (SOP)

M-notations: Minterms and Maxterms:

• Each individual term in standard SOP form is called minterm.

• Each individual term in standard POS form is called maxterm.
• Minterms and maxterms allows us to introduce a very convenient shorthand notations to
express logical functions.
• For n variable logical function, there are 2^n minterms and maxterms.
These shorthand notations can be used to represent logical
functions as
Minimization of Boolean expressions:

• Boolean functions are realized by logic gates.

• The number of gates required and the number of input terminals for the gates gets reduced
if the Boolean function is simplified.
• Simplification of Boolean function saves hardware required.
• Saves cost for design of Boolean function.
Minimization of Boolean expressions:
Karnaugh Map Minimization:

• Minimization of Boolean expressions by Boolean algebra needs better understanding of

Boolean laws, rules, and theorems.
• During the process of simplification, we have to predict each successive step.
• We can not be sure if an expression simplified by Boolean algebra alone is the simplest
possible expression.
• Map method gives us systematic approach for simplification.
The Karnaugh Map:

• The basis of this method is the graphical chart known as K-map.

• It contains boxes called cells.
• Each of the cell represents one of the 2^n possible products formed from n variables.
• 2-variable map contains 2^2 = 4 cells.
• 3-variable map contains 2^3 = 8 cells.
• So on.
The Karnaugh Map:

• The cells of K-map are labelled with a combination of variables and complements.
• The product term in a cell is the product of all the variables in that column and row.
• When we move from one cell to another, along a row or column:
• One and only one variable in the product term changes.
• Irrespective of number of variables the labels along each row and column must conform to
the single-change rule.
The Karnaugh Map:

• Figures show the label of rows and columns of a 2,3 and 4 variable maps
using gray code and the product terms corresponding to each cell.
• Instead of writing actual product terms, shorthand minterm notations are
written in the cell.
• Rows and columns are marked with Gray code instead of variables.
Plotting of K-map:

• The logic function can be represented in various forms:

• Truth table
• SOP Boolean expression.
• POS Boolean expression.
Plotting of K-map: Representation of Truth table on K-map
Plotting of K-map: Representing Standard SOP on K-Map

• Boolean expression in the sum of products form is plotted on K-Map by placing a 1 in each
cell corresponding to a term (minterm) in the sum of products expression.
• Remaining cells are filled with zeros.
Plotting of K-map: Representing Standard SOP on K-Map
Plotting of K-map: Representing Standard POS on K-Map

• A Boolean expression in POS can be plotted on K-Map by placing a 0 (zero) in each cell
corresponding to a maxterm in the expression.
• Remaining cells are filled with ones.
Grouping of cell for simplification:

• Grouping two adjacent ones (pair)

• Any pair of vertical or horizontal ones can be grouped.
Grouping of cell for simplification:

• Grouping two adjacent ones (pair)

• Any pair of vertical or horizontal ones can be grouped.
• When a pair is combined, one variable is eliminated.
Grouping of cell for simplification:

• Grouping four adjacent ones (quad)

• When a quad is combined, two variables are eliminated.
Grouping of cell for simplification:

• Grouping four adjacent ones (quad)

• When a quad is combined, two variables are eliminated.
• Overlapping of groups is possible.
Grouping of cell for simplification:

• Grouping eight adjacent ones (octet)

• When an octet is combined, three variables are eliminated.
Simplification of SOP expression:
Simplification of SOP expression:
Logical operators:
NOT operator OR operator

AND operator
Logic Gates:
NOT gate
Logic Gates:
AND gate

Pulsed operation: Timing diagram

Logic Gates:
OR gate

Pulsed operation: Timing diagram

Logic Gates:
NAND gate

Pulsed operation: Timing diagram

Logic Gates:
NOR gate

Pulsed operation: Timing diagram

Logic Gates:
Exclusive OR gate

Pulsed operation: Timing diagram

Logic Gates:
Exclusive NOR gate

Pulsed operation: Timing diagram

Boolean Expression for Logic Gates:
Alternative Logic-Gate Representation:
Universal Gates:

• NAND and NOR gates are called universal gates.

• Any logic function can be implemented with NAND and NOR gate.
NAND gate:
Can be used to realize NOT function, AND function, OR function, and NOR function.
Universal Gates:

• NAND and NOR gates are called universal gates.

• Any logic function can be implemented with NAND and NOR gate.
NAND gate:
• OR function
Universal Gates:

• NAND and NOR gates are called universal gates.

• Any logic function can be implemented with NAND and NOR gate.
NAND gate:
• NOR function
Universal Gates:

• NAND and NOR gates are called universal gates.

• Any logic function can be implemented with NAND and NOR gate.
NOR gate:
NOT function OR function
Universal Gates:

• NAND and NOR gates are called universal gates.

• Any logic function can be implemented with NAND and NOR gate.
NOR gate:
AND function
Universal Gates:

• NAND and NOR gates are called universal gates.

• Any logic function can be implemented with NAND and NOR gate.
NOR gate:
NAND function
Steps for converting to NAND/NOR logic using graphical procedure:
Steps for converting to NAND/NOR logic using graphical procedure:
Implementation of logic functions using gates:
Implementation of SOP expression:
Implementation of logic functions using gates:
Implementation of POS expression: