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Savage Songs & Wild Romances
C
ROSS
ULTURES
138
Readings in Post / Colonial
Literatures and Cultures in English
SERIES EDITORS
Gordon Collier Bénédicte Ledent Geoffrey Davis
(Giessen) (Liège) (Aachen)
CO-FOUNDING EDITOR
Hena Maes–Jelinek
Savage Songs & Wild Romances
John O’Leary
The paper on which this book is printed meets the requirements of “ISO
9706:1994, Information and documentation - Paper for
documents - Requirements for permanence”.
ISBN: 978-90-420-3399-3
E-Book ISBN: 978-94-012-0686-0
© Editions Rodopi B.V., Amsterdam – New York, NY 2011
Printed in The Netherlands
To my parents
Contents
Acknowledgements ix
Illustrations xi
Introduction xiii
1 Texts in Context:
— Nineteenth-Century Settler Culture 7
2 “Bold, unfettered rhapsodies”:
— Nineteenth-Century Versifications of Indigenous Orature 25
3 “We owe them all that we possess”:
— ‘Savage’ Songs and Laments 45
4 “Unlocking the fountains of the heart”:
— Settler Verse and the Politics of Sympathy 67
5 Indigenous Romeos & Juliets:
— Romantic Verse Melodramas 85
6 “In their strange customs versed”:
— Ethnographic Verse Epics 109
Conclusion 133
Appendix 139
Works Cited 177
Index 187
Acknowledgements
For his encouragement in connection with the writing of this study I would
like to thank Associate Professor Mark Williams of the School of English,
Film, Theatre and Media Studies at Victoria University of Wellington, New
Zealand. I would also like to thank Professor Lydia Wevers, Director of the
Stout Research Centre for New Zealand Studies at Victoria University for
generously providing me with a base during one stage of my research. Ac-
knowledgement is also due to the Humanities Research Centre at the Aus-
tralian National University in Canberra, Australia, which hosted me during
another stage in my long-running investigations.
My special thanks go to Gordon Collier, my editor at Rodopi, for his in-
terest in publishing this study.
My thanks, too, to friends in London such as Barbara Rich and John
Lotherington, who put me up / put up with me while I tracked down obscure
manuscripts in the British Library. Julia Darvell provided a much-needed
‘outside’ viewpoint on several chapters, for which my gratitude. My sister,
Helen Sharples, put her editorial skills to use knocking my manuscript into
shape, for which my thanks.
The following scholarly journals have published material that appears in this
study: Australian Literary Studies, Journal of Australian Studies, Journal of
New Zealand Literature, Kunapipi, Nineteenth-Century Contexts, and Post-
colonial Studies.
Illustrations
Alfred Street 4
Engraved frontispiece in Frontenac (1849)
L
ATE IN THE SOUTHERN WINTER OF 1856, the Adelaide
Philosophical Society met for its thirty-ninth monthly meeting.
Founded a few years earlier, the Society served as a forum through
which the colony’s more educated members could keep abreast of the latest
intellectual developments. Its interests were broad (broader than the word
‘philosophical’ now implies); among the offerings that evening was a paper
on a recently published American poem, which was read by a non-member,
William Cawthorne, proprietor of a local music warehouse. Cawthorne, re-
lishing the opportunity to expatiate before a captive audience, took his time.
First he discussed “the origin, the early history, and the ennobling and purify-
ing influence of poetry in general.”1 He then deduced “the immutability of
man’s higher nature” from the fact that man had retained, “through the lapse
of ages, and in spite of the influence of artificial life,” the same love of poetry
which characterized “the savage nations of the remotest antiquity.”2 After
some further thoughts on the difficulties of “poetical criticism,” and following
an injunction about the importance of simplicity in verse, Cawthorne turned to
the special subject of his paper, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow’s Song of Hia-
watha, which had taken the literary world by storm since its publication the
year before.
Cawthorne liked Hiawatha. He like it so much, in fact, that he placed it
first among the poems of his day, no mean praise in an age graced by the likes
of Tennyson and Browning. The poem’s subject-matter and method of treat-
ment accorded strictly with the canons of criticism he had laid down, Caw-
1
William Cawthorne, “The Song of Hiawatha” (Abstracts of papers read…during
the year 1856), Fourth Annual Report of the Adelaide Philosophical Society (1857)
(Adelaide, 1857): 5.
2
Cawthorne, “The Song of Hiawatha,” 5.
xiv SAVAGE SONGS & WILD ROMANCES
thorne explained; moreover, its natural character, “as preserving the traditions
of a race of men rapidly disappearing from the face of the earth,” added
greatly to its allure.3 He then gave a brief outline of the “Indian character,”
discussed Hiawatha’s unusual octosyllabic metre, and – clearly settling into
the evening – proceeded to give “a careful analysis of the whole poem, illus-
trated by many selected passages.”4
Lengthy as his paper had been, Cawthorne did not end there. Inspired by
the way Longfellow had made use of Native American legends, Cawthorne
concluded with some thoughts of particular relevance to his Australian lis-
teners:
I cannot sit down without making an allusion to another cognate sub-
ject that for a long time has occupied my mind. I allude to the legends
and traditions of the aborigines of Australia. It is just possible that the
gentlemen present may doubt their existence; but I beg to assure them
that the tribes of Australia are not so barren in these particulars as may
be imagined. There is scarcely a constellation in the heavens that has
not its appropriate legend. Many animals of the land also are invested
with the supernatural. The capes, promontories and islands of our
shores are transformations or otherwise connected with legendary lore.
The origin of their own species, and particularly their various cere-
monies, all abound with singular and exotic ideas and the wildest
fancies.5
3
Cawthorne, “The Song of Hiawatha,” 5.
4
“The Song of Hiawatha,” 5.
5
“The Song of Hiawatha,” 5.
6
“The Song of Hiawatha,” 5.
Introduction xv
7
Kate Grenville, The Lieutenant (Melbourne: Text Publishing, 2008): 116.
xvi SAVAGE SONGS & WILD ROMANCES
Romantic era, such as Wordsworth, Coleridge, and Southey, had been fasci-
nated by the figure of the Indian (i.e. Native American), frequently making
him, or her, the subject of their verse.8 For settler writers, living near, or com-
paratively near, to indigenous peoples – indeed, living on land that had once
belonged to them – the presence, real or remembered, palpable or ghostly, of
indigenous races exerted a particular attraction. The Song of Hiawatha (so
admired by Cawthorne) is still widely read today. As this study will show,
however, Hiawatha is only one of a plethora of poems featuring indigenous
peoples written in the course of the nineteenth century by settler poets. Some
of these poems were short and simple, such as the “Aboriginal laments” of
colonial Australian newspapers or the melancholic ubi sunt lyrics of the
Canadian poet Charles Sangster. Others, like Alfred Street’s narrative of
French–Iroquois conflict, Frontenac (1849) or Alfred Domett’s vast New
Zealand epic Ranolf and Amohia (1872), were lengthy, ambitious works,
filled with elaborate ethnographic detail about the indigenous cultures they
depicted. Most of these poems have been forgotten, for their literary value –
by even the kindest estimation – was slight. Culturally and historically, how-
ever, they are significant because they are an informative index of the nine-
teenth-century settler soul as it contemplated the indigenous Other.
The attitudes expressed by settler poets, while by no means uniform,
nevertheless exhibited a considerable homogeneity, and it is one aim of this
transnational study to emphasize how similar the verse portrayal of indige-
nous peoples was across the English-speaking imperium. The Native Ameri-
can speaker in Lydia Sigourney’s “The Cherokee Mother,” for example, is
remarkably like her Aboriginal counterpart in Eliza Dunlop’s “The Aboriginal
Mother.” In the same way, the star-crossed lovers in Adam Kidd’s The Huron
Chief (1830) are very similar to the ill-fated couple of The Ojibway Conquest
(published under George Copway’s name in 1850), who in turn are remark-
ably like the unlucky Aboriginal pair drawn by George Rusden in Moyarra
(1851). This is not to suggest that the poets in question were alike; they be-
longed to different decades and different nations, with the U S poets in par-
ticular having a somewhat different relation to the figure of the indigene, who
will-nilly was implicated in the attempt to create a new, post-revolutionary
8
See Tim Fulford, Romantic Indians: Native Americans, British Literature and
Transatlantic Culture 1756–1830 (Oxford: Oxford U P , 2006): 12.
Introduction xvii
national identity.9 Still less is it to suggest that the indigenous peoples who
were the subject of their verse were in some way homogeneous. Aboriginal
and Maori, Xhosa and Ojibwa were quite distinct, anthropologically speaking.
As produced on the nineteenth-century page, however, they often appeared
rather similar: as virtuous, docile converts, for example, or as noble, doomed
warriors.
This homogeneity of treatment, while striking, is not surprising. All these
settler poets shared a common late-Romantic literary heritage, and all were re-
sponding, consciously or not, to the powerful forces (pre-eminently industrial-
ization) that were reshaping society. This is as true of the U S poets discussed
here as of their British-colonial contemporaries; it is a purpose of this study,
indeed, to highlight how similar U S and British-colonial writers were when it
came to versifying indigenous peoples. The academic separation of U S writ-
ing from other colonial literatures – a matter, arguably, of super-power poli-
tics rather than deep, essential difference – is especially counterproductive
with respect to the kind of poetry considered here.
Settler writers did not, of course, only write verse about indigenous peo-
ples. Indigenes figured in many of the prose fictions of the nineteenth century,
whether it was the Native Americans of James Fenimore Cooper’s The Last of
the Mohicans (1826) or the Maori in John White’s little-known ethnographic
novel Te Rou (1874). But prose, being a workaday medium suitable for
realistic description, was limiting when it came to the evocation of indigenous
peoples, whose existence (like the grand natural landscapes they inhabited)
was often conceived of as sublime. Poetry, with its ability to express the
lyrical and the tragic, was deemed a more suitable vehicle, and, indeed, some
of the most powerful (though also, arguably, the most misleading) depictions
of indigenous peoples produced by settlers at this period were written in
verse, as Helen Carr has pointed out in relation to Hiawatha.10 Indigenous
peoples, in a sense, were poetry, at least when viewed from the bustling, chaotic
boom-towns of the new colonies.11 Poeticization of this kind should be seen
9
See Susan Scheckel, The Insistence of the Indian: Race and Nationalism in Nine-
teenth-Century American Culture (Princeton N J : Princeton U P , 1998): 1–14.
10
See Helen Carr, Inventing the American Primitive: Politics, Gender and the Re-
presentation of Native American Literary Traditions, 1789–1936 (New York: New
York U P , 1996): 124.
11
See James Belich, Replenishing the Earth: The Settler Revolution and the Rise of
the Anglo-World, 1783–1939 (Oxford: Oxford U P , 2009): 194–95.
xviii SAVAGE SONGS & WILD ROMANCES
12
See David Morse, High Victorian Culture (New York: New York U P , 1993):
120–210.
13
See, for example, Jessie Mackay’s Spirit of the Rangatira and Other Ballads
(1889), which drew extensively on Maori myth and legend.
14
See Belich, Replenishing the Earth, 9.
15
See C.A. Bayly, “The British and indigenous peoples, 1760–1860: Power, percep-
tion and identity,” in Empire and Others: British Encounters with Indigenous Peoples
1600–1850, ed. Martin Daunton & Rick Halpern (London: U C L Press, 1998): 20, 33.
For a discussion of the evolution of British attitudes towards indigenous peoples before
Introduction xix
settler poets attempted to understand and represent the new subject races to a
readership largely ignorant of them.
Literary criticism has not, on the whole, dealt kindly with settler verse
about indigenous peoples. Traditional liberal-humanist criticism, as practised
in Commonwealth university English departments up to about 1970, was
largely focused on the literary traditions of the mother country (Britain). It
generally ignored local settler poetry, which was regarded as second-rate and
derivative. On occasion, there was discussion of the verse of literary “father
figures” such as Thomas Pringle in South Africa and Charles Harpur in Aus-
tralia, during the course of which the attitude of these poets towards indige-
nous peoples was noted (Pringle, for example, was praised for his liberal sym-
pathies).16 Of the bulk of settler verse, however, there was little discussion,
and settler attitudes towards indigenes were analyzed, if they were analyzed at
all, by historians. In the U S A the situation was somewhat different; the viol-
ent rupture from Britain in the eighteenth century had fostered an interest in
the idea of a national canon, and courses in “American” (that is, U S ) literature
were established comparatively early. In this writing, the figure of the Native
American – that exemplar of liberty – had featured strongly, and the way he
or she had been represented was discussed by critics such as Albert Keiser.17
It helped, too, that a poet of real talent like Longfellow had produced a sub-
stantial poem about Native Americans. Hiawatha was recognized as pos-
sessing both literary and national importance, and was accordingly the subject
of continuing scholarly comment, some of which focused on Longfellow’s
use of indigenous source material and the picture he had painted of Hiawatha
and his people.18
1815, see also Merete Falck Borch, Conciliation – Compulsion – Conversion: British
Attitudes Towards Indigenous Peoples 1763–1814 (Cross/Cultures 72; Amsterdam &
New York: Rodopi, 2004): 284–87.
16
See, for example, John Robert Wahl, Poems Illustrative of South Africa, by
Thomas Pringle, ed. Wahl (Cape Town: C. Struik, 1970): xxi. See also Angus Calder,
“Thomas Pringle (1789–1834): A Scottish Poet in South Africa,” English in Africa 9.1
(May 1982): 9.
17
See Albert Keiser, The Indian in American Literature (New York: Oxford U P ,
1933).
18
See for example Stith Thompson, “The Indian Legend of Hiawatha,” P M L A 37.1
(March 1922): 128–40; Wilbur Schramm, “Hiawatha and Its Predecessors,” Philo-
logical Quarterly 11.4 (October 1932): 321–43; Chase S. Osborn, Schoolcraft, Long-
xx SAVAGE SONGS & WILD ROMANCES
fellow, Hiawatha (Lancaster P A : Jacques Cattell, 1942); and Joseph Pronechen, “The
Making of Hiawatha,” New York Folklore Quarterly 28.2 (June 1972): 151–60.
19
See Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth, tr. Constance Farrington, preface
by Jean–Paul Sartre (Les damnés de la terre, 1961; tr. 1963; Harmondsworth: Penguin,
1967): 169–70.
20
See Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Pantheon, 1978): 3–40.
21
See Leela Gandhi, Postcolonial Theory: a Critical Introduction (New York:
Columbia U P , 1998): 79–80.
22
See Terry Goldie, Fear and Temptation: The Image of the Indigene in Canadian,
Australian and New Zealand Literature (Kingston, Ontario: McGill–Queen’s U P ,
1989): 15–18.
Introduction xxi
23
See Mary Louise Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (Lon-
don: Routledge, 1992): 152.
24
See Homi K. Bhabha, The Location of Culture (London & New York: Routledge,
1994): 66.
25
See Joshua Bellin, The Demon of the Continent: Indians and the Shaping of
American Literature (Philadelphia: U of Pennsylvania P , 2001): 40–108.
26
See Patrick Brantlinger, Dark Vanishings: Discourses on the Extinction of Primi-
tive Races, 1800–1930 (Ithaca N Y : Cornell U P , 2003): 3–4.
27
A.E. Voss, “Thomas Pringle and the Image of the ‘Bushmen’,” English in Africa
9.1 (May 1982): 20.
28
Helen Barnhill, “The Pakeha Harp” (dissertation, Otago University: 1972): 96.
xxii SAVAGE SONGS & WILD ROMANCES
when it came to using his Native American source material and his presenta-
tion of an indigenous culture hero as passively compliant in the process of
colonization.29 The end result has been a pervasively negative reading of colo-
nial poetry, especially if this poetry represented or referred to indigenous peo-
ples. Such a negative reading is part of a larger revisionist ‘master-narrative’
which has tended, at least in the case of early South African literature, to
present a highly partial, distorted picture of settler writing about indigenes.30
This study attempts to move away from simplistic dismissals of either the
traditional liberal-humanist or postcolonial kind. Instead, it aims to provide a
generous, nuanced account of settler verse about indigenes, one that recog-
nizes the ideological underpinnings that informed this poetry – notably, the
belief that indigenous peoples were doomed to extinction – but which sug-
gests, nonetheless, that this poetry demonstrated a degree of genuine sym-
pathy for indigenes, and an advance of the ethnographic imagination, a capa-
city to “recognize otherness in a positive sense” (as Carr phrases it) that had
been lacking in earlier eras.31 In doing so, this study does not pretend that the
process of colonization was virtuous, or inevitable. It does ask, however, that
the poems produced during that process be read with as open a mind as pos-
sible, one free both of traditional liberal-humanist criticism’s dismissive atti-
tude and of “hostile postcolonial epistemologies.”32 Reading the poems in this
way will prove more fruitful than imposing on them a pre-existing ideological
grid whose conclusions, in many cases, seem already decided.33
29
See, for example, Celia Millward & Cecilia Tichi, “Whatever Happened to Hia-
watha?” Genre 6.3 (September 1973): 318–19, 325–27; Robert Berkhofer, The White
Man’s Indian: Images of the American Indian from Columbus to the Present (New
York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1978): 90–91; Virginia Jackson, “Longfellow’s Tradition: or,
Picture-Writing a Nation,” Modern Language Quarterly 59.4 (December 1998): 475;
and Joe Lockard, “The Universal Hiawatha,” American Indian Quarterly 24.1 (January
2000): 110–12.
30
See Malvern van Wyk Smith, “Origins Revisited: Dissent and Dialectic in Early
South African Colonial Writing,” in Constructing South African Literary History, ed.
Elmar Lehmann & Erhard Reckwitz (Essen: Die Blaue Eule, 2000): 12.
31
Carr, Inventing the American Primitive, 166.
32
van Wyk Smith, “Origins Revisited,” 13.
33
For a discussion of postcolonial literary criticism’s reductive treatment of another
genre, the nineteenth-century novel, see Erin O’Connor, “Preface for a Post-Postcolo-
nial Criticism,” Victorian Studies 45.2 (Winter 2003): 217–46.
Introduction xxiii
34
See Carr, Inventing the American Primitive, 20–21.
35
See Elleke Boehmer, Colonial and Post-Colonial Literature (Oxford: Oxford U P ,
1995): 91.
xxiv SAVAGE SONGS & WILD ROMANCES
ders the many casual poems about indigenes which were published in colonial
newspapers and magazines in the earlier decades of the nineteenth century,
finding in these “savage songs” a quality of empathy for the suffering or dis-
placed indigene, as well as a capacity – not wholly novel, but notable none-
theless – to recognize Otherness in a positive sense. Chapter 4 looks at three
occasional poems about indigenes, in which sentiment was deployed for a de-
finite political purpose. Chapter 5 discusses romantic verse melodramas about
indigenous peoples, with their curious mixture of romance, violence, and eth-
nographic detail. Chapter 6, finally, examines the substantial verse epics – no-
tably Street’s Frontenac and Domett’s Ranolf and Amohia – which portrayed
the life and culture of indigenes in considerable, even exhaustive detail. While
there is a rough literary-historical progress apparent here, with earlier, simpler
poems being succeeded by later, more elaborate ones, I do not wish to imply
the existence of a rigid literary-historical sequence. Lengthy, ethnographically
detailed poems about indigenes had been written before the period in question
(Ouâbi, or the Virtues of Nature, published by the Boston poet Sarah Morton
in 1790, is an example) while brief, impressionistic pieces on indigenous
themes continued to be produced throughout the nineteenth century. That
said, the greater amount of ethnographic detail in the later verse epics (and its
generally greater accuracy) does reflect the advances made in anthropology as
the century progressed.
In the final chapter, I attempt to draw together the different themes ex-
plored in this study. While conditioned by an ideology of European superior-
ity and used, often, to ventriloquize indigenes in a way we now find patroniz-
ing, the poetry discussed here is found to be less negative and marginalizing
than is generally admitted. The conclusion is drawn that mid-nineteenth-cen-
tury verse about indigenous peoples is too various and idiosyncratic to be
characterized by sweeping generalizations of any kind. A plea is made for a
more sympathetic, nuanced reading of this poetry – and of colonial writing
generally – one in which text and context (rather than theory or ideology) are
paramount.
At this point, the reader may ask whether it was only settler poets who
wrote verse about indigenous peoples. Did indigenes not write “savage songs
and wild romances” themselves? The answer, generally, is no (a rare excep-
tion was George Copway, the Ojibwa preacher and writer, who put his name
to The Ojibway Conquest). The reasons for the lack of indigenous represen-
tation among the writers examined in this study are not hard to find. Com-
paratively few indigenes, for one thing, possessed the necessary English-
Introduction xxv
36
See Fulford, Romantic Indians, 211–91.
37
For an illuminating discussion of the work of Jane Johnston Schoolcraft, see
Robert Dale Parker, The Sound the Stars Make Rushing Through the Sky: The Writings
of Jane Johnston Schoolcraft (Philadelphia: U of Pennsylvania P , 2007). For a dis-
cussion of the work of John Rollin Ridge, see James Perins, John Rollin Ridge: His
Life and Works (Lincoln: U of Nebraska P , 1991). Typical poems by Ridge, from the
1840s, are “A Cherokee Love Song” and “The Stolen White Girl,” both in American
Poetry: The Nineteenth Century, vol. 2: Melville to Stickney; American Indian Poetry;
Folk Songs and Spirituals, notes by John Hollander (New York: The Library of Amer-
ica, 1993): 185–86, 188–89.
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"Jos tarkoitat paratiisia, äiti, olisi sinun parasta sanoa niin, jotta
sinua ymmärrettäisiin", virkkoi nuorempi nainen.
"Nyt kutsuu luonto meitä pois, äiti, jos olet valmis", sanoi
nuorempi nainen, mutistaen kaunista suutaan. Tämän vihjauksen
kuultuaan katosi kalpea nuorukainen, joka oli katsellut seuruetta
tuolin selkänojan takaa, niin täydellisesti sen taakse kuin maa olisi
hänet nielaissut.
"Vene kaatui, kun hoitajatar oli ilman mitään aihetta ottanut siihen
lapsen mukaansa", selitti majuri. "Se on hänen tarinansa. Edith
Granger on yhä Edith Granger, mutta jos sitkeä vanha Joey B. olisi
vähän nuorempi ja rikkaampi, olisi tuon jumalaisen olennon nimi
Bagstock."
"Kaunis seutu!"
"Ovat."
"Kyllä."
"Ja laulatte?"
"Laulan."
Majuri, joka oli tällä välin syrjäytetty, oli työntänyt pienen pöydän
Kleopatran eteen ja istuutui pelaamaan pikettiä hänen kanssaan.
Dombey, joka ei osannut sitä peliä, alkoi katsella heitä opikseen,
kunnes Edith tulisi takaisin.
Voi, Dombey ei tunne sitä säveltä. Ja jos hän tuntisikin, niin mikä
Edith Grangerin laulu pehmittäisi tuota kovaa miestä! Nuku,
yksinäinen
Florence, nuku! Olkoot unesi rauhalliset, vaikka yö on pimennyt ja
pilviä kokoontuu, uhaten purkautua raesateeksi!
KAHDESKOLMATTA LUKU
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