3.1.

Characterisation
3.1.1. Powder Characterisation
In this study, Ti6Al4V Grade 5 ELI23 powder, supplied by Carpenter Additive, is processed to
investigate all further Ti6Al4V studies regarding relative density, surface roughness, and mechanical
properties. The gas atomisation method produces the powder with the batch number PR100548. Table
3.1 and Table 3.2. presents a summary of the chemical composition of the elements calculated by the
ASTM F3001 method in the Ti6Al4V powder material.

Table 3.1. The chemical composition of Ti6Al4V powder.

Ti Al V O N H Fe C Others

Balance (wt.
5.91 3.88 0.07 0.01 0.002 0.19 <0.01 0.40
%)

Table 3.2. Physical properties of the Ti6Al4V powder material [12].

Material Ti6Al4V Powder

Absorptivity (A) 0.72 (450nm wavelength)

Thermal conductivity (λ) 7.2 W/m.K (at 25 °C)
Material density (p) 4420 kg/m3
Specific heat (𝐶𝑃 ) 560 J/kg.K in (10-650 °C)

The particles are produced in spherical morphology and size range specified as 15-45 µm. The
size distribution determined by the manufacturer with ASTMB822 standard and given by size quantiles
Dv (10) = 17.4 µm, Dv (50) = 30.8 µm, Dv (90) = 51.6 µm. The hall flowability with ASTM B213
standard is represented to be 37.00 s/50g and apparent density 2.21 g/cm3 according to the manufacturer
test report. Fig. 3.1 (a) represents the particle size distribution according to the Malvern Mastersizer
3000 result. Fig. 3.1 (b) shows an SEM (Scanning Electron Microscopy) image of virgin Ti6Al4V
powder. It can be seen that particles match the spherical morphology with a small amount of irregular
near-spherical particles.
 (a) (b)

Figure 3.1. (a) The particle size distribution of Ti6Al4V powder and, (b) the powder morphology of
Ti6Al4V under SEM.

3.1.2. Sample Preparation

Samples were cut using an Isomet Blue precision cutting machine. The samples were then
embedded into conductive bakelite using a Buehler SimpliMet hot mounting press. The mounted
samples were then ground and polished using a Buehler AutoMet grinder-polisher. The grinding process
utilised P320, P600, P1200, P2500 and P4000 grit papers, respectively. Subsequently, the samples were
polished using a mixture of 90% 0.06 μm particle-sized colloidal silica and 10% hydrogen peroxide
(H2O2) using the Buehler MicroCloth® polishing cloth. Following this, the samples were cleaned in
isopropyl alcohol (IPA) using an ultrasonic bath for 05:00 + 15:00 minutes. Finally, the samples were
polished using a colloidal silica-free polishing cloth for 10 minutes, with distilled water being used to
clean the surface from any sticky colloidal silica. Prior to and following each stage of the procedure,
the samples were rinsed with isopropyl alcohol. Tables 3.3 and Table 3.4 present the detailed process
settings for grinding and polishing, respectively.

Table 3.3. Grinding times and process settings.

Grid Paper Time (min) Base Speed Head Speed Force (N) Rotation
(rpm) (rpm)

P320 02:00 301 60 28 Contra

P600 02:00 301 60 22 Contra

P1200 01:30 252 60 15 Comp

P2500 02:00 198 60 12 Comp

P4000 05:00 151 60 9 Comp

Table 3.4. Polishing times and process settings.

Process Time (min) Base Speed Head Speed Force (N) Rotation
(rpm) (rpm)

Polishing with
0.06 μm 30:00 151 40 5 Comp
diamond
suspension

IPA cleaning 05:00 Using ultrasonic cleaner with 30-40 °C heating

Water rinsing 10:00 151 40 12 Contra

IPA cleaning 15:00 Using ultrasonic cleaner with 30-40 °C heating

3.1.3. Microscopy
3.1.3.1. Optical Microscopy
Nikon LV150NL Metallurgical Microscope (see Fig 3.2) was utilised for optical microscopy
imaging, facilitating microstructural examination and porosity analysis. Researchers have employed a
variety of methods for the porosity evaluation of additively manufactured parts. The Archimedes
method and optical image analysis are two common approaches. However, previous studies have
indicated that the Archimedes method may not yield repeatable and accurate results, particularly when
the relative density of the parts is high [13]. In addition, optical measurement provides more
opportunities to evaluate the morphology of the pores. However, porosity measurements were still
performed with both optical image analysis and Archimedes in this study. Optical images were used for
data usage and Archimedes results were used for scientific proof and double validation.

Figure 3.2. Nikon LV150NL and lens kits for microstructure and density investigation.
3.1.3.2. Scanning Electron Microscopy
Tescan Vega 3 (see Fig 3.3 (a)) and FEI Inspect F50 (see Fig 3.3 (b)) scanning electron
microscopes (SEM) were utilized to investigate the microstructural features and surface morphology of
the samples produced using Diode Point Melting and Laser Heating techniques. Prior to SEM analysis,
The SEM was operated under high vacuum conditions with an accelerating voltage of 20 kV for Inspect
F50 and 15 kV for Tescan Vega 3, which were optimized for high-resolution imaging. Secondary
electron (SE) imaging was primarily employed to analyse surface topography, while backscattered
electron (BSE) imaging provided compositional contrast where required. Magnifications ranging from
40x to 2,000x were used, depending on the feature of interest. The acquired SEM images were further
analysed to quantify defects, pore morphologies, and any microstructural variations. Figure 3.3
represents the machines' illustrations.

(a) (b)

Figure 3.3. (a) Tescan Vega 3 and (b) Fei Inspect F50.

3.1.4. Surface Roughness

The surface roughness of the samples was measured using an Alicona Infinite Focus SL optical
measurement system, which utilises focus variation technology for high-resolution 3D surface
characterization. Prior to measurement, the samples were cleaned with ultrasonic cleaner by using
isopropyl alcohol at least 5 minutes for each sample to ensure the accuracy of the acquired data.
Roughness parameters, including average roughness (Ra) and maximum peak-to-valley height (Rz),
were recorded in accordance with ISO 25178 standards. Measurements were conducted over a
predefined area of 1 mm × 1 mm by using x5 magnification lens, with lateral and vertical resolutions
set to 100 μm respectively. All regions of each sample (generally 10 mm x 6 mm) were analysed to
ensure statistical reliability and account for surface variability. The collected data was processed using
Alicona software, enabling a comprehensive assessment of surface morphology and roughness
characteristics. After getting the measurement data, the results were also processed with an additional
software of ProfilmOnline. This software helped to prevent angle-based measurement errors by fixing
the tilt angle if any of the angles existed on the top or side surfaces of the samples. Figure 3.4. represents
the machine illustration and the measurement software details.

(a) (b)

Figure 3.4. (a) Alicona Infinite Focus SL machine and (b) Alicona Measure Suite software.

3.1.5. Relative Density

3.1.5.1. Archimedes
The measurement of relative density was conducted using the Archimedes (Buoyancy) method,
employing a Mettler Toledo density determination kit. The kit is represented in Figure 3.5.
The sample's weight in the air, 𝑊𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝑔𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑟 , is determined, where 𝑔 represents the
gravitational acceleration. Subsequently, the sample is weighed while fully immersed in water, 𝑚𝑠𝑢𝑏 ,
resulting in a reduced weight due to the buoyant force exerted by the water, 𝑊𝑠𝑢𝑏 = 𝑔𝑚𝑠𝑢𝑏 . The
buoyant force corresponds to the weight of the water displaced by the submerged sample.

𝐹𝑏 = 𝑣 𝑔 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 (3.1)

𝐹𝑏 = 𝑊𝑎𝑖𝑟 − 𝑊𝑠𝑢𝑏 (3.2)

where 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 is the density of the water, and 𝑣 is the volume of water displaced.

By measuring the water temperature, 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 the density of water can be determined. Using the
difference between the sample's weight in air 𝑊𝑎𝑖𝑟 and its weight when submerged in water 𝑊𝑠𝑢𝑏 , the
volume of water displaced (equivalent to the sample's volume) can be calculated. This volume,
combined with the sample's mass in air 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑟 , enables the calculation of the sample's density.

The method is advantageous due to its simplicity and rapid execution, requiring no sample
preparation and being suitable for bulk materials. However, its accuracy can be affected by poor surface
wettability, as air bubbles adhering to the sample can distort the buoyancy measurement. Furthermore,
it is essential to ensure the sample is thoroughly dried between measurements to prevent variations
caused by residual water.

Figure 3.5. Mattler Toledo density kit.

3.1.5.2. Image Analysis

ImageJ software [14] was used to determine the density and porosity size measurements. It is a
widely utilised software for determining the density and porosity sizes of LPBF samples using analysing
optical images. High-resolution images of sample cross-sections, obtained via Nikon LV150NL
microscopy, are post-processed in ImageJ through grayscale conversion and noise reduction.
Thresholding techniques are then used to segment pores from the solid material, resulting in binary
images in which porosity is quantified as the percentage of black pixels relative to the total image area.
It should be noted that the same threshold values were used to get more accurate results for all samples.
The relative density was calculated as 100% minus the porosity percentage, with results averaged from
all cross-section regions to ensure accuracy. Also, for the porosity sizes measurements, 10 randomly
pores were selected and measured to achieve more accurate results. Porosity sizes greater than 10 μm
are typically classified as lack-of-fusion porosities, characterized by irregular shapes, with
measurements taken along the major axis. Conversely, porosities smaller than 10 μm are classified as
gas pores, which generally exhibit circular shapes, with measurements based on their diameters [15],
[16], [17], [18], [19]. The measurement approach was determined by the shape of the pores, using either
the major axis or the diameter as appropriate.

3.1.6. X-Ray
3.1.6.1. Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (EDS/EDX)
Oxford Instruments Ultim Max EDS detector (see Fig 3.6.), coupled with a Tescan Vega 3
SEM, was employed to analyse the elemental distribution and composition of Ti-6Al-4V material. The
focus of the analysis was on Titanium (Ti), Aluminium (Al), Vanadium (V), and Oxygen (O) content.
Both point analysis and elemental mapping techniques were utilised. Point analysis allowed for precise
measurements at specific locations, while elemental mapping enabled the visualisation of spatial
distributions of these elements across larger areas.

This methodological approach ensured a thorough understanding of elemental uniformity and

localised concentrations within the material, which is critical for assessing the effects of processing
techniques and identifying potential impurities or defects.

High-temperature preheating and slow printing processes in Laser Powder Bed Fusion (LPBF)
can cause significant vaporisation of aluminium in the alloy, particularly due to its lower boiling point
compared to titanium and vanadium. Studies have shown that this selective vaporisation leads to local
compositional changes, potentially altering the phase distribution and mechanical properties of the
fabricated material.
(a) (b)

Figure 3.6. (a) Oxford Instruments Ultim Max EDS Detector and (b) elemental content analysis.

3.1.6.2. X-Ray Diffraction (XRD)

X-ray diffraction (XRD) was utilised for phase identification, employing a PANalytical Aeris
(see Figure 3.7). A rotational scan was conducted in all samples to see 3D phase detection from each
different angle location. The scan angle was conducted between 20° and 100°, the continuous X-ray
generator was scanned at 40kV. Following PDF records were used to define phases: 00-044-1294 for
α-titanium, 04-003-7272 for β-titanium.

Figure 3.7. PANalytical Aeris XRD phase detection device.

 XRD is a process that functions by utilising the interaction between the incident beam and the
crystallographic planes within the sample, thereby producing a diffracted beam that is subsequently
recorded by a detector. The incident beam interacts with the electrons present within the material,
leading to an interaction with bound electrons. This interaction results in coherent scattering,
consequently generating diffracted beams that exhibit a defined relationship to the incident beam. The
diffracted beams from adjacent lattice planes can interfere in two distinct ways: destructively (out-of-
phase), resulting in cancellation, or constructively (in-phase), leading to detection.
The relationship between the incident beam wavelength, the angle of the incident beam 𝜆 to the
sample surface 𝜃, and the interplanar spacing between the crystallographic planes 𝑑ℎ𝑙𝑘 , where 𝑛 is an
integer number of wavelengths, is defined by Bragg's Law (Equation 3.3) (Figure 3.8).

𝑛𝜆 = 2𝑑ℎ𝑙𝑘 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (3.3)

Figure 3.8. Schematic of Bragg's Law for XRD.

3.1.7. Electron Backscatter Diffraction (EBSD)

A JEOL-7900F Schottky Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope (see Fig 3.9 (a)) and
Oxford Instruments Symmetry® S3 EBSD detector (see Fig 3.9 (b)) were employed to perform Electron
Backscatter Diffraction (EBSD) analysis to examine the crystallography and mechanical properties of
the Ti6Al4V samples. Before the EBSD analysis, the PECS argon ion beam system was used to fully
remove any unwanted colloidal silica or any unwanted particles. With JEOL-7900F, an area of 0.30 x
0.40 mm² on the YZ plane has scanned with a step size of 250 nm. To reconstruct the parent β grains,
the Burgers orientation relationship was applied, specifically {0111}α//{110}β and 〈112̅0〉α//〈111〉β.
The software Aztec Crystal was utilized to generate pole figures (PFs) using equal-area projection,
marked by a half-width of 10 degrees and scaled in multiples of random density. Additionally, the
software facilitated inverse pole figure (IPF) mapping, parent β grain reconstruction, and grain size
analysis. A misorientation threshold of 10° is established to differentiate between sub-grains.
 (a) (b)

Figure 3.9. (a) JEOL-7900F Schottky Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope and (b) Oxford
Instruments Symmetry 3 EBSD Detector.

3.1.8. Profilometry-based Indentation Plastometry (PIP)

Mechanical property characterization was performed using Profilometry-Based Indentation
Plastometry (PIP) with a Plastometrex device (see Fig 3.10). This method enables the determination of
mechanical properties, such as yield stress, ultimate tensile strength, and strain hardening behaviour,
from a single indentation test. The PIP system utilizes high-resolution profilometry to measure the
surface deformation induced by a controlled indentation load. Samples were prepared with a polished
surface to minimize interference from surface roughness on the deformation profile. The indentation
tests were conducted under a load of 500 N – 1000 N – 4000 N, with a spherical indenter of ø1 mm.
The resulting surface profiles were captured and analysed using proprietary Plastometrex software,
which employs inverse finite element analysis (iFEM) to derive material properties from the
deformation data. This technique provides a non-destructive and efficient approach to characterizing
the mechanical behaviour of materials.

Figure 3.10. Profilometry-based indentation plastometry device Plastometrex.

3.1.9. Hardness
3.1.9.1. Nano Indentation
Nano-indentation experiments were conducted using a Micro Materials NanoTest Vantage
instrument (see Fig 3.11) to determine the hardness and elastic modulus of the specimens. A 5×2 grid
pattern (10 indentation points) was utilized for each sample to ensure spatially representative results.
The open-loop trapezoidal method was employed during both the loading and unloading phases,
incorporating a 5-second hold period at the peak load to minimize creep effects and stabilize the
measurements. This method provided reliable load-displacement data for subsequent analysis.

Indentation tests were performed with varying peak loads of 50 mN, 100 mN, 200 mN, and 400
mN. Based on the observed load-displacement behaviour and the requirement for sufficient penetration
without substrate interference, 100 mN was selected as the optimal load for all experiments. This load
provided a balance between resolution and material response, ensuring high-quality data across the
samples. The results from the NanoTest Vantage system were processed to calculate hardness and
elastic modulus values, offering valuable insights into the mechanical properties of the tested materials.

(a) (b)

Figure 3.11. (a) Micro Materials NanoTest Vantage instrument and (b) example test results.

3.1.9.2. Micro Hardness

The micro-hardness of the specimens was evaluated using a Zwick Roell Duracan Micro
Hardness Testing Machine (see Fig 3.12), which employs a Vickers diamond-shaped indenter for
precise hardness measurements. This method provides localized mechanical property data by indenting
the material's surface under controlled conditions. Before testing, the specimens were polished to
achieve a smooth, reflective surface, minimizing interference from surface irregularities and ensuring
accurate measurements.
 (a) (b)

Figure 3.12. (a) a Zwick Roell Duracan Micro Hardness Testing Machine and (b) diamond indenter.

The Vickers hardness (𝐻𝑉) is determined based on the geometry of the indentation created by
the diamond indenter, which has a pyramidal shape with a 136° angle between opposite faces. During
the test, a predefined load of 1000 gf was applied for a dwell time of 10 seconds, creating a square-
shaped indentation. The machine uses an integrated optical system to capture high-resolution images of
the indentation and measure the lengths of the two diagonals. The Vickers hardness value is then
calculated using the standard formula:

1.8544 𝑥 𝐹
𝐻𝑉 = (3.4)
𝑑2

Where 𝐹 is the applied load (in kilograms-force, 𝑘𝑔𝑓) and 𝑑 is the average length of the two
diagonals (in millimetres, 𝑚𝑚). The constant 1.8544 accounts for the geometry of the indenter and
ensures the hardness is expressed in 𝑘𝑔𝑓/𝑚𝑚2 (Equation 3.4).

The Zwick Roell system automates this process, from capturing the indentation image to
computing the 𝐻𝑉 value, ensuring both precision and repeatability. Multiple measurements were taken
across different locations in a single sample to account for material heterogeneity and ensure statistical
reliability. This approach provided a comprehensive understanding of the microstructural homogeneity
and mechanical performance of the specimens, with the results offering critical insights into the
material's localized mechanical behaviour.

3.1.10. Temperature Measurements

3.1.10.1. Thermal Camera
Temperature profiles on the specimen surfaces were measured using two thermal imaging
systems: a HAMAMATSU C13440-20CU CMOS camera (see Fig 3.13 (a)) and an Optris PI 08M
thermal camera (see Fig 3.13 (b)). The Optris PI 08M thermal camera was used for in-situ
measurements, capturing real-time temperature data during experiments without any additional optics
or lens modifications. This camera operated at a frame rate of 80 Hz and had a minimum temperature
measurement capability of 575°C. It provided reliable measurements of surface temperatures, enabling
continuous monitoring of thermal distributions, gradients, and hotspots.

The HAMAMATSU C13440-20CU CMOS camera, on the other hand, was equipped with
specialized filters and optics to capture thermal emissions with high accuracy, starting from a minimum
temperature of 675°C. This camera operated at a frame rate of 400 Hz, providing high-resolution video
data of transient thermal phenomena. The recorded video data from the HAMAMATSU camera were
post-processed after the experiments to extract detailed thermal profiles and spatial heat maps. This
approach allowed for a more refined analysis of rapid thermal changes and localized temperature
variations. Together, the two systems offered complementary insights, with the Optris camera providing
real-time thermal monitoring and the HAMAMATSU camera enabling detailed post-experimental
analysis.

(a) (b)

Figure 3.13. (a) HAMAMATSU C13440-20CU CMOS camera and (b) Optris PI 08M thermal
camera.

3.1.10.2. Pyrometer
An Optris CTVideo 3M (see Fig 3.14) video series pyrometer was employed to measure surface
temperatures starting from room temperature (25°C) up to 1000°C. This device was particularly
essential for capturing temperatures below the minimum operating thresholds of the HAMAMATSU
C13440-20CU CMOS camera (675°C) and the Optris PI 08M thermal camera (575°C), making it
critical during low-temperature preheating experiments. In the temperature range of 675–1000°C,
measurements from the pyrometer were compared with those from both thermal cameras, serving as a
double proof to validate calibration and ensure measurement accuracy.

The primary disadvantage of the pyrometer is its ability to measure temperatures at a single
point rather than capturing an entire area, as is possible with thermal cameras. To address this limitation,
multiple measurements were taken for each experiment, including the centre and four edges of the
square preheating area. Despite this limitation, the pyrometer offers higher accuracy compared to
thermal cameras, making it a valuable tool for precise thermal characterization in critical temperature
ranges.

(a) (b)

Figure 3.14. (a) HAMAMATSU CTVideo 3M pyrometer and (b) Optris measurement software.

3.2. Experimental Setup

3.2.1. Laser Heating Test Machine (LHX)
The system was designed to provide an ideal LPBF and laser heating environment. Therefore, due
to the high tendency of forming an oxidation layer during the optical laser heating process, the system
is designed to be an enclosed chamber purged with inert gases as shown in Fig 3.15 and 3.16.

Figure 3.15. General views of the LHX system.

 Figure 3.16. Overall schematics and system components of LHX system.

The preheating test rig was designed to operate mechanically using the Gantry working system.
All movements are facilitated by NEMA17 stepper motors, which transmit their generated motion
energy to the axes through GT6 belts and pulley transmission systems. To ensure that all experiments
conducted within the device occur in an inert environment, the oxygen within the chamber must be
evacuated via a vacuum process. Therefore, a 9 CFM 1 HP double-stage vacuum pump was used in this
system to evacuate all air until it reaches to maximum vacuum pressure.

To prevent structural damage caused by the vacuum and to avoid buckling of the sheet metal
components, the device was enclosed within a robust mechanical framework constructed from 6061-
T6 series aluminium extruded profiles. Additionally, a 20 mm extruded polystyrene (XPS) panel was
positioned between the outermost casing and the sheet metal components. This configuration effectively
prevented the high internal temperatures of the device from transferring to its exterior (see Fig 3.17).

Figure 3.17. Test rig XPS isolation coating.

 As the electronic system comprises eleven stepper motors, no commercially available card was
managed the current operations required for the test rig. Consequently, a custom electronic control card
was designed and manufactured to enable the experimental processes and ensure the operation of the
test unit. This custom card also fully automates the control of the valves responsible for maintaining an
inert gas environment. The entire system was automated through the integration of Argon gas inlet and
outlet solenoids, air inlet and outlet solenoids, and air curtain inlet solenoids.

The schematic diagram for the inert gas and vacuum control system is presented in Figure 3.18,
while the electronic control system schematic is shown in Figure 3.19.

Figure 3.18. Inert gas and vacuum system control schematics.

 Figure 3.19. Electronic control system schematics.

The computer control interface for the electronic system applied to the test rig is depicted in
Figure 3.20, and the final version of the test rig and preliminary test for experimentation is shown in
Figure 3.21.

Figure 3.20. Electronic control system schematics.

The laser test rig served as a critical platform for investigating key parameters related to laser
heating processes. The following aspects were systematically studied using this rig:

• The influence of laser heating power on thermal behaviour.

 • The impact of laser angle on heating uniformity and the mechanisms through which angle
variations affect thermal distribution.

• The role of laser defocusing on heating uniformity, particularly its implications for thermal
consistency across the substrate.

• The relationship between laser heating duration and resulting temperature profiles.

• Preliminary testing of a hybrid Laser Heating + Diode Point Melting system, focusing on
single-layer studies.

These experiments were successfully conducted on the LHX laser heating test machine.
However, the system had notable limitations, including the absence of a dedicated powder bed delivery
mechanism and an argon blade system for maintaining a laminar flow and recirculation environment
above the substrate plate. To address these limitations and enable more robust, reliable, and consistent
multilayer experiments, a fully equipped and advanced DAMX system was developed. This upgraded
setup provided enhanced capabilities for comprehensive studies of multilayer laser processing.

Figure 3.21. The final version of the LHX test machine and preliminary test.

3.2.2. Diode Area/Point Melting Machine (DAMX)

During my PhD studies, we have developed and designed a novel system as part of the ongoing
research into advanced manufacturing processes. This system is currently undergoing
commercialisation through a spin-out initiative titled 41075 - Diode Area Melting / Diode Point Melting
Commercialisation Spinout Project under the auspices of The University of Sheffield. Given the
innovative nature of the system and its potential impact on the field, the design and associated features
are protected under Intellectual Property (IP) regulations.
 As a result, specific technical details and proprietary aspects of the design cannot be disclosed in
this thesis to safeguard the commercial and intellectual rights of the project. However, the following
sections outline publishable information about the system to provide readers with an understanding of
its capabilities and general operational framework. This ensures compliance with IP regulations while
maintaining the academic integrity of this work.

Figure 3.21. 41075 - Diode Area Melting / Diode Point Melting Commercialisation Project

The DAMX was a compact and versatile Laser Powder Bed Fusion (LPBF) system designed
primarily for material research and small-batch production (Fig 3.22 and 3.23). Its design, features, and
capabilities made it an excellent selection for laboratories, universities, and industries aiming to explore
additive manufacturing (AM) on a smaller scale while maintaining high performance and precision.
This sub-chapter provides a detailed analysis of the DAMX technical specifications, design features,
operational capabilities, and its suitability for academic and industrial applications.

1. Technical Specifications

The DAMX was equipped with advanced technical capabilities that set it apart as an entry-level yet
highly efficient LPBF system:

• Build Space: Ø 125 mm x H 175 mm. Optional reductions to Ø 55 mm were available, making
it adaptable to various project requirements.

• Laser Configuration: 43.5 W and 70 W, 450 nm Diode Point Melting (DPM) and 140W, 915
nm laser heating heads could be attachable to the gantry system of the DAMX system,
providing flexibility in experimental setups. Additionally, the system was compatible with a
Diode Area Melting (DAM) CTP head, allowing the integration of up to 100 individual 10 W,
450 nm blue diode laser stacks without requiring any further modifications. Mounted atop the
system, a 200 W, 1064 nm fibre laser from SPI Laser Systems was integrated with a
galvanometer scanning system. Notably, the same fibre laser configuration is utilised in all
Renishaw AM250 systems, ensuring compatibility and consistency with established additive
manufacturing platforms.
 • Optics and Spot Size: The galvo system employed F-Theta optics with a 70 µm spot size. The
43.5W and 70W DPM heads had a spot size of 100 x 150 µm. Depending on the focus of the
laser heating head, the spot size can be adjustable between 6.35 x 6.35 mm to 12.8 x 12.8 mm.
The DAM spot size can also be adjustable depending on the active lasers on the system.

• Preheating Temperature: The machine could achieve up to 1200°C for a build space of Ø
125 mm x H 150 mm with a conductive heating system. This system heating the entire printing
platform. With a laser heating head, you can locally heat the specific desired region up to 1500
°C.

• Layer Thickness: It was capable of depositing layers as thin as 10 µm, providing high-
resolution part fabrication.

• Atmosphere Control: It utilised pure Argon (99.9%) as the inert gas, with a vacuum option
that allowed a pressure of less than 10 mbar. Residual oxygen content was maintained below
100 ppm, ensuring a controlled and consistent environment for the LPBF process.

• Machine Dimensions and Weight: Measuring 2150 mm x 7850 mm x 1760 mm and weighing
385 kg (excluding powder), the compact design facilitated easy integration into various
facilities.

2. Design Features

The DAMX’s design reflected a focus on flexibility, precision, and user adaptability:

1. Compact Footprint: The machine’s relatively small size made it suitable for laboratory
environments where space was a constraint. Despite its compact design, the DAMX did not
compromise on functionality or build quality.

2. Customizable Build Space: The flexibility to adjust the build space dimensions enabled users
to perform experiments on samples of varying sizes, optimizing material usage and process
efficiency.

3. High-Temperature Preheating: The ability to preheat the build platform and localised heating
areas to temperatures up to 1200°C and 1500°C respectively was a significant advantage for
processing materials prone to thermal stresses or those requiring specific microstructural
properties, such as titanium alloys.

4. Advanced Laser Configurations: Multiple laser options and the inclusion of DPM and DAM
technology expanded the system’s usability across a broader range of materials, including
reflective and thermally sensitive metals.
 5. Vacuum Capability: The vacuum-enabled operation was particularly beneficial for reactive
materials, as it minimized oxidation and enhanced part quality.

Figure 3.22. The Design Images of DAMX project.

3. Operational Capabilities

The DAMX delivered precision and adaptability across various stages of the LPBF process:

• Fine Powder Handling: The machine supported very fine powder deposition, making it ideal
for research on novel material systems. Powder recoating mechanisms ensured uniform layer
deposition.

• Process Monitoring: Integrated sensors and software systems enabled real-time monitoring of
the build process, providing valuable insights for process optimization and quality assurance.
 • Versatility: With the ability to switch between fibre lasers to blue diode lasers, users could
experiment with materials ranging from standard alloys to challenging reflective metals like
copper.

4. Applications and Use Cases

The DAMX was well-suited for several academic and industrial applications:

5. Material Research: Its adaptability and high-resolution capabilities made it an excellent tool
for studying the behaviour of new alloys and composites under LPBF conditions.

6. Small-Batch Production: The machine’s precision and efficiency allowed the production of
prototypes and small series of parts for industries such as aerospace, medical devices, and
automotive.

7. Educational and Training Purposes: The DAMX provided an accessible platform for training
the next generation of engineers and researchers in additive manufacturing technologies.

8. Advantages

• Compact size and reduced footprint.

• High customization potential for varied research needs.

• Ability to process high-performance materials with minimal residual stresses.

• Advanced monitoring tools for process control and quality assurance.

9. Limitations

While the DAMX was highly capable, certain limitations should be considered:

• Smaller build volume compared to larger industrial LPBF systems.

• Limited throughput for high-volume production.

• Potential learning curve for users new to LPBF technology.

10. Conclusion

The DAMX represented a powerful yet compact LPBF solution, ideal for material research and low-
volume production. Its advanced features, including high-temperature preheating and vacuum
capability, provided researchers and manufacturers with unparalleled flexibility and precision. By
bridging the gap between academic research and industrial application, the DAMX stood out as a pivotal
tool in advancing the field of additive manufacturing.
Figure 3.23. Render images of the DAMX and real production image of the machine.