PHYSICS_PROJECT_REPORT_ON_SEMICONDUCTERS(2)-1
PHYSICS_PROJECT_REPORT_ON_SEMICONDUCTERS(2)-1
PHYSICS_PROJECT_REPORT_ON_SEMICONDUCTERS(2)-1
Where two
differently-doped regions exist in the same crystal, a semiconductor
junction is created. The behavior of charge carriers which include
electrons, ions and electron holes at these junctions is the basis of
diodes, transistors and all modern electronics.
Semiconductor devices can display a range of useful properties
such as passing current more easily in one direction than the other,
showing variable resistance, and sensitivity to light or heat.
Because the electrical properties of a semiconductor material can
be modified by doping, or by the application of electrical fields or
light, devices made from semiconductors can be used for
amplification, switching, and energy conversion.
The conductivity of silicon is increased by adding a small amount of
pentavalent (antimony, phosphorus, or arsenic) or trivalent (boron,
gallium, indium) atoms (~ part in 108). This process is known as
doping and resulting semiconductors is known as doped or extrinsic
semiconductor.
The modern understanding of the properties of a semiconductor
relies on quantum physics to explain the movement of charge
carriers in a crystal lattice.[1] Doping greatly increases the number of
charge carriers within the crystal. When a doped semiconductor
contains mostly free holes it is called "p-type", and when it contains
mostly free electrons it is known as "n-type". The semiconductor
materials used in electronic devices are doped under precise
conditions to control the concentration and regions of p- and n-type
dopants. A single semiconductor crystal can have many p- and
n-type regions; the p–n junctions between these regions are
responsible for the useful electronic behavior.
Although some pure elements and many compounds display
semiconductor properties, silicon,[2] germanium, and compounds of
gallium are the most widely used in electronic devices. Elements
near the so-called "metalloid staircase", where the metalloids are
located on the periodic table, are usually used as semiconductors.
Some of the properties of semiconductor materials were observed
throughout the mid 19th and first decades of the 20th century. The
first practical application of semiconductors in electronics was the
1904 development of the cat's-whisker detector, a primitive
semiconductor diode widely used in early radio receivers.
Developments in quantum physics in turn allowed the development
of the transistor in 1947[3] and the integrated circuit in 1958.
INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
Pure semiconductors are called intrinsic semi-conductors.
In a pure semiconductor, each atom behaves as if there are 8
electrons in its valence shell and therefore the entire material
behaves as an insulator at low temperatures.
A semiconductor atom needs energy of the order of 1.1ev to shake
off the valence electron. This energy becomes available to it even
at room temperature. Due to thermal agitation of crystal structure,
electrons from a few covalent bonds come out. The bond from
which electron is freed, a vacancy is created there. The vacancy in
the covalent bond is called a hole.
This hole can be filled by some other electron in a covalent bond.
As an electron from covalent bond moves to fill the hole, the hole is
created in the covalent bond from which the electron has moved.
Since the direction of movement of the hole is opposite to that of
the negative electron, a hole behaves as a positive charge carrier.
Thus, at room temperature, a pure semiconductor will have
electrons and holes wandering in random directions. These
electrons and holes are called intrinsic carriers.
As the crystal is neutral, the number of free electrons will be equal
to the number of holes. In an intrinsic semiconductor, if ne denotes
the electron number density in conduction band, nh the hole
number density in valence band and ni the number density or
concentration of charge carriers, then
n e = n h = ni
extrinsic semiconductors
n-type semiconductor
p-type semiconductor
electrical resistivity of
semiconductors
I = Ie + Ih (i)
R = r l/A (iii)
E = V/l (v)
from equation (iv) and (v), we have
E = re (neve + nhvh)
1/r = e (ne ve/E + nh vh/E)