PHYSICS_PROJECT_REPORT_ON_SEMICONDUCTERS(2)-1

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impurities ("doping") into the crystal structure.

Where two
differently-doped regions exist in the same crystal, a semiconductor
junction is created. The behavior of charge carriers which include
electrons, ions and electron holes at these junctions is the basis of
diodes, transistors and all modern electronics.
Semiconductor devices can display a range of useful properties
such as passing current more easily in one direction than the other,
showing variable resistance, and sensitivity to light or heat.
Because the electrical properties of a semiconductor material can
be modified by doping, or by the application of electrical fields or
light, devices made from semiconductors can be used for
amplification, switching, and energy conversion.
The conductivity of silicon is increased by adding a small amount of
pentavalent (antimony, phosphorus, or arsenic) or trivalent (boron,
gallium, indium) atoms (~ part in 108). This process is known as
doping and resulting semiconductors is known as doped or extrinsic
semiconductor.
The modern understanding of the properties of a semiconductor
relies on quantum physics to explain the movement of charge
carriers in a crystal lattice.[1] Doping greatly increases the number of
charge carriers within the crystal. When a doped semiconductor
contains mostly free holes it is called "p-type", and when it contains
mostly free electrons it is known as "n-type". The semiconductor
materials used in electronic devices are doped under precise
conditions to control the concentration and regions of p- and n-type
dopants. A single semiconductor crystal can have many p- and
n-type regions; the p–n junctions between these regions are
responsible for the useful electronic behavior.
Although some pure elements and many compounds display
semiconductor properties, silicon,[2] germanium, and compounds of
gallium are the most widely used in electronic devices. Elements
near the so-called "metalloid staircase", where the metalloids are
located on the periodic table, are usually used as semiconductors.
Some of the properties of semiconductor materials were observed
throughout the mid 19th and first decades of the 20th century. The
first practical application of semiconductors in electronics was the
1904 development of the cat's-whisker detector, a primitive
semiconductor diode widely used in early radio receivers.
Developments in quantum physics in turn allowed the development
of the transistor in 1947[3] and the integrated circuit in 1958.

semiconductors - Theory and Definition

Semiconductors are the materials whose electrical


conductivity lies in between metals and insulator. The energy
band structure of the semiconductors is similar to the insulators but
in their case, the size of the forbidden energy gap is much smaller
than that of the insulator. In this class of crystals, the forbidden gap
is of the order of about 1ev, and the two energy bands are distinctly
separate with no overlapping. At absolute o0, no electron has any
energy even to jump the forbidden gap and reach the conduction
band. Therefore the substance is an insulator. But when we heat
the crystal and thus provide some energy to the atoms and their
electrons, it becomes an easy matter for some electrons to jump
the small (» 1 ev) energy gap and go to conduction band. Thus at
higher temperatures, the crystal becomes a conductors. This is the
specific property of the crystal which is known as a semiconductor.
Effect of temperature on conductivity
of Semiconductor

At 0K, all semiconductors are insulators. The valence band at


absolute zero is completely filled and there are no free electrons in
conduction band. At room temperature the electrons jump to the
conduction band due to the thermal energy. When the temperature
increases, a large number of electrons cross over the forbidden gap
and jump from valence to conduction band. Hence conductivity of
semiconductor increases with temperature.

INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
Pure semiconductors are called intrinsic semi-conductors.
In a pure semiconductor, each atom behaves as if there are 8
electrons in its valence shell and therefore the entire material
behaves as an insulator at low temperatures.
A semiconductor atom needs energy of the order of 1.1ev to shake
off the valence electron. This energy becomes available to it even
at room temperature. Due to thermal agitation of crystal structure,
electrons from a few covalent bonds come out. The bond from
which electron is freed, a vacancy is created there. The vacancy in
the covalent bond is called a hole.
This hole can be filled by some other electron in a covalent bond.
As an electron from covalent bond moves to fill the hole, the hole is
created in the covalent bond from which the electron has moved.
Since the direction of movement of the hole is opposite to that of
the negative electron, a hole behaves as a positive charge carrier.
Thus, at room temperature, a pure semiconductor will have
electrons and holes wandering in random directions. These
electrons and holes are called intrinsic carriers.
As the crystal is neutral, the number of free electrons will be equal
to the number of holes. In an intrinsic semiconductor, if ne denotes
the electron number density in conduction band, nh the hole
number density in valence band and ni the number density or
concentration of charge carriers, then
n e = n h = ni
extrinsic semiconductors

As the conductivity of intrinsic semi-conductors is poor, so intrinsic


semi-conductors are of little practical importance. The conductivity
of pure semi-conductor can, however be enormously increased by
addition of some pentavalent or a trivalent impurity in a very small
amount (about 1 to 106 parts of the semi-conductor). The process
of adding an impurity to a pure semiconductor so as to improve its
conductivity is called doping. Such semi-conductors are called
extrinsic semi-conductors. Extrinsic semiconductors are of two
types :
i) n-type semiconductor
ii) p-type semiconductor

n-type semiconductor

When an impurity atom belonging to group V of the periodic table


like Arsenic is added to the pure semi-conductor, then four of the
five impurity electrons form covalent bonds by sharing one electron
with each of the four nearest silicon atoms, and fifth electron from
each impurity atom is almost free to conduct electricity. As the
pentavalent impurity increases the number of free electrons, it is
called donor impurity. The electrons so set free in the silicon crystal
are called extrinsic carriers and the n-type Si-crystal is called n-type
extrinsic semiconductor. Therefore n-type Si-crystal will have a
large number of free electrons (majority carriers) and have a small
number of holes (minority carriers).
In terms of valence and conduction band one can think that all such
electrons create a donor energy level just below the conduction
band as shown in figure. As the energy gap between donor energy
level and the conduction band is very small, the electrons can
easily raise themselves to conduction band even at room
temperature. Hence, the conductivity of n-type extrinsic
semiconductor is markedly increased.
In a doped or extrinsic semiconductor, the number density of the
conduction band (ne) and the number density of holes in the
valence band (nh) differ from that in a pure semiconductor. If ni is
the number density of electrons is conduction band, then it is
proved that
ne nh = ni2

p-type semiconductor

If a trivalent impurity like indium is added in pure semi-conductor,


the impurity atom can provide only three valence electrons for
covalent bond formation. Thus a gap is left in one of the covalent
bonds. The gap acts as a hole that tends to accept electrons. As
the trivalent impurity atoms accept electrons from the silicon crystal,
it is called acceptor impurity. The holes so created are extrinsic
carriers and the p-type Si-crystal so obtained is called p-type
extrinsic semiconductor. Again, as the pure Si-crystal also
possesses a few electrons and holes, therefore, the p-type
si-crystal will have a large number of holes (majority carriers) and
a small number of electrons (minority carriers).
It terms of valence and conduction band one can think that all such
holes create an accepter energy level just above the top of the
valance band as shown in figure. The electrons from valence band
can raise themselves to the accepter energy level by absorbing
thermal energy at room temperature and in turn create holes in the
valence band.
Number density of valence band holes (nh) in p-type semiconductor
is approximately equal to that of the acceptor atoms (Na) and is
very large as compared to the number density of conduction band
electrons (ne). Thus,
nh» Na > > ne

electrical resistivity of
semiconductors

Consider a block of semiconductor of length l1 area of


cross-section A and having number density of electrons and holes
as ne and nh respectively. Suppose that on applying a potential
difference, say V, a current I flows through it as shown in figure.
The electron current (Ic) and the hole current (Ih) constitute the
current I flowing through the semi conductor i.e.

I = Ie + Ih (i)

It ne is the number density of conduction band electrons in the


semiconductor and ve, the drift velocity of electrons then
Ie = eneAve

Similarly, the hole current, Ih = enhAvh

From (i) I = eneAve + enhAvh

I = eA(neve + nhvh) (ii)

If r is the resistivity of the material of the semiconductor, then the


resistance offered by the semiconductor to the flow of current is
given by :

R = r l/A (iii)

Since V = RI, from equation (ii) and (iii) we have


V = RI = r l/A eA (neve + nh vh)

V = r le(neve + nhvh) (iv)

If E is the electric field set up across the semiconductor, then:

E = V/l (v)
from equation (iv) and (v), we have
E = re (neve + nhvh)
1/r = e (ne ve/E + nh vh/E)

On applying electric field, the drift velocity acquired by the electrons


(or holes) per unit strength of electric field is called mobility of
electrons (or holes). Therefore,
mobility of electrons and holes is given by :
me = ve/E and mh = vh/E

1/r = e(ne me + nh mh) (vi)


Also, s = 1/r is called conductivity of the material of
semiconductor

s = e (ne me + nh mh) (vii)


The relation (vi) and (vii) show that the conductivity
and resistivity of a semiconductor depend upon the electron and
hole number densities and their mobilities. As ne and nh increases
with rise in temperature, therefore,

CONDUCTIVITY OF SEMICONDUCTOR INCREASES WITH RISE


IN TEMPRATURE AND RESISTIVITY DECRESES WITH RISE IN
TEMPRATURE.

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