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TYPE Original Research

PUBLISHED 21 February 2024


DOI 10.3389/feduc.2024.1229126

Enhancing mathematical
OPEN ACCESS education with spatial
visualization tools
EDITED BY
S. Putrawangsa,
Universitas Islam Negeri Mataram, Indonesia

REVIEWED BY
Frank Reinhold, Linda Margarita Medina Herrera 1, Saúl Juárez Ordóñez 1 and
University of Education Freiburg, Germany Sergio Ruiz-Loza 2*
Simone Jablonski,
Goethe University Frankfurt, Germany 1
Mathematics Department, Tecnologico de Monterrey, Mexico City, Mexico, 2 Computer Department,
*CORRESPONDENCE
Tecnologico de Monterrey, Mexico City, Mexico
Sergio Ruiz-Loza
sergio.ruiz.loza@tec.mx
Introduction: This article highlights the innovative approach of incorporating spatial
RECEIVED 25 May 2023
ACCEPTED 06 February 2024 visualization tools in mathematics education, specifically focusing on the exploration
PUBLISHED 21 February 2024 of virtual environments and 3D printing. By integrating these advanced technologies,
CITATION educators can enhance the learning experience and facilitate a deeper understanding
Medina Herrera LM, Juárez Ordóñez S and of mathematical concepts. This research delves into the potential benefits and
Ruiz-Loza S (2024) Enhancing mathematical
practical applications of these tools, shedding light on their effectiveness in fostering
education with spatial visualization tools.
Front. Educ. 9:1229126. spatial reasoning skills and promoting active student engagement. The study aims to
doi: 10.3389/feduc.2024.1229126 uncover new avenues for leveraging technology in the mathematics classroom and
COPYRIGHT re-imagining the teaching and learning process.
© 2024 Medina Herrera, Juárez Ordóñez and
Ruiz-Loza. This is an open-access article
Methods: To assess the progress in spatial visualization ability, the Revised
distributed under the terms of the Creative Purdue Spatial Visualization Test (Revised PSVT: R) was administered as both a
Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The pre-test and a post-test to a sample of 255 students divided into control and
use, distribution or reproduction in other
forums is permitted, provided the original
experimental groups.
author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are Results: The findings indicate that the control group exhibited no significant
credited and that the original publication in
this journal is cited, in accordance with
development (p=0.163) and had a minimal effect size of change (g=0.035),
accepted academic practice. No use, whereas the experimental group demonstrated a substantial improvement in
distribution or reproduction is permitted spatial visualization ability (p<0.05) with a noteworthy medium effect size of change
which does not comply with these terms.
(g=0.325). Furthermore, an analysis of variance was conducted to compare the
mean normalized change in spatial visualization ability between the control and
experimental groups. The results, with 95% confidence, establish that the normalized
spatial visualization change is significantly higher in the experimental group.
Specifically, the experimental group witnessed a 25% increase in spatial visualization
skills, while the control group only experienced a 5% increase.
Discussion: Our study demonstrates the significance and effectiveness of
integrating spatial visualization tools in mathematics education to enhance
students’ spatial reasoning skills and mathematics understanding.

KEYWORDS

3D printing, augmented reality, educational innovation, mathematics teaching, spatial


visualization, virtual environments, higher education

1 Introduction
Spatial skills have a vital significance in the acquisition of mathematical knowledge,
particularly in the realms of geometry and calculus (Arcavi, 2003; Battista, 2007; Medina
Herrera et al., 2019). Proficiency in spatial visualization, encompassing the manipulation of
figures in three-dimensional space, recognition of patterns, projections, and the ability to
describe concepts using both natural and mathematical language, are essential attributes

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sought in promoting mathematical learning (Gilligan et al., 2022; Ruiz capabilities but also underscore the pivotal role of problem-solving in
Loza et al., 2022). Research shows that throughout development, there this process.
is a consistent, predictive, and strengthening relationship between More precisely, this paper illustrates how AR and VR can be used
spatial reasoning and mathematical achievement (Resnick et al., in a multiple-variable calculus context to develop students’ spatial
2020). Particularly, for a comprehensive understanding of the skills. We present various technological tools designed for this
fundamental concepts of calculus in multiple variables, students need purpose, including three developed by our team: AVRAM (Spanish
spatial visualization abilities that enable them to grasp the relationships acronym for Remote Virtual Environments for Mathematics
between surface transformations in space and the corresponding Learning), which utilizes virtual environments, and ARC (Augmented
equations and inequalities (Medina Herrera et al., 2019; Buentello Reality Calculus), which harnesses augmented reality (Medina
Montoya et al., 2021). Herrera et al., 2019). Additionally, we introduce LUMEN (Learning in
Spatial visualization plays a pivotal role in the integration of Unified Mathematics Environments) (Ruiz Loza et al., 2022), a recent
augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) technologies, these platform that seamlessly integrates both virtual and augmented reality
immersive tools leverage spatial understanding to create interactive capabilities. Furthermore, we incorporate other valuable tools in our
and lifelike experiences (Alqahtani et al., 2017; Gilligan et al., 2022). research, such as GeoGebra 3D (GeoGebra 3D, 2018) and CalcPlot3D
By harnessing spatial visualization abilities, learners can seamlessly (Seeburger, 2011). These software tools generate 3D mathematical
interact with virtual objects and environments, enhancing their graphs that can be manipulated through rotation, translation, scaling,
understanding and engagement with mathematical concepts (Sorby, and Boolean operations, all of which are essential components of
2009; Kovacevic, 2019). AR overlays digital content onto the real spatial visualization skills. Moreover, by combining these graphing
world, while VR immerses users in entirely virtual environments, both tools with 3D printing, students gain the opportunity to interact with
relying heavily on spatial cognition to facilitate natural interactions. mathematical surfaces visually and tactually.
The synergy of spatial skills and immersive technologies presents It is crucial to acknowledge that the development of students’
promising opportunities to revolutionize mathematics education and skills is not solely dependent on the incorporation of these tools.
deepen students’ mathematical understanding (Buentello Montoya A well-defined pedagogical design is essential, which involves a series
et al., 2021). of thoughtfully crafted activities aimed at facilitating the learning and
Furthermore, a fundamental intricate connection exists application of intricate mathematical concepts, while also nurturing
between mathematical problem-solving and problem-solving skills. problem-solving abilities and spatial skills.
The former entails the systematic and analytical application of The subsequent sections will explore the outcomes of utilizing
mathematical concepts to find solutions to problems. While augmented and virtual reality, along with 3D printing, in mathematics
problem-solving skills extend beyond mathematics to address education. We will delve into the concept of mathematical
challenges in various life domains, the engagement with visualization, describe the teaching methodology employed in the
mathematical problems has proven to be an effective means of classroom, and discuss the developed technological tools. Additionally,
developing and refining problem-solving abilities. This perspective we will introduce the Revised Purdue Spatial Visualization Test:
aligns with the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Visualization of Rotations (Revised PSVT: R) (Yoon, 2011; Maeda
Development’s Programme for International Student Assessment et al., 2013), utilized to assess the progression of spatial skills in
(OECD, 2014), which defines problem-solving skills as “… an participating students. This paper presents new empirical evidence on
individual’s capacity to engage in cognitive processing to understand the efficacy of AR, VR, and 3D printing for developing spatial skills.
and resolve problem situations where a method of solution is not
immediately obvious. It includes the willingness to engage with
such situations to achieve one’s potential as a constructive and 2 Theoretical framework
reflective citizen.”
Amidst the growing recognition of the pivotal role played by 2.1 Spatial ability
spatial skills in mathematics education and the transformative
potential of AR and VR technologies, this study seeks to address a Spatial visualization is the cognitive ability to represent,
fundamental research question: Can the integration of AR and VR manipulate, and comprehend objects and relationships in three-
tools and 3D printing with disruptive educational methodologies, dimensional mental space, even when they are not physically present.
such as project oriented learning, in the context of multiple-variable It involves the ability to mentally imagine and rotate objects, identify
calculus significantly enhance students’ spatial reasoning and patterns, and understand how different elements relate in space
problem-solving skills and deepen their understanding of intricate (Battista, 2007; Sorby, 2009; Revina et al., 2011). On the other hand,
mathematical concepts? spatial reasoning is the process of thinking and problem-solving that
In this research, we introduce a methodology and tools that have involves spatial and visual relationships. The ability to visualize and
enabled us not only to enhance spatial visualization but also to develop manipulate objects in space is essential for reasoning and problem-
problem-solving skills within a mathematical context. The primary solving involving spatial aspects (Buckley et al., 2019; Guntur et al.,
focus of this paper is to demonstrate the development of spatial 2020; Gilligan et al., 2022). Both skills are interconnected and mutually
visualization skills. However, it is crucial to emphasize that the reinforce each other in the learning and problem-solving process
enhancement of spatial abilities is closely intertwined with problem- involving spatial concepts. Spatial reasoning is a trainable skill that can
solving. In our approach, problem-solving serves as a catalyst for be improved through practice and deliberate training (Alqahtani et al.,
fostering spatial skills. Through our methodology and tools, we not 2017; Lowrie et al., 2018). Research has shown a causal relationship
only aim to showcase the advancement of spatial visualization between enhanced spatial reasoning and improved mathematical

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understanding (Lowrie et al., 2018; Kovacevic, 2019; Medina Herrera mathematics, encompassing the capacity to identify, analyze, and
et al., 2019). Particularly, spatial visualization, a key aspect of spatial address challenges across various domains of life. Key skills associated
reasoning, involves mentally manipulating and comprehending spatial with problem-solving include creativity, cognitive flexibility, logical
relationships. It plays a crucial role in understanding geometry and reasoning, perseverance, and teamwork. Mathematical problem-
integral calculus concepts and solving problems related to areas and solving serves as an effective medium for developing and strengthening
volumes (Battista, 2007; Bishop, 2008; Sorby, 2009). general problem-solving skills. By engaging with mathematical
Past studies (Lowrie et al., 2018; Atit et al., 2020; Resnick et al., problems, students have the opportunity to refine their ability to tackle
2020) have demonstrated that spatial aptitude can be developed and challenges, thereby enhancing their capacity to address problems in
improved through targeted training and intentional practice. diverse contexts. Moreover, the structured and methodical approach
Additionally, novel intervention approaches, like the one presented in required for mathematical problem-solving can serve as a model for
Medina Herrera et al. (2019), integrate various 3D tools in the addressing challenges in other areas of life. In summary, the
teaching-learning process to enhance spatial visualization and spatial relationship between mathematical problem-solving and problem-
orientation skills among engineering students. solving skills is symbiotic, each reinforcing the other in a mutually
Effective mental image processing requires a variety of skills. beneficial manner.
Previous research on spatial abilities (Bishop, 2008; Medina Herrera The utilization of Augmented reality, virtual reality and 3D
et al., 2019), has identified 10 specific skills, including mentally printing have been a subject of investigation in educational research,
rotating objects, envisioning the unfolding of solids, manipulating particularly regarding their impact on spatial visualization and
their positions in space, comprehending configurations with moving problem-solving skills among students. Previous studies have
parts, manipulating imaginary three-dimensional movements and demonstrated that incorporating these tools into pedagogical activities
objects, transforming spatial patterns, identifying relationships among can lead to significant enhancements in students’ understanding of
objects in space, recognizing objects from varying angles or motion, complex mathematical concepts and their ability to apply them in
considering spatial relations based on the observer’s body orientation, problem-solving contexts (Humphreys et al., 1993; Hsi et al., 1997;
perceiving and comparing spatial patterns, and maintaining Sorby, 2007; Martín-Gutiérrez et al., 2015). For instance (Herrera
orientation relative to objects in space. et al., 2020) found that students who engaged with 3D tools exhibited
Furthermore, Atit et al. (2020) indicate that spatial skills and improved spatial visualization skills, as evidenced by their ability to
motivation interact to significantly predict students’ mathematics manipulate objects, and describe spatial relationships accurately.
performance. This finding emphasizes the importance of both spatial Moreover, Medina Herrera et al. (2019) reported a notable increase in
abilities and intrinsic motivation in shaping students’ achievements in students’ final grades and a decrease in failure rates following the
mathematics. Encouraging spatial reasoning abilities and nurturing implementation of a 3D-based methodology in the mathematics
students’ intrinsic motivation in mathematics education can lead to curriculum. These findings suggest that the integration of 3D tools can
improved academic outcomes. Similarly, Uttal et al. (2013) found that positively impact both academic performance and student motivation
training students to think spatially and apply spatial skills resulted in in mathematics classrooms (Bishop, 1989; Arcavi, 2003; Battista, 2007;
significant increases in their spatial ability. This spatial ability, which Pitta-Pantazi and Christou, 2010; Alqahtani et al., 2017; Buentello
involves perceiving the location and dimensions of objects and their Montoya et al., 2021). Furthermore, assessments conducted in various
relationships, is vital in everyday actions and is associated with studies indicate that students achieve higher scores, particularly in
expertise in mathematics (Arcavi, 2003; Bishop, 2008; Kovacevic, sections assessing spatial and problem-solving abilities, which are
2019; Medina Herrera et al., 2019; Resnick et al., 2020). Spatial crucial components of mathematical proficiency (Humphreys et al.,
training has been shown to be effective in improving math 1993; Martín-Gutiérrez et al., 2015; Medina Herrera et al., 2019).
performance, benefiting young children and increasing expertise in Additionally, qualitative feedback from students suggests a heightened
science, technology, engineering, and mathematics in later life. sense of engagement and enthusiasm when participating in activities
Assessment tools, such as those presented in Sorby (2009), are involving 3D tools, indicating their potential to enhance the overall
used to gage an individual’s level of spatial visualization development. learning experience (Medina Herrera et al., 2019). Overall, the
These assessments often involve abstract reasoning exercises, literature supports the notion that the integration of 3D tools and
examining logical progressions or block movements in three- methodologies holds promise for improving spatial visualization
dimensional space across various planes. Universities frequently use skills, problem-solving abilities, and overall mathematical proficiency
abstract reasoning tests to assess potential success in engineering among students (Hake, 1998; Hegarty and Kozhevnikov, 1999;
programs. In this study, The Revised Purdue Spatial Visualization Test: Delahunty et al., 2016; Ruiz Loza et al., 2022).
Visualization of Rotations (Revised PSVT:R) was utilized to evaluate
the advancement of spatial skills in students (see Section 3.1).
The relationship between mathematical problem-solving and 2.2 Exploring virtual and augmented reality
problem-solving skills is intricate and foundational. Mathematical in the teaching-learning process of
problem-solving entails the application of mathematical concepts to mathematics
find solutions to posed situations, demanding a systematic and
analytical approach. This process involves not only the direct Researchers have proposed various activities and approaches to
application of formulas or algorithms but also the ability to develop spatial skills in mathematics. Some of these proposals include
comprehend the problem, identify patterns, formulate strategies, and the use of blocks in different forms, such as flat images or augmented
evaluate the validity of potential solutions. Conversely, problem- reality images, to aid students in visualizing and manipulating objects
solving skills encompass cognitive abilities that extend beyond in space (Sorby, 2009; Ruiz Loza et al., 2022). Augmented reality has

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been employed as a tool to virtually model objects, enabling students environments for the study of multivariable calculus. This approach
to visualize vertices, edges, and object projections, thereby enhancing involves actively engaging students in hands-on projects that challenge
their ability to form mental images and comprehend spatial them to apply spatial visualization skills in real-world contexts. To
relationships (Medina Herrera et al., 2019; Buentello Montoya et al., measure the improvement in spatial skills, the Revised PSVT: R
2021). Additionally, the development of semi-immersive systems for assessment was utilized in this study. Mean and difficulty scores from
Virtual Mental Rotation Training allows students to interact with 3D the control and experimental groups’ tests were employed as indicators
models by selecting, rotating, zooming, and navigating them, resulting of skill enhancement. In prior research, a series of experiments were
in improved mental rotation abilities for spatial objects (Medina conducted over a four-year period involving control and experimental
Herrera et al., 2019). groups. These studies aimed to analyze the development of students’
Virtual reality and augmented reality present exciting possibilities visualization skills and their impact on final grades and failure rates.
for enhancing mathematics education (Bishop, 2008; Medina Herrera The results have demonstrated that the experimental groups achieved
et al., 2019; Atit et al., 2020; Resnick et al., 2020; Buentello Montoya superior final grades, higher scores in spatial skills assessments, and a
et al., 2021): (1) Visualizing geometric concepts: By utilizing VR and reduced number of failures compared to the control group (Uttal
AR, students can engage in immersive experiences that enable them et al., 2013).
to interact with three-dimensional geometric shapes and objects. This
hands-on approach allows for a deeper exploration of spatial
relationships, angles, and proportions, making the learning experience 3.1 The revised Purdue spatial visualization
more tangible and captivating. (2) Simulating mathematical scenarios test: visualization of rotations
(Sorby, 2009; Revina et al., 2011): Virtual mathematical environments
created through VR and AR can provide students with opportunities The Revised Purdue Spatial Visualization Test: Visualization of
to solve problems and conduct experiments. For instance, they can Rotations (Revised PSVT:R) is a psychometric assessment designed
simulate physics phenomena, visualize three-dimensional graph to measure an individual’s spatial visualization ability, particularly
functions, or delve into mathematical modeling within a virtual realm. their aptitude for mentally rotating objects. The test consists of 30
(3) Enhancing problem-solving skills: VR and AR can present real- multiple choice problems that require the test-taker to mentally
world scenarios that demand mathematical problem-solving (Guntur manipulate and visualize objects in three-dimensional space. These
et al., 2020). Students are encouraged to apply their mathematical tasks may involve rotating objects, identifying their transformed
knowledge and skills to analyze and resolve problems within a realistic orientations, or selecting the correct rotation from a set of options.
context. (4) Gamifying mathematics: The integration of VR and AR The Revised PSVT:R provides a standardized and quantifiable
into educational games and activities can transform the learning of measure of an individual’s spatial visualization capabilities (Yoon,
mathematics into an interactive and enjoyable experience. Students 2011; Maeda et al., 2013).
can engage in math-based puzzles, quizzes, and simulations that offer The initial iteration of the test gained widespread usage in research
instant feedback and rewards, fostering a sense of achievement. (5) within Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM)
Promoting collaborative learning experiences: VR and AR facilitate education. It aimed to explore the correlation between spatial ability
collaborative learning by allowing students to interact with virtual and the success of STEM students in terms of achievement, retention,
objects and mathematical concepts collectively. Through teamwork, and graduation (Maeda et al., 2013). Additionally, it served as a
students can work together to solve problems, discuss strategies, and placement test to allocate engineering students to suitable courses,
visualize mathematical concepts in a collaborative manner (Medina assess gender differences, and evaluate the impact of intervention
Herrera et al., 2019). programs on enhancing spatial ability and academic performance,
Individualized instruction: VR and AR could adapt to individual among other purposes. However, concerns arose regarding the validity
students’ needs, offering individualized learning experiences. These of inferences drawn from test scores due to figural errors present in
technologies can provide interactive tutorials, adaptive exercises, and the original version, leading to its revision in Yoon (2011). The errors
customized feedback based on students’ progress and performance, were rectified, and the Revised PSVT:R underwent psychometric
catering to their unique learning requirements (Ruiz Loza et al., 2022). evaluation using a sample of 1,022 undergraduate students from
When incorporating VR and AR into mathematics education, it is diverse majors. In this study, the Revised PSVT:R demonstrated
crucial to provide proper guidance, establish clear learning objectives, satisfactory reliability, with a Cronbach’s α coefficient of 0.862. Recent
and ensure that the technology serves to enhance mathematical investigations (Maeda et al., 2013). have further explored the test’s
comprehension. Additionally, considering the availability of necessary psychometric properties and its relationship with academic-related
equipment and appropriately integrating VR and AR experiences into variables, always demonstrating good internal consistency.
the curriculum are vital considerations for successful implementation.

3.2 Student learning measures


3 Method
Four methods have been widely used to compare learning gains
In this section, we present the educational methodology between control and experimental groups by utilizing pre-test and
implemented to develop spatial visualization skills in engineering post-test. (1) Raw change score or learning gain, which is just the
students. By incorporating cutting-edge 3D technological tools into a difference between post-and pre-tests scores. (2) The normalized gain
precise pedagogical design based on the educational methodology of score or relative learning gain; A metric that quantifies the actual
project-oriented learning, we have created mixed reality learning increase in learning in relation to the maximum potential gain. (3) The

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normalized change score, which coincides with normalized gain for allowed to choose from among these tools for completing activities
students whose post-test scores are higher than the pre-test ones, but both in and outside the class. Each week, the students were required
students who achieve identical scores on both the pre-test and post- to work on a team activity and an individual activity, both related to
test are assigned a gain of zero, while students who obtain lower scores the final project.
on the post-test compared to the pre-test exhibit a negative gain. This Below are the technological tools that the students in the experimental
negative gain is adjusted based on the total number of points they group used, along with the pedagogical methodology employed.
could potentially have lost. In this study we call it the normalized
visualization change, and (4) The effect sizes; measures that reveal how 3.3.1 Technological tools
much a group differ from another, particularly, with control and The first three technological tools were developed ad-hoc and
experimental groups, thus quantifying the result that it would designed following Hartson’s taxonomy of affordances (Hartson, 2003;
be found in the population (Hake, 1998; DeVellis, 2006; Marx and Hartson and Pyla, 2018). We ensured the provision of comprehensive
Cummings, 2007). Since we are dealing with groups of different sizes, information on functional, cognitive, physical, sensory, and emotional
in this study we use Hedge’s standard deviation. affordances for these environments, aiming to deliver an integrated
user experience. This kind of integrated experience was not found in
the currently available tools, but was proposed as a key element to
3.3 Experimental procedure and sample prioritize the user’s focus on developing mathematical competencies,
description over the time spent learning how to use different software tools.
A broader description of these tools can be found in Medina Herrera
The sample for this experiment consisted of 255 second-semester et al. (2019) and Ruiz Loza et al. (2022).
engineering students enrolled in a multiple-variable calculus course. AVRAM software (remote virtual environments for learning
During registration, students had the option to choose from 24 groups mathematics) was developed, allowing for the creation of 3D graphical
taught by 9 different professors. Two of these 9 professors, with similar representations, and enabling system-spanning interactions (Hartson
credentials and expertise in handling technological tools, participated and Pyla, 2018) interaction between students and teachers in a virtual
in the experiment, each teaching a total of 8 groups. Among these 8 reality (VR) environment. It provides an affordance for a more
groups, the ones where the methodology would be applied were intuitive understanding of mathematical functions and relationships.
randomly selected as the experimental groups, while the others served Figure 1 shows an ellipsoid drawn in AVRAM and used in class.
as control groups. This resulted in 162 students in the experimental ARC (Augmented reality in calculus) was created, incorporating
groups and the remaining 93 students in the control groups. augmented reality (AR) cards for drawing 3D surfaces, along with
The course lasted for 10 weeks. During the first class, all students games related to curves and regions in space, ideal for working with
took the Revised PSVT:R test. The experimental group engaged in a concepts such as volumes and areas. This affordance connects physical
detailed project, divided into stages over the 10 weeks. Meanwhile, the and virtual representations, making abstract calculus concepts more
control group received a regular multivariable calculus course without tangible. Figure 1 shows two ARC’s cards, one showing a quadric
the use of augmented reality (AR), virtual reality (VR), or 3D printing. surface and the other a region of integration used in class.
In the experimental groups, the professors utilized 3D tools to explain LUMEN (Learning in Unified Mathematics Environments) was
the concepts, while in the control groups, traditional 2D chalkboards developed, a VR and AR software that combines the functionalities of
and graphing tools were employed. In the last class session, all students AVRAM and ARC, with improvements and new features. This
took the Revised PSVT:R test once again. enhances the user experience, making it more user-friendly, versatile,
The technological tools used in the experimental group were and effective for learning calculus concepts. Figure 1 shows a sphere
introduced to the students in the first class session, and they were in LUMEN used in class.

FIGURE 1
From left to right, a quadric surface in ARC, a region of integration in ARC, a sphere in LUMEN and an ellipsoid in AVRAM software.

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FIGURE 2
Models made by students using CalcPlot3d or GeoGebra.

Calplot3D (Seeburguer) is a visual exploration tool for


multivariable calculus that enables users to graph points, vectors,
curves, surfaces, vector fields, and more. It also supports the use of
red-blue or red-cyan 3D glasses for enhanced visualization (see
Figure 2).
GeoGebra3D. Model 3D mathematics using augmented reality
(AR). Create solids, spheres, planes, cross-sections, and various other
three-dimensional objects. Solve problems in linear geometry,
represent functions z = f(x, y), and plot parametric surfaces. With
augmented reality, you can bring mathematical concepts to life and
explore them in a more immersive and interactive way (see Figure 2).
These programs are used by teachers to teach concepts, but the
most interesting aspect is how students apply them in project-based
or problem-based learning. The implementation of 3D printers began
to incorporate the sense of touch, which, together with vision, allows FIGURE 3
for increased possibilities in developing spatial visualization skills. 3D prints of mathematically modeled objects used in class.
Figure 3 shows some 3D prints used in class.
Utilizing 3D printing in the classroom offers more than just the
development of spatial skills; it also fosters student engagement and
enthusiasm. The learning experience extends beyond the final becoming a source of inspiration across various disciplines. It bridges
outcome and encompasses the entire 3D printing process. Achieving the gap between abstract mathematical ideas and their real-world
a proper 3D-printed model requires students to work with variables’ applications, helping students build a deeper understanding of
ranges (x, y, and z), model width, scales, supporting structures, and multivariable calculus principles. Instructors have integrated 3D
the overall print setup. This process proves to be more challenging printing into their classes to effectively teach essential concepts,
than it appears. The significance lies in the journey of 3D printing recognizing its value as an educational tool.
rather than solely focusing on the resulting model. Observing a 3D
printer in action provides students with a deeper comprehension of 3.3.2 Pedagogical activities
level curves as they witness the layers forming the model. Additionally, The investigation starts with the aim of identifying the essential
it enhances their understanding of concepts like cylindrical shells and skills that engineering students need to acquire during a multivariable
disk methods employed in finding the volume of a solid of revolution. calculus course. These skills are crucial for a comprehensive
The appeal of 3D printing extends to both students and professors, understanding of mathematical concepts and their efficient

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FIGURE 4
Several stages of students’ product development under a project-based learning framework.

application in solving real-world problems encountered in their Stage 4 centers on analyzing the surfaces that compose the box or
professional careers. Since the multivariable calculus course revolves base. Students engage in substantial argumentation and employ
around the geometry of three-dimensional space, spatial skills play a language and symbolic operations. The transition from surface
fundamental role. While various skills such as logical thinking and observations to descriptions and mathematical analysis involves
collaborative work are involved, this research specifically focuses on utilizing Boolean operations between surfaces again with the aid of
problem-solving skills due to their close connection with spatial the 3D tools. Students work with simple mathematical models to
abilities. Alongside the use of 3D tools for teaching mathematical determine intersections, identify maximum and minimum curves,
concepts, the methodology incorporates a project-based learning and solve optimization problems related to packaging, surface area,
approach where students engage in a multi-stage project throughout and costs.
the course. Stage 5 encompasses the 3D printing of the 3D model. The model
The project encompasses the design of various figures, including must meet specific requirements, including accurate sizing, precise
submarines, bottles, and chess pieces. The different stages of the surface area, and volume. Through calculations and tests, adjustments
project involve progressing from hand-drawn sketches to calculating are made to both the model and its packaging until the desired 3D
the volume and surface area of the components using multiple printable model is achieved. Figure 4 shows the different stages of
integrals. Figure 4 illustrates the various stages undertaken by the project.
the students. Every stage in the process is accompanied by rubrics that serve as
In Stage 1, students engage in the preliminary design phase of the guidelines for instructors to provide guidance and assess students. The
object. This initial stage places emphasis on the use of graphing methodology described in this paper fosters a sense of responsibility
software and the 3D technological tools mentioned above, facilitating in students for acquiring solid mathematical knowledge. Through
collaborative design through the manipulation of surfaces in space. interactive mixed learning environments, students engage not only
Stage 2 involves a mathematical description of the object. With the with their teachers but also with one another, ensuring their active
aid of the 3D technological tools, students learn to describe surfaces, participation in the learning process. As mentioned in Uttal et al.
perform transformations, projections, visualizations, orientations, and (2013) several interactive approaches are employed in teaching,
effectively use both natural and mathematical language to describe including creative tasks, social projects, the utilization of innovative
their work. materials, and problem-solving activities.
In Stage 3, students 3D print basic pieces and create a video where This project incorporates these approaches by integrating 3D
they explain the processes they have executed. This video plays a technological tools into collaborative student projects and activities
critical role as it allows for initial observations of spatial that embody the characteristics of Project Oriented Learning (POL).
skill development. In these activities, students harness their creativity to design

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mathematical models, describe them both verbally and mathematically 6) Immediate feedback; interaction with these 3D tools provides
using equations and inequalities, and ultimately bring their models to immediate feedback, helping students identify errors and
life through 3D printing. misconceptions in real time, thereby promoting a deeper
In addition to the benefits offered by the 3D printing stage, understanding of the concepts.
we have identified two key factors that facilitate the development of 7) Multisensory learning; these 3D tools offer a multisensory
activities from a computational standpoint. Firstly, the real-time learning experience, students engage their visual and
rendering speed of designed objects enables a visual representation kinesthetic senses, the tactile experience of handling 3D
that accurately depicts mathematical shapes in a virtual three- printed objects engages multiple senses, enhancing the learning
dimensional space. This not only enhances the comprehension of the process and memory retention.
relationship between mathematical equations and their geometric
counterparts, but also serves as a valuable tool for instructors to
illustrate these concepts. It allows for numerous relational examples,
each accompanied by instant visual perspectives. Secondly, the 3.4 Data and results
utilization of a generalized form of quadric equations provides a
common framework for describing and comprehending the impact of The initial focus of our research lies in analyzing the difficulty
changing coefficients, exponents, and offsets on the actual geometric scores of the test based on the Classical Test Theory (CTT) (DeVellis,
shape, all in real-time. 2006), which utilizes the true score model. In this model, observed test
Cheng and Tsai (2013) conducted research about affordances of scores are considered as the combination of true scores and error
AR in science learning, providing a summary of technical features, scores of respondents, where the observed variable represents a mix
focus topics, participants and affordances of 12 AR research papers in of relevant information and random errors.
science education, suggesting a path for future research. In this work, Firstly, a comparison is made between the pre-test and post-test
the general affordances identified by the mixed reality learning gain in difficulty scores for the entire sample, as well as for both the
environments in the teaching of multivariable calculus, among control and experimental groups, using analysis of variance.
others, are: Subsequently, paired t-tests are conducted to evaluate whether there
was a significant increase in the mean scores of both the control and
1) Enhanced visualization; students grasp abstract and complex experimental groups. Additionally, t-tests are employed to compare
mathematical ideas more intuitively, with 3D printing, complex the average normalized change in visualization ability development
3D graphs of multivariable functions can be printed, enabling between the control and experimental groups.
students to visualize functions that involve multiple variables.
2) Interactive engagement; students interact with mathematical 3.4.1 Difficulty analysis
concepts in real time, which encourages active participation In this section we conduct a CTT-based item difficulty analysis.
and exploration. The difficulty of an item is defined as the proportion of correct
3) Spatial understanding; students can view and manipulate responses of the item across all students, since each correct response
objects from various angles, aiding in the comprehension of is worth one point in the Revised PSVT:R, the difficulty of an item is
geometry and calculus in three dimensions, 3D printing can just the mean score of the item across all students. Thus, the higher the
bring volume integrals to the physical world by printing objects difficulty, the easier the question. The difficulty statistics of this study
with varying densities, helping students grasp the concept of are reported in Table 1. From the statistics we can see that there was
integration in multiple dimensions. an increase in the mean difficulty from the pre to the post-test in all
4) Collaborative learning; students and teachers can interact in three categories (entire sample, control group, and experimental
virtual or augmented reality spaces, enabling real-time group), but the greatest increase corresponds to the
collaboration, discussion, and problem-solving. experimental group.
5) Practical application; contextualization helps students see the Visual representations of difficulty for the control and
real-world relevance of mathematical ideas, 3D printing experimental groups are shown in Figures 5, 6. From this graphical
connects abstract mathematical concepts to real-world description we can see that the increase in difficulty in the entire
applications in engineering design, analysis, and sample is mainly due to the increase in difficulty in the
problem-solving. experimental group.

TABLE 1 Difficulty statistics.

Test M SD Min Max


Pre-test sample 0.707 0.135 0.290 0.922

Post-test sample 0.754 0.128 0.350 0.950

Pre-test control 0.716 0.131 0.355 0.925

Post-test control 0.724 0.135 0.333 0.925

Pre-test exp 0.701 0.138 0.253 0.932

Post-test exp 0.771 0.125 0.358 0.975

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Medina Herrera et al. 10.3389/feduc.2024.1229126

Hedge’s g values and their corresponding 95% confidence intervals


that quantify the degree of precision of the estimate for the three
categories support the above observation and are shown in Table 2.
These intervals reveal a significant medium effect size of change in the
experimental group and no significant effect size of change in the
control group and in the entire sample.
The results of paired t-test with a significance level of 5% showed
that the mean difficulty of the post-test is higher than the mean
difficulty of the pre-test (p < 0.05), in other words, the post-test was
easier than the pre-test in the entire sample; however, the increase was
not homogeneous across the control and experimental group, Games-
Howell simultaneous tests for the difference in mean difficulty among
the three pair of samples revealed a significant difference between the
sample and the control group (p < 0.001), between the sample and the
experimental group (p = 0.012), and between the control and the
experimental group (p < 0.001). These results are reported in Table 3,
FIGURE 5 along with their corresponding 95% confidence intervals, which do
Cubic models for pre-and post-test difficulties of the control group.
not contain 0, thus supporting the results of the test (see Figure 7).

3.4.2 Mean visualization change analysis


In this section we conduct t-tests using the Revised PSVT:R
pre-and post-test scores for the control and experimental group. The
purpose is to measure and compare the mean normalized visualization
change between these groups. The descriptive statistics are shown in
Table 4.
Hedge’s g values and their corresponding 95% confidence intervals
for both groups reveal a significant small to medium effect size of
change in the experimental group and no significant effect size of
change in the control group (see Table 5).
Moreover, results of paired t-tests show that the mean difference
in the experimental group was significant (p < 0.001), whereas the
mean difference in the control group was not (p = 0.163). 95% lower
bounds for the mean difference for both groups support the
conclusions of the tests. The results are reported in Table 6.
In addition, the mean normalized visualization changes statistics
show that the experimental group had a 25% change versus the control
group with a 5% change in the development of spatial visualization
FIGURE 6
Cubic models for pre and post-test difficulties of the experimental skills, as shown in Table 7.
group. The results of an independent t-test for the difference
between mean normalized visualization changes in the control

TABLE 2 95% Confidence intervals of the effect size measure Hedge’s g for the three groups.

Group g 95% CI
Sample 0.357 (−0.142, 0.865)

Control group 0.062 (−0.444, 0.568)

Experimental group 0.529 (0.014, 1.043)

TABLE 3 Games-Howell simultaneous tests for difference of means.

Diff of levels Diff of means 95% CI Adj p-value


Control—sample −0.03908 (−0.053, −0.027) 0.000

Experimental—sample 0.02244 (0.004, 0.041) 0.012

Experimental—control 0.06152 (0.045, 0.078) 0.000

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Medina Herrera et al. 10.3389/feduc.2024.1229126

and experimental groups show that the development of Equality of variances was not assumed in this analysis
spatial visualization ability in 3D mental rotations was (Levene’s p < 0.001).
significantly higher for the experimental group than for the
control group (p < 0.001), a 95% lower bound of 0.1448 for the
difference between means supports this claim (see Table 8). 4 Discussion
The lack of development of spatial skills in engineering students
is evidenced in mathematics courses that are developed in a 3D
environment. This lack of spatial skills causes many students to
be unable to understand or apply important mathematical concepts.
The development of spatial skills and the ability to solve problems, as
addressed in our research question, is underscored by the substantial
improvement demonstrated by the experimental group exposed to our
intervention methodology involving spatial visualization tools.
The paper provides the foundation for a comprehensive
investigation into the integration of spatial visualization tools in
mathematics education, with a particular emphasis on their
application in the context of multivariable calculus. The study focuses
on incorporating cutting-edge technologies, including augmented
FIGURE 7
Games-Howell simultaneous 95% confidence intervals for the reality, virtual reality, and 3D printing in mathematics education. Its
difference between mean increase in difficulty. primary goal is to explore the potential advantages of these tools and
assess their impact on students’ spatial reasoning skills and overall

TABLE 4 Descriptive statistics.

Test N M SD SEM
Post-test control 93 21.688 5.823 0.604

Pre-test control 93 21.484 5.985 0.621

Post-test experimental 162 23.123 5.982 0.470

Pre-test experimental 162 21.031 6.858 0.539

TABLE 5 95% confidence intervals of the effect size measure Hedge’s g for the two groups.

Group g 95% CI
Control group 0.035 (−0.253, 0.322)

Experimental group 0.325 (0.106, 0.544)

TABLE 6 Estimation of paired differences.

Group M SD SEM 95% lower bound for μ


difference
Control 0.204 1.998 0.207 −0.140

Experimental 2.093 4.899 0.385 1.456

Group t p-value

Control 0.99 0.163

Experimental 5.44 < 0.001


μ difference: population mean of (Post-test–Pre-test).

TABLE 7 Normalized visualization changes statistics.

Sample N M SD SEM
Normalized visualization change 157 0.2544 0.3714 0.030
experimental

Normalized visualization change control 91 0.0498 0.1979 0.021

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Medina Herrera et al. 10.3389/feduc.2024.1229126

TABLE 8 Estimation for the difference between mean normalized visualization changes.

Difference t df 95% lower bound for p-value


difference
0.2046 5.65 244 0.1448 0.001

engagement in the learning process. The paper highlights the critical minimal development in spatial skills. The outcomes of our study,
importance of spatial visualization in mathematical learning, as discussed in the preceding sections, underscore the importance
especially in the complex domain of calculus involving multiple of integrating spatial visualization tools in the mathematics
variables, where a solid grasp of spatial abilities is essential for classroom. These results directly support our initial research
understanding the relationships between various surfaces questions and hypotheses, confirming the positive influence of
and equations. these innovative technologies on students’ spatial reasoning skills
The integration of spatial visualization tools, such as AVRAM, and mathematical learning.
ARC, and LUMEN, along with other software like GeoGebra 3D and The findings emphasize the importance of considering spatial
CalcPlot3D, aims to create immersive and interactive learning visualization as a vital component of mathematics education and
experiences. These tools allow students to manipulate 3D encourage educators to embrace innovative technologies to enhance
mathematical graphs, which is essential for developing spatial skills. the teaching and learning process. By continuing to explore new
Additionally, 3D printing offers a tactile aspect to mathematical avenues for leveraging technology in the mathematics classroom,
surfaces, providing a unique way for students to interact with educators can prepare students for the challenges of a rapidly evolving
mathematical concepts. technological world and empower them to become confident problem
One crucial aspect highlighted in the abstract is that the solvers and critical thinkers.
development of spatial skills is not solely reliant on technology; it is In summary, our study’s results directly align with our research
achieved through a well-designed pedagogical approach and carefully questions by highlighting the significance of spatial skills in
crafted activities. This indicates that while technology plays a mathematics, the potential advantages of spatial visualization tools,
significant role, the teaching methodology itself is equally important and their substantial impact on students’ spatial reasoning abilities
in fostering spatial skills and problem-solving abilities. and engagement in the learning process. These findings provide a
The study employed a pre-post-test design with control and solid foundation for future investigations in the field of mathematics
experimental groups, utilizing the Revised Purdue Spatial education, emphasizing the importance of integrating technology
Visualization Test: Visualization of Rotations to assess the progression and pedagogy to enhance students’ mathematical
of spatial skills in participating students. The statistical analysis learning experiences.
revealed noteworthy findings. The experimental group, which While software, manuals, and guidance are provided, students
experienced the intervention methodology involving spatial may encounter challenges when using augmented reality, virtual
visualization tools, demonstrated substantial improvement in spatial reality, and 3D printing tools in educational settings. However, it has
visualization ability, as indicated by a significant increase in the mean not been observed that students have significant difficulties in their
difficulty of the test and a medium effect size of change. In contrast, use. In many cases, students themselves offer assistance to team
the control group, which did not receive the intervention, showed no members who may have difficulties, while teachers also provide
significant development in spatial skills. guidance to address any technical or navigational issues. These
Moreover, the mean normalized visualization change, comparing additional resources help students overcome challenges and make the
the experimental and control groups, indicated that the experimental most of the educational potential of these tools. Nevertheless,
group experienced a 25% increase in spatial visualization skills, while conducting research to assess students’ performance with these
the control group only experienced a 5% increase. This stark difference technologies would be beneficial, providing valuable insights for
further highlights the effectiveness of the spatial visualization tools in improving their implementation and effectiveness in
enhancing students’ spatial abilities. educational settings.

5 Conclusion Data availability statement


The study presented in this paper demonstrates the significance The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will
and effectiveness of integrating spatial visualization tools, including be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.
augmented reality, virtual reality, and 3D printing, in mathematics
education. By combining these advanced technologies with a well-
designed pedagogical approach, educators can facilitate a deeper Author contributions
understanding of mathematical concepts and foster problem-
solving abilities. LM: conceptualization, funding acquisition, and project
The findings indicate that the experimental group, exposed to administration. SJ and LM: data curation. SJ, SR, and LM: figures and
the intervention methodology involving spatial visualization tools, tables. LM and SJ: formal analysis, investigation, methodology, and
exhibited a substantial improvement in spatial visualization ability. validation. SJ: resources. SR and SJ: software. SR, LM, and SJ:
In contrast, the control group, without such intervention, showed visualization, writing—review and editing. LM, SR, and SJ:

Frontiers in Education 11 frontiersin.org


Medina Herrera et al. 10.3389/feduc.2024.1229126

writing—original draft preparation. All authors contributed to the production of this work. Our deepest appreciation to all the members
article and approved the submitted version. of the project “Touching Math: From Concepts to Reality through
3D Tools”.

Funding
Conflict of interest
This manuscript is a product of the project “LUMEn: Learning in
Unified Mathematics Environments,” with funding from the NOVUS The authors declare that the research was conducted in the
2019 Fund, Grant with PEP nos. PHHT032-19ZZ00012-04-001 and absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could
PHHT032-19ZZ00012-05-001. be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments Publisher’s note


The authors would like to acknowledge the financial and the All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors
technical support of Writing Lab, Institute for the Future of Education, and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated
Tecnologico de Monterrey, Mexico, in the production of this work. organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the
The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support of Novus reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim
Grant with PEP No. PHHT032-17CX00005 and PHHT032- that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed
19ZZ00012, TecLabs, Tecnologico de Monterrey, Mexico, in the by the publisher.

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