CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Aquatic ecosystems are vital to the survival of numerous species and play an essential role in

maintaining ecological balance. However, pollution from human activities such as industrial

waste, agricultural runoff, plastic waste, and untreated sewage has posed significant threats to

aquatic life (Briggs, 2019). The degradation of water quality directly impacts aquatic organisms,

leading to reduced biodiversity, habitat destruction, and food web disruptions. Pollution of

aquatic ecosystems arises from various sources, including domestic sewage, agricultural runoff,

industrial effluents, and improper waste disposal. These pollutants introduce harmful substances

such as heavy metals, pesticides, plastics, and organic waste into water bodies, disrupting

ecological balance (Khan and Ghour, 2021). Aquatic organisms, ranging from microorganisms to

fish and amphibians, are directly affected by these pollutants through toxicity, habitat

degradation, and reduced reproductive success. Over time, these impacts cascade through the

food chain, affecting biodiversity and human populations relying on these resources. Aquatic

ecosystems are vital components of the environment, serving as habitats for diverse species,

sources of water for human and animal consumption, and sites for recreational and economic

activities. However, these ecosystems are increasingly under threat from pollution, particularly in

developing countries like Nigeria, where industrialization, urbanization, and population growth

have escalated environmental challenges (Halder and Islam, 2020). Lokoja, the confluence city

where the Niger and Benue Rivers meet, is renowned for its aquatic biodiversity. Despite its

significance, this area is facing severe pollution challenges, jeopardizing aquatic life and

threatening livelihoods dependent on these water bodies.

Freshwater plays an important role in life on earth and is constitutes the total 1% volume of

surface water on the earth. Both types of activities i.e. natural and anthropogenic activities

mainly from domestic, municipal, and industrial impair the quality of surface water which in turn

adversely impacts the aquatic organisms. The response of aquatic organisms to different types of

pollutants varied and can be observed during different activities of aquatic organism e.g.,

alteration in migratory behavior, changing in morphological, behavioral, histopathological, and

reproduction. Organism response to pollutants also depends on nature, concentration, species,

and size, etc. (Desai et al., 2019). Different advanced technology like nanofiltration,

electrodeposition, sequestration, activated carbon treatment, ion exchange, etc., can be used to

improve the water quality of polluted water bodies. Polluted water discharged from the domestic

and industrial should be treated properly in order to reduce the excess of toxicity. Proper

environmental education should be given, limiting the release of specific pollutants, etc. can help

to conserve the water bodies from aquatic pollution. Nevertheless, the strict implementations of

environmental laws and regulations at different level i.e. local, national, and international levels

is the remedy to protect freshwater bodies from pollution.

Pollution has emerged as one of the most pressing environmental challenges, with far-reaching

consequences on ecosystems worldwide. Aquatic environments, which include oceans, rivers,

lakes, and wetlands, are particularly vulnerable to various forms of pollution due to their capacity

to absorb and accumulate contaminants. These ecosystems are vital for maintaining ecological

balance, supporting biodiversity, and providing resources for human sustenance and economic

activities (Briggs, 2019). However, the increasing human activities and industrialization have

significantly degraded water quality, threatening aquatic life and ecosystem services. The impact

of pollution on aquatic life is multifaceted, encompassing physical, chemical, and biological

dimensions. Lokoja's strategic location at the confluence of two major rivers makes it a focal

point for assessing the impact of pollution on aquatic ecosystems. The influx of waste from

upstream regions, coupled with local anthropogenic activities such as sand mining, fishing, and

domestic waste dumping, exacerbates the problem. Investigating this issue is critical to

understanding the extent of damage to aquatic life and developing sustainable solutions to

protect these ecosystems (Khan and Ghouri, 2021). Pollutants such as heavy metals, plastics, oil,

pesticides, and untreated sewage enter aquatic environments through industrial discharge,

agricultural runoff, urbanization, and improper waste disposal. These contaminants disrupt the

delicate balance of aquatic ecosystems, resulting in adverse effects on aquatic organisms,

including fish, amphibians, invertebrates, and algae.

Aims and Objectives of the Study

 To investigate the impact of pollution on aquatic life.

 To identify the major pollutants affecting aquatic ecosystems.

 To assess the effects of pollution on the health and population of aquatic organisms.

 To analyze the relationship between water quality parameters and the diversity of aquatic

species.

 To recommend strategies for mitigating pollution in aquatic ecosystems.

Research Questions

 What are the main pollutants affecting aquatic life?

 How does pollution impact the health and population of aquatic organisms?

 What is the relationship between water quality and aquatic biodiversity?

 What strategies can be implemented to mitigate aquatic pollution?

Statement of the Problem
The rivers in Lokoja are essential for the survival of numerous aquatic species and the socio-

economic well-being of residents who depend on them for fishing, agriculture, and

transportation. However, these water bodies are increasingly polluted due to indiscriminate waste

disposal, agricultural runoff, and industrial discharges. This pollution threatens aquatic life,

causing fish kills, biodiversity loss, and degradation of water quality. Pollution in aquatic

ecosystems has become a growing concern globally. In many regions, aquatic habitats are being

degraded due to increased human activities. Contaminants like heavy metals, micro-plastics and

harmful chemicals have been found in aquatic environments, adversely affecting fish

populations, invertebrates, and other marine organisms. The lack of sufficient data on the specific

impacts of pollution hinders the formulation of effective policies to mitigate these effects. This

research aims to investigate the extent of pollution's impact on aquatic ecosystems to provide

actionable insights.

Significance of the Study

The investigation into the impact of pollution on aquatic life is crucial for several reasons.

Aquatic organisms play essential roles in the food chain, nutrient cycling, and carbon

sequestration. Their health and survival are indicative of the overall health of aquatic ecosystems.

Moreover, many communities around the world depend on aquatic life for food, recreation, and

economic activities such as fishing and aquaculture. This research will contribute to

understanding how pollution affects aquatic ecosystems, providing a basis for policy

development and environmental management practices. It will be valuable to environmental

agencies, policymakers, and conservationists aiming to preserve aquatic biodiversity and ensure

sustainable use of water resources.

This study is significant for several reasons. Firstly, it provides critical insights into the extent

and nature of pollution in Lokoja's aquatic ecosystems, contributing to the body of knowledge on

environmental management. Secondly, the findings will guide policymakers, environmental

agencies, and local communities in developing and implementing effective conservation

strategies. Scope of the Study

The study focuses on the aquatic ecosystems in Lokoja, Kogi State, specifically the Niger and

Benue Rivers. It examines the types and sources of pollutants, assesses their impact on aquatic

organisms, and evaluates water quality parameters. The study period covers 12 months to

account for seasonal variations in pollution levels and their effects on aquatic life.

Definition of Key Terms

Aquatic Life: Organisms living in or dependent on water bodies, including fish, amphibians,

invertebrates, and microorganisms.

Pollution: The introduction of harmful substances or contaminants into the environment,

adversely affecting ecosystems and living organisms.

Water Quality: The physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of water, determining its

suitability for various uses.

Biodiversity: The variety and variability of life forms within an ecosystem.

 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Aquatic ecosystems, encompassing rivers, lakes, oceans, and wetlands, play a crucial role in

supporting life on Earth. These environments provide essential habitats for a diverse range of

organisms, from microscopic plankton to large marine mammals. However, human activities

have significantly impacted the health of these ecosystems through various forms of pollution.

Aquatic ecosystems are critical to maintaining biodiversity and ensuring the sustainability of the

environment. However, increasing pollution poses significant threats to aquatic life. Aquatic

biomes are the water ecosystems of the world and they include marine ecosystems, brackish

water ecosystem, estuarine ecosystem and the freshwater ecosystem. Water bodies with less than

0.05 parts per thousand of dissolved salts are taken as fresh water, and include surface water

bodies such as ponds, lakes, streams, springs, wetlands, rivers, and artificial or man-made bodies

of water including canals, ditches and reservoirs as well as underground water. About 75% of the

earth’s surface is covered by water, but out of this only about 3% is fresh, and 99% of this (3%)

is either locked up in glaciers, polar ice caps or is buried in underground aquifers. According to

Bob-(Manuel, 2019) fresh water ecosystems cover 0.8% of the earth’s surface, contain 0.009%

of its total water, generate nearly 3% of its net primary productivity and contains 41% of the

world’s known fishes. Aquatic resources consist of extremely wide range of flora and fauna

which offer a broad array of valuable goods and beneficial services with potential utilitarian

application in the pharmaceutical, agricultural and innovative industries. The aquatic

environment provides food and shelter for fishes, crustaceans, mollusks, whales, crocodiles etc.

and nutrient supplies for economically important fish species (Zabadal, 2020).
Similarly, the aquatic environment performs other important environmental functions such as

nutrient recycling, water purification and provision of habitats for wildlife. They are also used

for human recreation and are very important to the tourism and transport industries especially in

coastal regions of the world. (Castro and Huber, 2021) broadly defined pollution as the

introduction of harmful substances or heat energy into the environment by humans. (Manuel,

2019) pollution is an undesirable change in the physical, chemical and biological characteristics

of our air, land and water that may or will harmfully affect our industrial processes, living

condition and cultural assets or that will waste or deteriorate our material resources. (Wokoma et

al., 2019) sees pollution as the discharge or release of waste matter from industrial or domestic

sources which may be raw or partially treated; gaseous, liquid or solids, biodegradable or non-

biodegradable, toxic or non-toxic etc. into the air, land or water. As regards aquatic pollution, the

classical definition is that given by the Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of

Marine Pollution (GESAMP, 2020). They defined marine and aquatic pollution as the

introduction by man, directly or indirectly of substances or energy into the marine and aquatic

environment including estuaries which results or is likely to result in such deleterious effects as

harm to living or non-living resources, hazards to human health, hindrance to marine and aquatic

activities including fishing and other legitimate uses of the sea (River), impairment of quality for

use of sea and river water and reduction of amenities. Any substance, which has the capability of

causing or is likely to cause any of the adverse effects in water, as listed above is regarded as a

water pollutant. Fresh water bodies are of two types: Lotic and Lentic water. Lotic aquatic

systems are those with flowing water bodies. The water bodies perpetually oscillate or are in

unidirectional flow. They include streams, rivers, creeks, as well as seas and ocean which exhibit

a tidal movement. Lentic water bodies such as ponds and lakes are relatively still.
2.2 Overview of Aquatic Pollution

2.2.1 Definition of Pollution

Pollution refers to the introduction of harmful substances or products into the environment,

disrupting the natural balance. Aquatic pollution specifically involves the contamination of water

bodies such as rivers, lakes, and oceans by physical, chemical, or biological substances. Pollution

can be defined as the introduction of harmful substances or energy into the environment at a rate

faster than it can be rendered harmless by natural processes. Aquatic pollution poses a serious

threat to the delicate balance of aquatic life, leading to a cascade of negative consequences for

both the environment and human society. (WHO, 2020).

Types of Aquatic Pollution

Aquatic pollution can be broadly categorized into several types:

Point Source Pollution: This type of pollution originates from a single, identifiable source, such

as industrial discharge pipes, sewage treatment plants, and oil spills.

Non-Point Source Pollution: This type of pollution arises from diffuse sources, making it

difficult to pinpoint the exact origin. Common examples include agricultural runoff (fertilizers,

pesticides), urban runoff (oil, grease, litter), and atmospheric deposition (acid rain).

2.2.2 Types of Aquatic Pollution

Chemical Pollution: Caused by industrial discharges, agricultural runoff (pesticides and

fertilizers), and oil spills.

Physical Pollution: Includes solid waste like plastics and sediments from erosion.

Biological Pollution: Involves the introduction of invasive species and pathogens.

Thermal Pollution: Results from the release of heated water or effluents from industrial

processes.

2.2.3 Sources of Aquatic Pollution

1. Industrial effluents from factories and manufacturing plants.

2. Agricultural runoff containing fertilizers and pesticides.

3. Urban runoff due to improper waste disposal and sewage discharge.

4. Mining activities leading to heavy metal contamination.

5. Oil spills and leakage

2.3 Impact of Pollution on Aquatic Life

Industrial Effluents: The effluents released from industrial activities vary so greatly in both

flow and pollution strength (Beal and Raman, 2021). In general, industrial effluents may contain

suspended, colloidal and dissolved (mineral and organic) solids. In addition, they may be either

excessively acidic or alkaline and may contain high or low concentrations of coloured matter.

These effluents may contain inert, organic or toxic materials and possibly pathogenic bacteria.

Industrial waste is the most common source of water pollution in the present day (Ogedengbe

and Akinbile, 2020) and it increases yearly due to the fact that industries are increasing as most

countries are getting industrialized. The extent of industrial waste discharges in most developing

countries is such that rivers receiving untreated effluents cannot give natural dilution necessary

for their survival as good quality water sources. There is thus a challenge of providing water in

adequate quantity and of required quality to minimize hazards to human health while conserving

the water bodies and the environment. Effluent discharges into the environment have been on the

increase in Nigeria since 1960 due to active industrialization, urbanization and the accompanying
increase in commercial activities. The discharge of industrial effluents into water bodies is one of

the main causes of environmental pollution and degradation in many cities, especially in

developing countries. Many of these industries lack liquid, solid waste regulations and proper

disposal facilities for harmful wastes. Such wastes might be infectious, toxic or radioactive

(Jimena et al., 2018; WHO, 2020). On the other hand, waste or effluent management has

remained underdeveloped and very unsatisfactory leading to environmental pollution, global

warning, deforestation, shoreline erosion or degradation of natural ecosystems. As a result, many

potential pollutants have found their way into natural waters, especially in the urban areas

upsetting the ecological balance. Surface waters are usually exposed to negative impacts as well

as microbial contamination from run-off inputs, soils and any waste deliberately or inadvertently

dumped into such waters (Eremektar et al., 2019). These result in pollution increase in microbial

load, eutrophication, visible aesthetic nuisance and loss of recreational amenities. Government

awareness and interest in solving these problems have led to the establishment of Environmental

Protection Agencies (EPA) which is in the infant stage of operation in most African countries.

2.3 Classification of Industrial Effluents

There are many types of industrial effluents based on the type of industry releasing the effluent.

Basically, industrial effluents can be divided into two type’s namely inorganic and organic

effluents.

2.3.1 Inorganic Industrial Effluent

Inorganic industrial effluent is produced mainly in the coal and steel industry, non-metallic

minerals industry, commercial enterprises and manufacturing industries (Gbadebo et al., 2020).

These effluents contain a large proportion of suspended matter and chemical compounds, which
can be eliminated by sedimentation often together with chemical flocculation through the

addition of iron or aluminum salt, flocculation agents and different kinds of polymers. The

purification of warm and dust laden waste gases from blast furnace, converters, cupola furnace,

refuse and sludge incineration plants and aluminum works results in wastewater containing

mineral and inorganic substance in dissolved and un dissolved forms (Aydin et al., 2020).

2.3.2 Organic Industrial Effluents

These are industrial effluent flow from those industries and large scale chemical works, which

mainly use organic substances for chemical reaction. The effluents contain organic substances

having various origins and properties (Sevimli et al., 2019). These organic substances can only

be removed by special pretreatment of the wastewater, followed by biological treatment. Most

organic industrial wastewater are produced by the following industries and plants such as the

factories manufacturing pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, organic dye-stuffs, glue and adhesive, soap,

synthetic detergent, pesticide and herbicides releases large amount of organic industrial effluents;

tanneries and leather factories, textile factories, cellulose and paper manufacturing plant,

factories of oil refining industries, brewery and fermentation factories and metal processing

industries produces large amount of organic industrial effluents.

Effects of Water Pollutants

Water pollutants and their effects differ significantly according to the pollutants which include:

Heavy Metals: Heavy metals are those chemical elements with a specific gravity that is at least

five times the specific gravity of water (Odemealam, 2020). Examples include cadmium, lead,

arsenic, iron and mercury. Heavy metals occur naturally in the environment as constituents of

earth‘s crust and fulfill the criteria of persistence but are however dispersed over large area and
in the process are often diluted or broken down to harmless level by natural process. However,

due to anthropogenic activities, metal distribution patterns can be rearranged, resulting in site

specific elevated concentrations (Merian, 2018). Heavy metals are common in industrial

applications such as in the manufacture of pesticides, batteries, alloys, electroplated metal parts,

and textiles dyes, steel amongst others. Heavy metals that enter water bodies affect fish and other

aquatic organisms consequently endangering public health through consumption of contaminated

seafood and irrigated food crops. Chronic toxicity of heavy metals results from repeated or

continuous exposures leading to an accumulation in the body. Symptoms of chronic toxicity may

be similar to many common conditions and may not be readily recognized. Another adverse

health effect of heavy metal is associated with copper, mercury and cadmium. Copper poisoning

is known to have a damaging effect on the brain of higher animals at 0.5ppm level (Brown et al.,

2019).

Sediments: These suspended solid particles in water body make water turbid or cloudy and

unpleasant for various uses thus necessitating water treatment (Marquita, 2021). It is worthy to

note that sediment reduces light available to algae and aquatic plants, kill or injure fish by

damaging their gills, cover spawning gravel and smother fish eggs. It also reduces the quality of

recreational activities such as swimming and boating.

Oil and Grease: Crude oil consists of hydrocarbon, with carbon and hydrogen in the ratio 1:6 by

weight and other related inorganic metals. Oil spill is a major source of oil and grease pollution

in a water body. Oil spill is an accidental discharge of crude oil, refined oil products as well as

the disposal of used or exhausted lubricants and waste oil. It is noteworthy that depending upon

the amount and type oil spilled, weather condition, ecosystem recovery can be quick or painfully

slow. Floating oil reduce or prevent oxygenation of the water and without an adequate supply of
oxygen, the self-purification property of water is entirely prevented from operating (Egborge,

2019). Marine life from the simple algae to fish is endangered and the delicate ecological balance

is destroyed.

Acids and Alkalis: Acids and alkalis directly affect the pH of the receiving water body. The

wide changes in pH affect enzymes and other proteins, altering the course of natural

physiological processes of water (Ubawuike, 2020).

Excess Nitrate: It has been shown that excess nitrate in the body causes blood problems such as

anemia and hepatitis. Increased heart rate, decreased blood pressure and circulatory collapse

have also been reported it was also shown that high concentration of nitrate in water result in

eutrophication. Sources of nitrogen and nitrates may include runoff or seepage from fertilized

agricultural lands, municipal and industrial waste water, refuse dumps, animal feedlots, septic

tanks and private sewage disposal systems, urban drainage and decaying plant debris.

2.7 Effects of Industrial Effluents on the Environment

Industrial effluents may impact negatively on the environment. These impacts might be seen on

the plants, animals and even human.

2.7.1 Effects of Industrial Effluents on Plants

Industrial effluents when released in the open or on agricultural land contaminate the soil with

heavy metals and organic pollutants. (Mahata and Antil, 2020) observed that the morphometric

analysis showed that the height of seedling and length of root were also reduced with the

application of effluent. Thus, effluents must be diluted either with canal water or tube well water

to avoid their adverse effect on plant growth.

Impact of Industrial Effluents on the Soil (Lithosphere)

Sometimes, effluents especially sludge from the water or wastewater treatment facility are

disposed of by using them as soil amendment, or just indiscriminately to dump sites. When these

effluent or sludge (as the case may be) contain toxic materials and heavy metals, they

immediately become part of the soil; when these toxic materials and heavy metals become

ionized (i.e. in soluble form), they could be picked by the root of the plant and bioaccumulation

in the tissues of the plant (Mura et al., 2019). These toxic materials and heavy metals may also

disrupt the natural activities of both the flora and fauna components of the soil.

Impacts of Industrial Effluent on the Air (Atmosphere)

Effluent especially when it contains high BOD and other organic pollutant tends to give off foul

smell. This worsens when the waste is not properly dosed with the required oxygen to effectively

digest the complex organic matter to simpler form. Pungent gases like hydrogen sulphide (H 2S),

cyanide (CN) among others are` very notorious in this regards (Ghosh, 2021). With uncontrolled

release of effluent and wastewater, the undesirable foul smell could become a threat to the

inhabitants of such locality.

Impacts of Industrial Effluents on Human

In non-ferrous metal industries and industries that produce batteries, pigments, stabilizers and

plastics, the primary heavy metals discharged are lead, zinc, and cadmium. Cement manufacture

results in high emission of mercury as well as these heavy metals except zinc (Scoullos et al.,

2021). Arsenic and Zinc gain access to the water environment through mining operations. Nickel

and Cobalt are used in the electroplating industry. Effluents contain these heavy metals which are
harmful to human health either through direct ingestion or from fish and other animals or plants.

Heavy metals particularly arsenic, mercury and lead are environmental pollutants threatening the

health of human population and natural ecosystem. The untreated effluents when released to the

environment would interact with all components of the environment. The effect would not only

be felt in the water bodies alone, but across all the components of the biosphere. The toxic

component would definitely move round polluting the food web and trophic level (Förstner and

Wittmann, 2021).

2.7.2 Effects of Industrial Effluents on Animals

Pollution is caused when a change in the physical, chemical or biological condition in the

environment harmfully affect quality of human life including other animals ‘life and

plant. .Industrial, sewage and municipal wastes are being continuously added to water bodies

hence affect the physiochemical quality of water making them unfit for use of livestock and other

organisms, (WHO, 2020). Uncontrolled industrial effluent discharges into aquatic body has

resulted in eutrophication of ponds as evidenced by substantial algal bloom and dissolved

oxygen depletion in the subsurface water, (Ubawuike, 2020). This leads to large fish kill and

other oxygen requiring organism. Effluent discharged into aquatic environment with enhanced

concentration of nutrient, sediment and toxic substances may have a serious negative impact on

the quality and life forms of the receiving water body when discharge untreated or partially

treated. Water pollution by effluent has become of considerable public and scientific concern in

the light of evidence of their extreme toxicity to the health of animals and biological ecosystems

(WHO, 2020). The occurrence of heavy metals in industrial and municipal sewage effluents

constitute a major source of the heavy metals entering aquatic media which adversely affects

lives of aquatic animals. Hence, there should be regular assessment of these sewage effluents to
ensure that adequate measures are taken to reduce pollution level to the minimum. Worldwide

water bodies are primary means for disposal of waste, especially the effluents from industrial,

municipal sewage and agricultural practices that are near them. This effluent can alter the

physical, chemical, and biological nature of receiving water body. The initial effect of waste is to

degrade physical quality of the water.

2.8 Effects of Industrial Effluents on Water Quality

Over the last three decades, there has been increasing global concern over the public health

impacts attributed to water pollution, in particular, the global burden of disease. The World

Health Organization (WHO, 2020) estimated that about a quarter of the diseases facing mankind

today occur due to prolonged exposure to water pollution. Most of these water pollution-related

diseases are however not easily detected and may be acquired during childhood and manifest

later in adulthood. The discharge of industrial effluents into water bodies is one of the main

causes of environmental pollution and degradation in many cities, especially in developing

countries. Many of these industries do not adhere to liquid and solid waste regulations and proper

disposal facilities, including for harmful waste. Such waste may be infectious, toxic or

radioactive (WHO, 2020). In most countries, the principal risks to human health associated with

the consumption of polluted water are microbiological in nature. The risk of acquiring a

waterborne infection increases with the level of contamination by chemicals and pathogenic

microorganisms. Unfortunately, polluted rivers by industrial effluents are common throughout

the world. The (WHO, 2020) stated that one sixth of the world‘s population, approximately 1.1

billion people do not have access to safe water and 2.4 billion lack basic sanitation. Polluted

water which consists of industrial discharged effluents, sewage water, and pollution from

rainwater, agriculture or households causes damage to human health or the environment. This
water pollution affects the health and quality of soils and vegetation. Some water pollution

effects are recognized immediately, whereas others do not show up for months or years.

Estimation indicates that more than fifty countries of the world with an area of twenty million

hectares area are treated with polluted or partially treated polluted water including parts of all

continents and this poor quality water causes health hazard and death of human being, aquatic

life and also disturbs the production of different crops, (Kanu and Achi, 2021). In fact, the effects

of water pollution are said to be the leading cause of death for humans across the globe,

moreover, water pollution affects our oceans, lakes, rivers, and drinking water, making it a

widespread and global concern.

2.3.1 Effects on Water Quality

Reduced Oxygen Levels: Pollution leads to eutrophication, depleting oxygen levels.

Altered pH Levels: Acidification caused by industrial waste affects aquatic organisms.

Toxicity: Heavy metals and chemicals poison aquatic species.

Water Quality Parameters

The health of a river depends on the quality of its water, which is influenced by the presence of

pollutants. The quality of water is generally assessed by a range of parameters, which express

physical, chemical and biological composition of water (WHO, 2020). This research deals with

some specific water quality parameters of the Buriganga River, which include: temperature, pH,

dissolved oxygen (DO), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD),

electrical conductivity and the concentration of lead, chromium, ammonia nitrogen and

phosphate phosphorus. The guidelines as provided in the literature (WHO, 2020) have facilitated
the appropriate selection of these water quality parameters, which have been considered in

relation to water use and pollution sources.

2.3 Significance of selected water quality parameters

Temperature: Water temperature plays a significant role in affecting physical, chemical and

biological processes in water bodies (including the flowing waters like rivers), and thus the

concentration of many variables (WHO, 2020). High water temperature activates the rate of

chemical reactions with effect to evaporation and volatilization of substances from water. As

water temperature increases, the solubility rate of gases in water such as Oxygen decreases.

Moreover, the respiration rates of aquatic organisms increase in warm water which lead to

greater consumption of oxygen and increase the rate of decomposition (WHO, 2020). An abrupt

change in water temperature can lead to greater destruction of aquatic life. On the other hand,

excessively high water temperature may lead to the problem of unwanted growth of water plants

and wastewater fungus (WHO, 2020). Surface water temperature can be influenced by factors

such as geographical position, seasonality, diurnal period, circulation of air, quantity of cloud

cover, depth of water and its flow rate. In general, the temperature of surface water varies within

the range of 0oC to 30oC; however, abnormally high temperatures can arise from discharges of

industrial effluent and sewage treatment plants (WHO, 2020).

pH: The pH is used to read the acid balance of a solution and it is defined as ‘the negative of the

logarithm to the base 10 of the hydrogen ion concentration’ (WHO, 2020). The pH scale ranges

from 0 to 14 (i.e., very acidic to very alkaline), and pH 7 indicates a neutral condition. The pH of
natural water stays in between 6.0 and 8.5 but could be affected by chemicals entering the

waterways (WHO, 2020). This is a significant parameter to assess water quality as it has

influence over ‘many biological and chemical processes within a water body and all processes

associated with water supply and treatment’ (WHO, 2020). This parameter can be used to

evaluate the amount of effluent plume in the water body, while measuring the effects of an

effluent discharge (WHO, 2020). Extremely high or low pH values of fresh water make it

unsuitable for most aquatic organisms. Moreover, water with low pH values become corrosive to

both metallic and concrete structures in the water course and also reduce the availability of

nutrients such as calcium and magnesium. On the other hand, water with high pH values reduces

the availability of phosphate, sulphate, iron and manganese (WHO, 2020). For example, if the

pH approaches to 5.0, the acidic stage of digestion is becoming predominant and digestion will

be unsatisfactory. A pH value varying between 6.5 to 8.0 is required for a proper biological

treatment of wastewater (WHO, 2020).

Dissolved oxygen: The analysis of dissolved oxygen (DO) is used to measure the amount of

gaseous oxygen dissolved in the water, which is crucial for all forms of aquatic life. DO in water

mainly appear by diffusion from the atmosphere and also from the photosynthesis of aquatic

plants. Determination of this parameter is an integral measure of assessing water quality as

oxygen plays an influential role in ‘nearly all chemical and biological processes within water

bodies’ (WHO, 2020). The DO measurements can help to determine the level of pollution caused

by oxygen demanding substances, such as biodegradable organic matter and nutrients. The

eventual recovery in oxygen concentrations is enhanced by high water turbulence in the flowing

water body (WHO, 2020). The determination of DO is also used in the measurement of
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen demand (COD) in water (discussed in

following sections). The concentration of DO in an aqueous system can change, subject to the

season or even within a 24 hour time period, in terms of temperature and biological activity

(photosynthesis and respiration). In general, as the temperature and salinity level in the water

increase, consequently, the level of DO decrease (Goldman and Horne 1983). In fresh water, DO

at sea level ranges from 15 mg/L at 0 oC to 8 mg/L at 25oC. DO can also be measured in terms of

percentage saturation, and the saturation levels below 80 percent.

Biochemical Oxygen Demand: The biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is used to read the

level of biochemically degradable organic matter or carbon loading in the water. It is usually

defined by the amount of oxygen consumed by the aerobic micro-organisms present in the water

sample for the purpose of oxidizing the organic matter and to convert it to a stable inorganic

form (WHO, 2020). Hence, in water quality analysis this parameter is used to determine the

biodegradable organic content of the waste in terms of oxygen which is required when the wastes

are discharged into natural water where aerobic condition prevails. The BOD is usually

determined through standardized laboratory procedures where the sample is incubated in the dark

at a steady temperature of 20°C for the duration of 5 days, thereby measuring the amount of

oxygen consumed in this process.

Chemical Oxygen Demand: The chemical oxygen demand (COD) is commonly used to

measure the susceptible levels of oxidation of the organic and inorganic materials existent in

water bodies as well as in the sewage and industrial effluents. It measures the oxygen equivalent

of the organic matter present in a water sample that can be oxidized by a strong chemical
oxidant, such as dichromate or permanganate (WHO, 2020). The 2 to 4 hour laboratory tests for

COD measures the level of oxygen, which is necessary for chemical oxidation of organic and

inorganic matter in the water sample to convert into Co 2 and water. The COD test does not aim

to identify the oxidisable material or find differences between the organic and inorganic material

in the water. However, it has been a widely used measure for water quality analysis over the past

several decades. The concentration of COD observed in unpolluted surface water remain around

20 mg/L or less, while values are normally greater than 200 mg/L in effluents (Chapman and

Kimstach 1992). It is noted that COD measurements are usually higher than the BOD

measurements.

Electrical Conductivity: Electrical conductivity in water is a measure of salinity and the extent

to which water is able to conduct an electric current. It is expressed as micro Siemens per

centimetre (μS/cm) and, relates to the concentrations of total dissolved solids (TDS) or salts in a

specific water body (WHO, 2020). These salts typically include such cations as sodium, calcium,

magnesium and potassium, and anions such as chloride, sulphate and bicarbonate (WHO, 2020).

The salinity or the TDS in mg/L of water may be calculated by multiplying the conductance (in

μS/cm) by a factor which is commonly used as 0.68 (WHO, 2020).

Physico-chemical Properties of Industrial Effluents

An important pollution index of industrial wastewaters is the oxygen function measured in terms

of chemical oxygen demand (COD), and biological oxygen demand (BOD), while the nutrient

status of wastewater is measured in terms of nitrogen and phosphorus. In addition, other

important quality parameters include pH, temperature and total suspended solids (Kanu and
Achi, 2021). Industrial effluents are characterized by their abnormal turbidity, conductivity,

chemical oxygen demand (COD); total suspended solids (TSS) and total hardness.

Total Solids: The total solids in a wastewater consist of the suspended solids and the soluble

compounds dissolved in water. Volatile solids are presumed to be organic matter, although some

organic matter will not burn and some inorganic salts break down at high temperatures. The

organic matter consists mainly of proteins, carbohydrates and fats. Soluble solids, expressed as

milliliters per litre are those that can be removed by sedimentation.

Water Hardness: Water hardness is the traditional measure of the capacity of water to react

with soap since hard water requires considerably more soap to produce lather. Hard water often

produces a noticeable deposit of precipitate (e.g. insoluble metals, soaps or salts) in containers,

including bathtub ring. The principal natural sources are varieties of dissolved polyvalent

metallic ions from sedimentary rocks, seepage and runoff from soils, predominantly calcium and

magnesium cations, although other cations (e.g. aluminum, barium, iron, manganese, strontium

and zinc) also contribute. Hardness is most commonly expressed as milligrams of calcium

carbonate equivalent per litre. Although hardness is caused by cations, it may also be discussed

in terms of carbonate (temporary) and non-carbonate (permanent) hardness. Calcium and

magnesium, the two principal ions, are present in many sedimentary rocks, the most common

being limestone and chalk. They are also common essential mineral constituents of food.

Turbidity: Turbidity is a measure of water clarity which boils down on how much the material

suspended in water decreases the passage of light through the water. Suspended materials include

soil particles (clay, silt, and sand), algae, plankton, microbes, and other substances. Turbidity can

be caused by:

 silt, sand and mud

  bacteria and other germs

 Chemical precipitates.

It is very important to measure the turbidity of domestic water supplies, as these supplies often

undergo some type of water treatment which can be affected by turbidity. For example, during

the rainy season when mud and silt are washed into rivers and streams, high turbidity can quickly

block filters and stop them from working effectively. High turbidity will also fill tanks and pipes

with mud and silt, and can damage valves and taps. Where chlorination of water is practiced,

even quite low turbidity will prevent the chlorine killing the germs in the water efficiently. Some

treatment systems, such as sedimentors, coagulators and gravel pre-filters are designed to remove

turbidity. It is important for operators of both large and small treatment systems to know how

well these systems are working. Measuring the turbidity of the water before and after each part

of a system can tell the operator where maintenance or cleaning is needed.

Nutrients: The principal limiting nutrients in water include free ammonia, organic nitrogen,

nitrites, nitrates, organic phosphorus and inorganic phosphorus. Nitrogen and phosphorus are

important because these two nutrients are responsible for the growth of aquatic plants. All living

organisms require varying amounts of some trace elements, such as iron, copper, zinc and cobalt,

for proper growth.

Dissolved Oxygen: The solubility and the dynamics of dissolved oxygen distribution in water

bodies are basic to the understanding of the abundance and distribution of aquatic organisms.

Dissolved oxygen is essential for the metabolism of all aquatic organisms that undergo aerobic

biochemistry. Seasonal changes of dissolved oxygen were positively correlated with the density

of phytoplankton but inversely with the zooplankton. Dissolved oxygen is not only an important
water quality criterion in supporting well balanced aquatic fauna but insufficient amount in water

causes anaerobic decomposition of organic materials in a water body.

pH and Alkalinity: The acidity or basicity of irrigation water is expressed as pH (acidic < 7.0 >

basic). The normal pH range for irrigation water is from 6.5 to 8.4. Low pH may cause

accelerated irrigation system corrosion where they occur. High pH above 8.5 are often caused by

high bicarbonate and carbonate concentrations, known as alkalinity. High carbonates cause

calcium and magnesium ions to form insoluble minerals leaving sodium as the dominant ion in

solution. Excessive bicarbonate concentrates can also be problematic for drip or micro-spray

irrigation systems when calcite or scales build up causes reduced flow rates through orifices or

emitters. When these occur, injection of sulfuric or other acidic materials into the system may be

required for correction.

Nitrogen: Nitrogen in irrigation water (N) is largely a fertility issue. The nitrate ion often occurs

at higher concentrations than ammonium in irrigation water. Waters high in N can cause quality

problems in crops such as barley and sugar beets and excessive vegetative growth in some

vegetables. However, these problems can usually be overcome by good fertilizer and irrigation

management.

Total Dissolved Solids (TDS): Water has the ability to dissolve a wide range of inorganic and

some organic minerals or salts such as potassium, calcium, sodium, bicarbonates, chlorides,

magnesium, sulfates etc. These minerals produce unwanted taste and dilute color in appearance

of water. This is an important parameter for the use of water. Water with high TDS value

indicates that water is highly mineralized. High values of TDS in ground water are generally not

harmful to human beings, but high concentration of these may affect persons who are suffering

from kidney and heart diseases. Water containing total dissolved solids may cause laxative or
constipation effects and when used for irrigation and will likely increase salinity in the soil

thereby reducing nutrient and moisture absorption, Onuigbo and Madu, (2013).

Electrical conductivity (EC): Clean water is not a good conductor of electric current rather it is

a good insulator. Increase in ions concentration enhances the electrical conductivity of water.

Generally, the amount of dissolved solids in water determines the electrical conductivity.

Electrical conductivity (EC) actually measures the ionic process of a solution that enables it to

transmit current. According to WHO standards, EC value should not have exceeded 400 μS/cm

for drinking water and for FAO maximum permissible standard for Irrigation water quality the 3

dS/m.

Nitrate (NO3): Nitrate one of the most important disease causing parameters of water quality

particularly blue baby syndrome in infants. The sources of nitrate are nitrogen cycle, industrial

waste, nitrogenous fertilizers etc. The FAO allows maximum permissible limit of Nitrate-

Nitrogen for irrigation as 10 mg/l for irrigation water.

Sodium (Na): Sodium is a silver white metallic element and found in less quantity in water.

Proper quantity of sodium in human body prevents many fatal diseases like kidney damages,

hypertension, headache etc. In most of the countries, majority of domestic water supply bear less

than 20 mg/l while FAO maximum permissible standard for irrigation water quality is 40 me/l.

Heavy Metals Concentrations: Bioaccumulation of metals occurs in fauna and flora if the rate

of uptake of heavy metals by the organisms is more than the excretion. Unlike food that when

assimilated into the body digest or biodegrade, heavy metals are not biodegradable so they

accumulate in primary organs in the body and over time begin to fester, leading to various

symptoms of diseases. Heavy metal distributions in seawater and sediment samples were found

in high concentrations when compared to regulatory standards. This development is as a result of

introduction of heavy metals into the sea through runoff from residential, urban and industrial

sources (Rein, 2020). Many of the pollutants entering aquatic ecosystems (e.g., mercury lead,

pesticides, and herbicides) are very toxic to living organisms. They can lower reproductive

success, prevent proper growth and development, and even cause death. Heavy metals may also

precipitate phosphate bio-compounds or catalyze their decomposition. For example, among the

toxicological effects of mercury were neurological damage, including irritability, paralysis,

blindness, insanity, chromosome breakage and birth defects (Rein, 2020). Heavy metals can also

produce toxic effects; therefore, determination of the amounts of heavy metals is especially

important where the further use of treated effluent or sludge is to be evaluated. Many of metals

are also classified as priority pollutants such as arsenic, cadmium, chromium, mercury, etc.

Measurements of gases, such as hydrogen sulphide, oxygen, methane and carbon dioxide, are

made to help the system to operate. The presence of hydrogen sulphide needs to be determined

not only because it is an odorous and very toxic gas but also because it can affect the

maintenance of long sewers on flat slopes, since it can cause.

2.3.2 Impact on Biodiversity

Direct Toxicity: Pollutants can directly poison aquatic organisms, leading to mortality, impaired

growth, and reproductive problems.

Habitat Degradation: Pollution can degrade aquatic habitats, such as by altering water

chemistry, reducing oxygen levels, and destroying essential vegetation.

Biodiversity Loss: Pollution can lead to the decline and extinction of species, reducing the

overall biodiversity of aquatic ecosystems.

Disruption of Food Webs: Pollution can disrupt the delicate balance of food webs by affecting

the abundance and distribution of different trophic levels.

Human Health Impacts: Contaminated water can pose significant risks to human health,

leading to waterborne diseases, food poisoning, and other health problems

Loss of Species: Sensitive species face extinction due to polluted habitats.

Disruption of Food Chains: Pollutants accumulate in primary producers and biomagnify up the

food chain.

Behavioral Changes: Altered reproduction, feeding, and migration patterns in aquatic

organisms.

2.3.3 Bioaccumulation and Bio-magnification

Heavy metals like mercury and cadmium accumulate in aquatic organisms, leading to bio-

magnification and posing risks to higher trophic levels, including humans.

2.7 Theoretical Framework

This study adopts the Pollution Cascade Framework, which emphasizes the progression of

pollutants from sources to their ultimate impact on aquatic life and ecosystems. The framework

highlights how pollutants are introduced, transported, and transformed within aquatic systems,

offering a comprehensive perspective on the issue.

 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Study Area

The study will be conducted in Lokoja metropolis. Lokoja is located in Kogi State. It lies at the

confluence of Niger and Benue rivers and it is the capital of Kogi State. It lies at the confluence

of Niger and Benue rivers and it is the capital of Kogi State. The city’s population has grown to

an estimated count of over 90,000 inhabitants. It is close to the Federal Capital of Nigeria, Abuja.

Lokoja lies between latitude 7°45’N and 7°51’N and longitude 6°41’E and 6°45’E. It lies in the

western bank of the River Niger at an altitude of 45-125 metres above sea level towards the

Northwest which reaches an altitude of 400m above sea level. The highest temperature is

obtained between March and April, while the lowest temperature is obtained between December

and January. The first season of rainfall begins from March to July, with a break in the month of

August, a period known as August break. Another season of rainfall commences from September
and ends in October. The dry season begins from November and ends in March casting for about

five (5) to six (6) months. The relative humidity is high during this raining season, this is about

80% during this period, whereas relative humidity is low during the dry season, as low as 5%

during this season. The characteristics of the air within this period is dry and dusty. The

harmattan comes at the period of the dry season. The atmosphere is usually cloudy during rainy

season, as opposed to dusty dry season.

Figure 1: Map of Lokoja.

3.2 Research Design

A descriptive and cross-sectional analytical research design will be employed to investigate the

impact of pollution on aquatic life. Both qualitative and quantitative data collections will be

utilized to evaluate water quality, biodiversity and pollution sources. The study involved field

sampling, laboratory analysis, and data interpretation to evaluate the relationship between

pollution levels and aquatic biodiversity.

3.3 Sample Collection

3.3.1 Sampling Sites: Five sampling points will be selected along the River Niger, River Benue,

and their tributaries. These points will be chosen based on proximity to pollution sources, such as

industrial discharge, agricultural runoff, and urban waste.

Sampling period: samples will be collected during the dry and wet seasons to capture seasonal

variations in pollution and aquatic life.

3.3.2 Sampling Frequency: Samples will be collected monthly over six months to capture

seasonal variations.

3.3.3 Types of Samples: Water, sediment, and biological samples (fish, crustaceans, and aquatic

plants) will be collected.

Water samples: physiochemical and microbiological analysis

Sediment samples: to assess heavy metal contamination

Aquatic organisms: fish and macro-invertebrates for biodiversity and bioaccumulation

3.4 Methods of Sample Collection

Water Samples: will be collected using sterilized glass bottles and stored at 4°C for laboratory

analysis.

Sediment Samples: will be taken using a grab sampler, placed in labeled polythene bags, and

transported to the laboratory.

Biological Samples: Captured using fishing nets and traps; species will be identified and

preserved in 10% formalin for further examination.

3.5 Laboratory Analysis

3.5.1 Physicochemical Parameters of Water:

Parameters such as pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), biological oxygen demand (BOD), chemical

oxygen demand (COD), turbidity, and heavy metal concentrations will be analyzed using

standard procedures.
Temperature, pH, and Dissolved Oxygen (DO): Using a portable multi-parameter water quality

meter.

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD): Using standard

titrimetric methods.

Nutrients: Phosphate and nitrate concentrations will be determined using spectrophotometry.

Heavy Metals: Analyzed using atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS).

Microbiological Analysis

Microbial contamination will be assessed by:

Total Coliform Count: Using the multiple-tube fermentation technique.

Identification of Pathogenic Bacteria: Using selective media and biochemical tests.

3.5.2 Sediment Analysis:

Sediments will be tested for heavy metals (e.g., lead, mercury, and cadmium) using atomic

absorption spectrophotometry (AAS).

3.5.3 Biological Analysis:

Fish species will be identified, and their health status was assessed.

Bio-indicators of pollution, such as deformities and changes in gill morphology, will be noted.

Macro-invertebrate diversity and abundance will be used to gauge water quality.

Biodiversity Assessment

Fish Diversity: Fish will be identified to the species level using field guides and taxonomic keys.
Macro-invertebrates: will be collected using a kick net and identified based on morphological

characteristics.

Bioaccumulation Studies: Heavy metal concentrations in fish tissues will be analyzed using

AAS.

3.5.5 Pollution Source Identification

Geospatial analysis will be used to map pollution sources and assess their proximity to sampling

sites. Water pollution indices such as the Water Quality Index (WQI) will be calculated to

determine the overall impact on aquatic life.

3.6 Statistical Analysis

Data collected will be subjected to statistical analysis using SPSS software. Descriptive statistics

(means, standard deviations) and inferential statistics (ANOVA, correlation analysis) will be used

to evaluate the relationship between pollution levels and aquatic biodiversity.

3.7 Ethical Considerations

The study adhered to ethical guidelines for environmental research. Necessary permissions will

be obtained from relevant authorities. Measures will be taken to minimize harm to aquatic

organisms, and collected samples were handled responsibly.

3.8 Limitations of the Study

 Accessibility to certain sampling sites due to seasonal variations and water levels

 Potential contamination during sample collection and transportation.

  This detailed methodology ensured a comprehensive evaluation of pollution's impact on

aquatic life in Lokoja, Kogi State.

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