PNU-GENED-REVIEWER

PNU LET ReviewerGeneral Education
ENGLISH: Study and Thinking Skills

General:
 Comprehend written text in English
Specific:
 Use strategies to efficiently search for information and learn from written texts in
English
 Apply study and critical reading skills in comprehending English texts
I. Study Strategies and Thinking Skills

 Study skills according to Graham and Robinson (1984) are specific abilities which
students may use alone or in combination to learn the content of the curriculum on
their own.
 Harris and Smith (1986) state that study skills are those that enable a person to gather
information and to organize it in such a way that requires analysis, interpretation and
evaluation.
 Klein, Peterson, and Simington (1991) claim that study skills are skills necessary for
acquiring critical information from a variety of texts and media sources for differing
purposes and uses.
 Study skills are skills related to gathering and using information
A. Remembering Information
1. Repetition—saying or writing information a number of times
2. Mnemonics—a technique to remember details such as:
a. Acronyms are words that are formed by combining some parts (usually the first
letters) of some other terms. The term is also used to refer to initialisms, which are
combinations of letters representing a longer phrase.
b. Abbreviations (from Latin brevis “short”) is strictly a shorter form of a word, but
more particularly, is a letter or group of letters, taken from a word or words, and
employed to represent them for the sake of brevity.
c. Pegwords are words that rhyme with numbers and are used to build associations
with the information to be remembered
d. Keywords are familiar words that lead the reader to the new words to be learned.
They can be used to create mental images to remember new words and definitions.
e. Rhymes are words with similar sounds usually found in poetry and songs
f. Graphic Organizers—are visual representations that show how information is
organized
B. Underlining / Highlighting
Highlighting and underlining engage the reader to select words, phrases and
sentences, as well as, selecting the most important ideas and details in a reading. It
makes information stand out so that you can find it easily when you go back to the text to
study for a test. Systematically using different colored highlighter pens can make the
review process even easier. Familiarity with the techniques is helpful to find rapidly what
the reader needs when rereading the passage.
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Method for Underlining / Highlighting:

1. Mark the main ideas and the major details differently. Underline the main ideas with a
double line, and the major details with a single line or use a different color highlighter pen
for each.
2. Find main-idea sentences. Underline the sentences or parts of sentences that state the
main idea of a paragraph. If the main ideas are only implied, write your own main-idea
sentence in the margin. Find major details and underline these.
3. Circle key words. Use brackets [], asterisks (*), or any other symbol to mark parts that are
especially interesting or important to you.
4. Write notes or comments to yourself in the margin. The margins are good places to put
down your own thoughts as you read. Margin notes can help you connect ideas from
different parts of the selection. They can also help you connect a passage with other
material you have read, comments your teacher has made, or your own experience.
C. Notetaking While Reading

Note-taking is the practice of writing down pieces of information in a systematic
way. It involves using your own words and a separate notebook to condense the key ideas
you have marked in your text while annotating.
1. SQ3R (Rowntree, 1976:40-64)
a. Survey—flip through the chapter or book and note the layout, first and last
chapters or paragraphs, look at the headings used, familiarize yourself with the
reading.
b. Question—ask questions about the way the reading is structured and think about
the questions you will need to keep in mind while reading. Think about whether or
not you think the book is relevant or if it’s current and if it suits the purpose of your
study
c. Read—read actively but quickly, looking for the main points of the reading—don’t
take any notes—you might want to read through twice quickly.
d. Recall—write down the main points of reading and any really important facts, and
opinions that help support the main points. Also, record the bibliographic details
e. Review—repeat the first three steps over and make sure you haven’t missed
anything. At this point, you might like to finalize your notes and re-read your notes
or write down how the material you’ve just covered relates to your question or task.
2. The PQ5R Method
PQ5R is the mnemonic for an effective student regulated approach to studying the kind of
material assigned everyday—textbooks. Gaining new information and ideas from a variety
of different textbooks demands a balanced and flexible network of study strategies.
a. Preview—know where you’re going first. You would never plunge in and try to
cross rugged territory if you could have in advance an accurate map of the region.
Here is you mental map of a textbook chapter: Examine the title. Read the
introduction. Glance at the pictures, charts and diagrams. Read the wrap-up of the
chapter—the summary and review questions.
b. Question—work through the chapter—one manageable section at a time. A section
marked off with a boldface or italic sideheading is likely to be the right size “bite”
for you to digest. Be a human question mark. Go into each section with a question
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in your mind. Turn headings, and sometimes topic sentences, into questions. These
should give you to the main points.
c. Read—read to find the answer to your question and other important content.
Unknown terms say, STOP! LOOK UP! LEARN! Remove these roadblocks. Each
pictorial aid is saying, “This is clearing up something important.” Shift back-and-
forth reading for pictures, diagrams, and charts. Shift your eyes (and thoughts) back
and forth as needed from the printed words to the pictorial aid. Speed up and slow
down as needed within the passage. Do stop-and-go reading. Thought time is
needed in addition to reading time. Reread as often as necessary. Do “stop-and-go”
reading.
d. Record—jot down or mark important ideas. Make the key ideas stand out in some
way so they will “flag” you later. Use any combination of devices. Jot mini notes on
a memo slip to be inserted between related pages or in the book’s margin. Draw
vertical lines in the margin just to the left or right of important content. Bracket key
ideas. Underline or color-accent selectively. Now you won’t have to reread the
entire chapter when you return to review it later. Make key ideas “flag” you.
e. Recite—Students exclaim, “I’ve read the chapter twice, but I still can’t remember
it.” Solve this problem by using the most powerful techniques known to
psychologists—the technique of self-recitation. As you complete a section or a
paragraph, ask yourself, “Just what have I learned here?” Look away from the book
while you self-recite, or cover the passage with your hand or with a convenient card
(such as 5”x8” index card). Can you recite the important points to yourself in your
own words? Now look back at the column of print, whenever you need to, and check
your accuracy. Knowing you’re going to self-recite when you finish a section forces
you to concentrate while you’re reading.
f. Review—add a last quick run through. Can you recall the broad chapter plan? Run
through the chapter to recall that plan. Next, run through it section by section,
checking yourself once more on the main points and the important subpoints. Use
you cover card again. Make some quick reviews later on from time to time. Long
term memory does improve grades.
g. Reflect—as you read a passage, turn on your critical thinking. Ask yourself:”What
does this all mean? Is it true? How can I apply it?” reading and reflecting should be
simultaneous and inseparable—built right into every step of PQ5R.
3. Annotating—is a system of marking that includes underlining and notations. A notation
system is used for selecting important ideas that goes beyond straight lines and includes
numbers, circles, stars, and written comments such as marginal notes, questions and
keywords. Annotations are comments, notes, explanations, or other types of external
remarks that can be attached to a document or to a selected part of a document. As they
are external, it is possible to annotate any document independently, without needing to
edit the document itself. From a technical point of view, annotations are usually seen as
meta data, as they give additional information about an existing piece of data.
How to use an annotation:
a. Underline important terms
b. Circle definitions and meanings
c. Write key words and definitions in the margin
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d. Signal where important information can be found with key words or symbols in the
margin
e. Write short summaries in the margin at the end of sub-units.
f. Write the questions in the margin next to the section where the answer is found
g. Indicate steps in a process by using numbers in the margin.
4. The Cornell Method – this note-taking method has been devised 40 years ago by Walter
Pauk, a lecturer at the Cornell University. This method is used by dividing the paper in two
columns. The first column is used to enter key or cue words while the second is the notes
column (for recording ideas and facts). There are six steps to Cornell note-taking:
a. Record—during the lecture, record as many facts and ideas as possible in the notes
column.
b. Reduce—after the lecture, read through the notes taken and reduce to key words and
phrases, or questions. The key words and phrases are used as cues to help recall the ideas
and facts. The questions are to add clarity to the facts and ideas.
c. Recite—using only the key words, phrases and questions in the cue word column recite
the ideas and facts in the notes column. It is important that you are not just mechanically
repeating, but using your own words.
d. Reflect—based on the facts and ideas learnt, reflect upon how this fits in with what you
already know, and how this knowledge can be applied.
e. Review—on a frequent basis, review your past notes by reciting and reflecting upon
them
f. Recapitulate—after you have reduced, recited and reflected upon your note, you
should recapitulate each main idea using complete sentences at the bottom of the key
word column.
2.5” 6”
CUE
C
O Note- Taking
L Area
U
M
N
2” Summaries
CORNELL METHOD
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5. Concept maps and Mind Maps—the idea is to map out concepts, either as they are found
or receives during the Review process in the Cornell or SQ3R method. Mind maps (i.e.,
hierarchical trees) can be used to take lecture notes in real time, but more often to recognize
concepts into a hierarchical tree. Concept maps allow to visualize more complex relationships
between different concepts. They allow for example to integrate old and new knowledge and to
construct a representation of a complex concept. Finally, concept maps also can be used a
design tool. For example, after the initial literature review for a paper or a thesis, a student may
create a conjecture map that relates theory to design to observable process to outcomes.
6. Charting—is a method that helps to summarize the most important concepts found in
articles and to identify implicit relations (what concepts go together and which authors). This
concept charting technique uses a table with columns representing concepts and rows
representing a text.
7. Outlining—is a short verbal sketch that show in skeleton form the pattern of ideas in text or
a draft prepared for speaking or writing often with main and sub-ideas highlighted by numbers
and letters. It is a form of notetaking that gives a quick display of key issues and essential
supporting details. It shows indentions, numbers, and letters to show levels of importance.
TWO ACCEPTED OUTLINE FORMATS
Roman and Arabic Number and Letter Decimal Numbering System

System
Title Title
I. 1.
II. 2.
A. 2.1
1. 2.1.1
2. 2.1.2
a. 2.1.3
b. 2.2
3. 2.2.1
B. 2.2.2
1. 2.2.3
2. 2.4
III. 3
D. Skimming and Scanning

1. Skimming—means reading only small parts of a text in order to get an overview of the
organization of the text and its main ideas. When skimming a paragraph or a page, you
are searching quickly among the sentences for the answers to your questions.
Here is how to skim:
a. Make sure that you know what information you are looking for, ask yourself a
question, and look for a keyword.
b. Move your eyes quickly from line to line and from sentence to sentence
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c. When you think you have found what you are looking for, stop.
d. Read slowly the part of the line or sentence that tells you what you want to know
e. Think about the question you were trying to answer.
f. Does the information you found answer the question? If not, quickly read the
passage again to look for the information you need.
g. Jot down the answer to the question you’ve asked.
2. Scanning—involves looking quickly through a text to find a specific word or piece of
information. Instead or reading every word on page, readers move eyes quickly,
searching for what is needed.
Guidelines for Scanning:
a. Understand the organization of the material
b. Stay focused on what you are looking for
c. Use whatever clues are available to speed your search
d. Confirm your information.
E. Summarizing—is a method used in stating the main idea and significant supporting
details into short, concise statements about the material you have read. Summaries are
full pieces of writing that fit together a selection’s facts and ideas in readable sentences
and paragraphs which are shorter versions of the original.
F. Test-taking Strategies
1. Read to comprehend—concentrate on the main idea of the passage and avoid fixating
on details
2. Interact with the passage—predict the topic and activate schema; monitor and self-
correct
3. Anticipate—read the first sentence carefully, it usually gives clues of what is to come
4. Relax—plan your time and concentrate
5. Recall—remind yourself of the author’s main point
6. Understand major question types—test questions that follow certain predictable
patterns
a. Main Idea Questions—ask to identify the author’s main point
b. Detail Questions—check your ability to understand material that is directly
stated in the passage
c. Implied Meaning Questions—deals with the attitudes and feelings of the writer
that emerges behind or between words where in favourable and unfavourable
descriptions suggest positive and negative opinion towards the subject
d. Purpose Questions—the purpose of the passage which is not usually stated but
implied and is related to the main idea
e. Vocabulary Questions—test general knowledge as well as the ability to figure out
meaning by using context clues
7. Multiple-Choice and True-False Tests
a. Read all options
b. Predict the correct answer
c. Avoid answers with “100 Percent” words
d. Consider answers with qualifying words
e. Do not Overgeneralize
f. True statements must be true without exception
g. If two options are synonymous, eliminate both
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h. Figure out the difference between similar options
i. Use logical reasoning when two answers are correct
j. Look suspiciously at directly quoted pompous phrases
k. Simplify double negatives by cancelling out both
l. Certain responses are neither true or false
m. Validate true responses
n. Recognize flaws in test taking
o Grammar
o Clues from other parts of the test
o Length
o Absurd ideas and emotional words
II. Reading Comprehension

A. Critical Reading
1. Recognize the author’s purpose or intent
a. To inform. Authors use facts to inform, to explain, to educate, and to enlighten
b. To persuade. Authors use a combination of facts and opinions to persuade, to
argue, to condemn and to ridicule
c. To entertain. Authors use fiction and non-fiction to entertain, to narrate, to
describe, and to shock.
2. Recognize the author’s point of view or bias
a. Point of view refers to the opinions and beliefs of the author of the reader, and a
critical reader must recognize how those beliefs influence the message.
b. Bias is a word closely related to point of view but tends to be associated with
prejudice, and thus t has a negative connotation. It is an opinion or judgment
that may be based on solid facts or on incorrect information but leans to one
side, unequally presenting evidence and arguments.
3. Recognize the author’s tone
The author’s tone describes the writer’s attitude toward the subject. To determine
the tone, pick up clues from the choice of words and details. As a critical reader, tune
in to the author’s tone by letting attitude become a part of evaluating the message.
4. Distinguish fact from opinion
a. Fact is s statement that can be proven true or false. It is an observation that can
be supported with direct evidence and is something own by actual experience
b. Opinion is a statement of feeling that cannot be proven right or wrong. It can be
a commentary, position or observation based on fact but represents a personal
judgement, belief, feeling or interpretations of these facts.
c. Recognize valid and invalid support for arguments
Fallacy is an error in reasoning that can give an illusion of support. On
the surface it appears to add support but closer examination shows it to be
unrelated and illogical. They are particularly present in propaganda, a form of
writing designed to convince the reader by whatever means possible. The
following list describes some propaganda techniques:
o Testimonials: celebrities who are not experts state support
o Bandwagon: you will be left out if you do not join the crowd
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o Transfer: s famous person is associated with an argument
o Straw Person: a simplistic exaggeration is set up to represent the
argument
o Misleading Analogy: two things are compared as similar that are
actually distinctly different
o Circular Reasoning: the conclusion is supported by restating it.
B. Functional Reading
Readings often contain more than just words. Graphics accompany text and
knowing how to read these visual aids help the reader how to relate it to the ideas of the
selection.
1. Photographs—to interpret photographs, you need to be able to identify what is being
represented and then to infer moods, attitudes, and relations that help give life to the
pictures, particularly if they are of people
2. Diagrams—are drawings with labelled parts. Notice what the separate parts
represented and see how they work together. Labels and captions usually point out the
key features and explain how parts relate to each other.
3. Word Charts—presents information in summary form to make material easy to find.
Instead of using sentences in a paragraph, a writer can present complex information in
chart form
4. Statistical Tables—present numbers in chart form. Often, the numbers appear in
columns with headings to explain what the numbers represent.
5. Graphs—present statistics visually with lines, bars, or circles that show how statistics
compare with each other.
6. Maps—visually condense material to show relationships. It is a diagram that places
important topics in a central location and connects major points and supporting details
in a visual display that shows degrees of importance which uses space in a free and
graphic manner
7. Charts—give information in an abbreviated outline form.
C. Active Reading
1. The main idea of a passage is the core of the material, the particular point the author
is trying to convey. The main idea of a passage can be stated in one sentence that
condenses specific ideas or details in the passage into a general, all-inclusive
statement of the author’s message.
Steps in determining the main idea:
a. Recognize general and specific words—look for specific ideas presented in the
sentences and decide on a general topic or subject under which the ideas can be
grouped. The general term encompasses or categorizes the ideas and is
considered the topic of the list.
b. Recognize general and specific phrases—topics of passages are more often
stated as phrases rather than single words
c. Recognize the General Topic for Sentences—sentences are related to a single
subject, with two of the sentences expressing specific support and one sentence
expressing the general idea about the subject.
d. Differentiate Topic, Main Idea, and Supporting Details
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e. Questioning for the Main Idea
o Question: Who or what is this about?
o Question: What are the important details?
o Question: What main idea is the author trying to convey about the topic?
2. Stated Main Ideas—are directly stated, particularly at the beginning of the passage.
Such an initial main idea statement, thesis statement, or topic sentence is a signpost
for readers, briefing them on what to expect. This thesis or main idea statement
provides an overview of the author’s message and connects the supporting details.
3. Unstated Main Ideas—when the main idea is not directly stated, it is said to be
implied, which means it is suggested in the thoughts that are revealed. In this case, the
author has presented a complete idea, but for reasons of style and impact has chosen
not to express it concisely in one sentence. As a reader, it is your job to connect the
details systematically and focus the message.
4. Getting the Main Idea of Longer Selections—longer selections have several major
ideas contributing to the main point and many paragraphs of supporting details. To pull
the ideas together under one central theme, an additional step is necessary: Simplify
the material by organizing paragraphs or pages into manageable subsections and then
deciding how each subsection contributes to the whole.
The following questions can help you determine the central theme for a
longer selection:
a. What is the significance of the title? What does the title suggest about the topic?
b. How does the first paragraph suggest the topic or thesis?
c. Under what subsections can the paragraphs and ideas be grouped?
d. How do these subsections support the whole?
e. What is the overall topic?
f. What point is the author trying to convey?
5. The supporting details develop, explain, and prove the main idea. They can be facts,
descriptions, and reasons that convince the reader and make the material interesting.
Details answer questions and paint visual images so the reader has an experience with
the author and sees what the author sees and understands. Details can be ranked by
their level of importance in supporting a topic. Some details offer major support and
elaboration, whereas others merely provide illustrations to relate the material to the
reader’s prior knowledge and make visualizing easier.
How does a reader grasp the main idea of a selection?
a. Determine the topic of the text. Use the tile to predict the topic.
b. Ask yourself, “What topic is discussed?” to point out the focus of the topic.
c. Review the title to hypothesize about the writer’s pattern of text organization.
Generally, the rhetorical pattern chosen showcases the main ideas and the
supporting ideas.
Doing the three steps given will help the readers to come up with a main idea even prior
to the reading of the actual text.
The formula to construct or state the main idea is:
Where:
mi = main idea
mi = p + f p = pattern of organization
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+t
f = focus of discussion
t = topic
Read the entire selection to confirm if the main idea you have predicated matches the
writer’s main idea. If there is a match, the purpose of your reading is to look for the support
ideas. Jot down all the important notes that relate to the main idea. However, if there is a
mismatch between you main idea and the writer’s main idea, revise or change your hypothesis
before you gather the support ideas.
Evaluate the notes that you hjave written, and synthesize the ideas you gathered from steps 1-4
to summarize the infformational text in two or three sentences. The formula for summary of an
expository text is:
Set = mi + si
+ (sd)
Where:
Set = summary of expository text
mi = main idea (p + f + t)
si = support idea
sd = support detail
ENGLISH: Academic Writing

General:
 Use English accurately, meaningfully, and appropriately in written discourse
I. COMMON SENTENCE ERRORS
A. Fragments
SENTENCE FRAGMENT fails to be a sentence in the sense that it cannot stand by
itself. It does not contain even one independent clause.
There are several reasons why a group of words may seem to act like a sentence
but not have the wherewithal to make it as a complete thought.
1. It may locate something in time and place with a prepositional phrase or a

series of such phrases, but it’s lacking a proper subject-verb relationship within
an independent clause: In Japan, during the last war and just before the
armistice.
2. It describes something, but there is no subject-verb relationship:
Working far into the night in an effort to salvage her little boat.
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3. It may have most of the makings of a sentence but still be missing an important
part of a verb string:
Some of the students working in Professor Espinoza’s laboratory last
semester.
4. It may even have a subject-verb relationship, but it has been subordinated to
another idea by a dependent word and so cannot stand by itself:
Even though he head the better arguments and was by
far the more powerful speaker.
Dependent Word Fragments

Some words that begin with a dependent word are fragments. Following is a list of
common dependent words. Whenever you start a sentence with one of these words, you must be
careful that a fragment does not result.
Dependent Words
after if, even if when, whenever even though
although, though in order that where, wherever until
as since whether who, whose
because that, so that which, whichever how
before unless while what, whatever
B. Run-on Sentences and Comma Splice

A run-on is two complete thoughts that are run together with no adequate sign
given to mark the break between them. Some run-ons have no punctuation at all to mark
the break between the thoughts. Such run-ons are known as fused sentence: they are
fused, or joined together, as if they were only one thought.
Three ways to correct run-on sentences:

1. Place a semicolon in between the two sentences. Jim’s
father passed the board exam for merchant marine officers; he will be the captain of
the ship next month.
2. Add a transitional marker: a subordinating conjunction (it depends upon the nature of the
sentence) between the two sentences.
Jim’s father passed the board exam for merchant marine officers, and he will be
the captain of the ship next month.
3. Divide the sentence into two. Jim’s
father passed the board exam for merchant marine officers. He will be the captain of
the ship next month.
 A comma splice is committed when a writer uses a comma without the proper connective.
This, according to Tiempo and Tiempo, “destroys the unity of the sentence.” The sample
sentence below looks almost the same with the sample run-on sentence. The only
difference is the fact that the sentences uses a comma to divide the two independent
clauses.
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The crowd cheered loudly when the band manager from the backstage, Eric stood
quietly.
Fused Sentences
The bus stopped suddenly. I spilled coffee all over my shirt.
Mario told everyone in the room to be quiet his favourite show was on.
In other run-ons, known as comma splices, a comma is used to connect or “splice” together, the
two complete thoughts. Some stronger connection than a comma alone is needed.
Comma Splices
The bus stopped suddenly, I spilled coffee all over my shirt.
Mario told everyone in the room to be quiet, his favourite show was on.
C. Dangling and Misplaced Modifiers

We often use phrases to describe words within sentences, and we determine the
meaning of our sentences by placing these descriptive phrases next to the words they
point to or “modify.” For example, the sentence, “I saw a boy running down the street,”
indicates that the “boy” was doing the running. However, if we wrote, “Running down the
street, I saw the boy,” we would be suggesting to readers that “I” was doing the running.
Misplaced Modifier
Sometimes we become careless and place descriptive phrases far away from the words
they modify, making our sentences unclear or inaccurate. We call these phrases misplaced
modifiers. For example, in “I was told that I had been awarded the scholarship by my professor,”
does the underlined phrase mean that the professor did the telling or the awarding? If the
professor did the telling, we could make the meaning of this sentence clearer by repositioning
the phrase: “I was told by my professor that I had been awarded the scholarship.”
Dangling Modifiers
Other time we write descriptive phrases that point to or modify words that are not clearly
stated in our sentences, making our sentences illogical. We call these phrases dangling
modifiers. For example, in “Walking to college on a subzero morning, my left ear became
frozen,” the underline phrase modifies “my left ear.” This doesn’t make sense; some person
must have been doing the walking. We can clarify the sentence by putting a logical word after
the phrase: for example, “Walking to college on a subzero morning, I froze my left ear.” Or, we
can change the phrase so that it has a logical subject and verb in it: “When I was walking to
college on a subzero morning, my left ear became frozen.”
Examples of Dangling and Misplaced Modifiers
On July 20, 1969, American astronauts Neil Armstrong and Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin landed on
the moon, watched nearly by a fifth of the world’s population.
Revision:
Watched nearly by a fifth of the world’s population, American astronauts Neil Armstrong
and Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin landed on the moon on July 20, 1969.
(The world was not watching the moon; the world was watching the astronauts)
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After seeing the benefits of reduced employee turnover, absenteeism, and lateness, onsite
daycare is being provided more frequently as a perk for working parents.
Revision:
After seeing the benefits of reduced employee turnover, absenteeism, and lateness, more
and more companies are providing onsite daycare as a perk for working parents.
(Onsite daycare is not seeing the benefits of reduced turnover, absenteeism and lateness;
companies are seeing these benefits as a result of onsite daycare.)
An author who did not receive much attention until after her death, readers of all ages
enjoy Emily Dickinson’s poetry today.
or
Readers of all ages enjoy Emily Dickinson’s poetry today, an author who did not receive
much attention until after her death
Revision:
Today, readers of all ages enjoy the poetry of Emily Dickinson, an author who did not
receive much attention until after her death.
(The phrase, an author who did not receive much attention until after her death, should
modify Emily Dickinson rather than readers or Emily Dickinson’s poetry)
Cost-efficient and convenient, many of today’s corporate employees are being trained
through computer-assisted instruction.
Revision:
Cost-efficient and convenient, computer-assisted instruction is being used by many
companies to train employees.
(The descriptive words, cost-efficient and convenient, modify computer-assisted

instruction rather than today’s corporate employees.)
Having submitted the conference registration form after the deadline, special permission
by the chairperson was needed before she could give her presentation.
Revision:
Having submitted the conference registration form after the deadline, Susan needed
special permission from the chairperson before she could give her presentation.
(The example doesn’t make sense as it is written. Someone must have submitted the form
late. According to the revision, Susan submitted the form late.)
When purchasing a cellular phone, the wide variety of calling plans and features
overwhelms many people.
Revision:
When purchasing a cellular phone, many people become overwhelmed by the wide variety
of calling plans and features.
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(The calling plans and features aren’t purchasing cellular phones. People purchase cellular
phones)
D. Faulty Parallelism
Words in a pair or series should have parallel structure. By balancing the items in a
pair or series so that they have the same kind of structure, you will make the sentences
clearer and easier to read.
Nonparallel (Not Balanced)

My job includes checking the inventories, initialling the order, and to call the
suppliers.
Parallel (Balanced)
My job includes checking the inventory, initializing the orders, and calling the
suppliers.
(A balanced series of –ing words: checking, initialling, calling)
The game-show contestant was told to be cheerful, charming, and with enthusiasm.
Parallel (Balanced)
The game-show contestant was told to be cheerful, charming and enthusiastic.
(A balanced series of descriptive words: cheerful, charming, enthusiastic)
Grandmother likes to read mystery novels, to do needle point, and browsing the
Internet on her home computer.
Parallel (Balanced)
Grandmother likes to read mystery novels, to do needle point, and to browse the
Internet on her home computer.
(A balanced series of to verbs: to read, to do, to browse)
We painted the trim in the living room; the wallpaper was put up by a professional.
Parallel (Balanced)
We painted the trim in the living room; a professional put up the wallpaper.
(Balanced verbs and word order: We painted…; a professional put up…)
E. Faulty Coordination
The Coordinating Conjunction
Coordinating conjunctions connect words, phrases, and clauses.
And, but, for, nor, or, so, and yet—these are the seven coordinating conjunctions.
Look at the examples that follow:
1. The bowl of squid eyeball stew is hot and delicious.
2. The squid eyeball stew is so thick that you can eat it with a fork or spoon.
3. Rocky, my orange tomcat, loves having his head scratched but hates getting his claws
trimmed.
4. Rocky terrorizes the poodles next door yet adores German shepherds across the street.
5. Rocky refuses to eat dry cat food, nor will he touch a saucer of squid eyeball stew.
6. I hate to waste a single drop of squid eyeball stew, for it is expensive and time-consuming
to make.
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7. Even though I added cream to the squid eyeball stew, Rocky ignored his serving, so I got a
spoon and ate it myself.
F. Subordination
Subordination, however, emphasizes the idea in the main clause more than one is the
subordinate clause. Generally, the patterns look like these:
main clause + Ø + subordinate clause.

subordinate clause +, + main clause.
Punctuate coordinating conjunctions correctly.
Three patterns in writing use coordinating conjunctions. Add commas when required.
Pattern 1—Connecting two main clauses.

When you connect two main clauses with a coordinating conjunction, use a comma. The
pattern looks like this:
main clause + , + coordinating conjunction + main clause.
Here is an example:
While I am at work, my dog Floyd sleeps on the bed, and my cat Buster naps in the
bathtub.
Pattern 2—Connecting two items.

You can also use a coordinating conjunction to connect any two items. These items can be
any grammatical unit except main clauses. The pattern looks like this:
item + Ø + coordinating conjunction +item.
Here are some examples:
My dog Floyd has too many fleas and too much hair.
My cat Buster has beautiful blue eyes but a destructive personality.
Pattern 3—Connecting three or more items in a series

When you have three or more items in a series, you generally use a comma before the
coordinating conjunction. Some handbooks and style guides tell you that this comma is optional,
but my advice is to put it in. the pattern looks like this:
item + , + item + , + coordinating conjunction + item.
Here is an example:
Swatting olives off the kitchen counter, dragging toilet paper streamers through the
house, and terrorizing Jacques Cousteau, the parakeet, have consumed another of
Buster’s days.
Subordinating Conjunctions
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A subordinating conjunction joins a subordinate clause to a main clause. An adverb clause is
always introduced by a subordinating conjunction. A noun clause and adjective clause
sometimes are.
Adverb clause: Before you go, sign the log book.
Noun clause: He asked if he could leave early.
Adjective clause: That is the place where he was last seen.
A subordinating conjunction is always followed by a clause. Many subordinating
conjunctions can be other parts of speech.
Adverb: Jill came tumbling after.
Preposition: Jill came after Jack.
Subordinating Conjunction: Jill came tumbling after Jack had fallen.
II. THE TOPIC SENTENCE AND THE PARAGRAPH

A good paragraph contains several related sentences that support one main idea,
which is limited to and focused in one sentence. This sentence helps guide the reader
through the related sentence in the paragraph. The term used to identify this main idea
is topic sentence.
A topic sentence has two parts:
A topic (key word or phrase)
A direction or general word, which may be a conclusion, an opinion, or statement
about the topic.
For example, the following sentences could be topic sentences:
Doing housework can be very boring.
Browsing in a library is an exciting experience.
My trip to the botanical garden taught me a lot.
You could use each one of these sentences as a topic sentence because each main idea is
limited to and focused into two essential parts: a topic (key word or phrase) and a general
direction (conclusion or opinion) about the topic:
Topic Direction or General Word
Doing housework is very boring
Browsing in a library is an exciting experience
The Paragraph
A paragraph has three parts:
1. A topic sentence 2. Support sentences 3. A conclusion
The following is an example of a paragraph that has these three parts:

My blind date last night was a disaster. I got wet because just as I stopped to pick up
my date, it started raining, and she borrowed my raincoat. At dinner, she ate so much that I had
to use my next day’s lunch money to pay for her meal. I had a terrible time because she could
not dance. To make matters worse, I had a cut on my lip that hurt when I kissed her. That’s the
last blind date I will ever have.
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Elements of a Strong Paragraph
Strong paragraphs need to have the following elements: completeness, logical or sensible
order, unity and coherence.
Completeness
A paragraph must have enough information in it to give the reader a clearer picture or a full
discussion of its main idea (the topic sentence). A paragraph without details or examples will be
vague and unconvincing. A paragraph that does not have enough information is called
incomplete or undeveloped.
Example of an undeveloped paragraph:
Dancing can be good exercise. It can be entertaining. It can be lot of fun as well. Dancing
can be very beneficial to everyone.
Example of a complete paragraph:
Dancing can be good exercise. The constant arm and leg movements are like aerobics.
They can be a really good workout if the dance lasts long enough. If the dance requires lot of
quick movements, many calories can be used up, and more fat will be burned. Some dances
require movements that are like stretching, so flexibility and muscle tone will be increased.
Dancing can help maintain weight and can be beneficial exercise to everyone.
Logical Order
All support sentences should be in clear, logical order. Sometimes the order of these supporting
details does not matter. Other times, however, it does matter because if the sentences are not in
logical order, the reader misses the main point of the paragraph.
Illogical Order:
I opened the front door of my house and went inside.
I walked up the fronts steps to my front door.
Logical Order:
I walked up the front steps to my front door.
I opened the door of my house and went inside.
Unity
All sentences in a good paragraph relate to the topic sentence (main idea). When any idea
doesn’t relate specifically to the topic sentence, then that paragraph lacks unity or is not unified.
Example of a unified paragraph:
American scientists are working hard to gather facts about sea turtles called
leatherbacks. The observers work, no matter what the weather is like—on clear days or in
pouring rain. They count the turtles lay their egg, the scientists walk up and down the beaches
for many hours at a time. They count the eggs in the sand. Then, later, they count the eggs that
hatch. These biologists know that they are collecting information that will someday be
important to other scientists.
Coherence
One of the most important considerations in writing a paragraph is coherence—the way all the
sentences should be clearly connected to each other. Without connecting words or phrases,
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supporting ideas may be hard to follow and sometimes may even seem to be unrelated to the
topic sentence and to each other.
The following paragraph has all the coherence it needs:
When Sue was a child, she learned from her Dad how to be hard worker. For example, she
always helped in the yard. Many times they mowed the lawn together. Sue emptied the grass
catcher (which her dad did not overfill), and he did the heavy part by lifting the barrels full of
grass. Working together, they did not quit until the job was done. She and her dad worked even
after the sun was gone, making sure the edges of the lawn were neat. In this way, Sue learned to
stay with a job until she had done well and could feel proud of her effort.
Table of Transitional / Cohesive Devices
Function Traditional / Cohesive Device
To show again, also, and, then, besides, equally important, finally, first,
addition further, furthermore, in addition, in the first place, last, likewise,
moreover, next, or, still, then, too
To compare also, in comparison, in the same way, likewise, similarly
To contrast although, and yet, at the same time, but, conversely, despite,
even so, even though, for all that, however, in contrast, in spite
of, nevertheless, nonetheless, notwithstanding, on the contrary,
on the other hand, otherwise, regardless, still, though, yet
To give after all, as an illustration, certainly, even, for example, for

examples or instance, indeed, in fact, it is true that, namely, of course,
intensify specifically, that is, to be sure, to illustrate, to tell the truth, truly
To all in all, together, as a result, as had been noted, basically,

summarize, finally, in brief, in conclusion, in other words, in particular, in
repeat, or short, simpler terms, in summary, on the whole, that is, therefore,
conclude to put it differently, to summarize
To indicate above, adjacent to, below, elsewhere, farther on, here, nearby, on
place the other side, opposite to, there, to the east, to the left
To indicate after a while, afterward, as long as, as soon as, at length, at that
time time, before, currently, earlier, eventually, first (second, third,
etc.), finally, formerly, immediately, in the meantime, in the past
(future), lately, later, meanwhile, now, presently, shortly,
simultaneously, since, so far, soon, still, subsequently, then,
thereafter, until, until now, when, while
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To indicate accordingly, as a result, because, consequently, for this purpose,

cause and hence, otherwise, since, so, then, therefore, thereupon, thus, to
effect this end, with this object
The Thesis Statement

In a nutshell, a thesis statement:
 Tells the reader how you will interpret the significance of the subject matter under
discussion
 Is a road map for the paper; in other words, it tells the reader what to expect from the rest
of the paper
 Directly answers the question asked of you. A thesis is an interpretation of a question or
subject, not the subject itself. The subject, or topic, of an essay might be on Poverty or a
movie analysis; a thesis must then offer a way to understand the issue or the movie
 Makes a claim that others might dispute
 Is usually a single sentence somewhere in your first paragraph that presents your
argument to the reader. The rest of the paper, the body of the essay, gathers and
organizes evidence that will persuade the reader of the logic of your interpretation.
You can tell if your thesis is strong if you can answer the following:
 Do I answer the question? Re-reading the question prompt after constructing a working
thesis can help you fix an argument that misses the focus of the question.
 Have I taken a position that others might challenge or oppose? If your thesis simply states
facts that no one would, or even could, disagree with, it’s possible that you are simply
providing a summary, rather than making an argument.
 Is my thesis statement specific enough? Thesis statements that are too vague often do not
have a strong argument.
 Does my thesis pass the “So what?” test? If a reader’s first response is, “So what?” then
you need to clarify, to forge a relationship, or to connect to a larger issue.
 Does my essay support my thesis specifically and without wandering? If your thesis and
the body of your essay do not seem to go together, one of them has to change.
 Does my thesis pass the “how and why?” test? If a reader’s response is “how?” or “why?”
your thesis may be too open-ended and lack guidance for the reader.
Broadly, thesis statements can be divided into 3 categories:

 Analytical: An analytical thesis basically provides a comprehensive insight to some
important issue and the facts that are related to the issue plus the analytical aspects of
the same.
For example, “An analysis of the ferruginous hawk reveals two kinds of flight patterns:
patterns related to hunting prey and patterns related to courtship.”
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 Expository: This is the simplest of all types of thesis, the expansionary thesis principally
puts forth some facts and simplified explanations regarding a specific idea, in front of the
people.
Example: watching too much television may lead to physiological and psychological
problems.
 Argumentative: the third type is that of the argumentative thesis and presents arguments
between two viewpoints.
Example: Smoking should be banned in all public places.
III. PATTERNS OF PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT

There are various Writing Genres or Patterns of Paragraph Development, and each
pattern or genre has a specific function. Often, these genres are merged with each other
to make the written output more effective.
Narration
 Use narration to establish a series of events that tells the reader what happened.
Narration follows a chronological pattern of development. It is a convincing mode of
paragraph development to the extent that it tells a coherent story.
Larry suddenly woke up from a deep sleep. The sun was dazzling his half-open eyes, and
he couldn’t figure out what time it was. The door to his room was closed; the house was
immersed in some sort of reckless silence. He slowly got out of his bed and approached the
bench right next to the window. For a moment, he thought, he heard a tapping sound coming
from the attic. Then again he heard the sound, only this time it seemed to be somewhat closer.
He looked outside the window and saw a man going by the left side of the road. On seeing Larry,
the man approached his garden’s fence and whistled. At this point, Larry recognized Nick and
waved his hand. He quickly got dressed and was about to get down to open the gate, but he
again heard someone murmuring in the other part of the house. Larry decided to go to the attic
and see what was causing this, now buzzing, sound. He got to the second floor of his house and
looked toward the attic. He quickly opened its door and looked inside. Nothing was found. He
was about to turn back and attend to his guest when he, suddenly slipped on the stairs and fell.
He called out to Nick to help him get up.
Descriptive Essay
 The descriptive essay relies on concrete, sensory detail to communicate its point.
 When writing a descriptive essay, writers should have a broad fund of modifiers, i.e.,
adjectives. Moreover, writers should be specific in using adjectives and other words that
would describe the topic, i.e., beautiful may be different from pretty, cute, gorgeous, etc.
Process Essay
 A process essay may either be “how to do” or “How something works”
 In a “How to do” essay the objective of the writer is to tell the reader how a certain
product is produced. Most often, this type of essay uses the first person point of view
because it “demonstrates” how something is does to the reader (e.g. How to apply for the
Fulbright Scholarship Grant)
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Sample Descriptive Paragraph
My most valuable possession is an old, slightly warped blond guitar—the first instrument I
taught myself how to play. It’s not play. It’s nothing fancy, just a Madeira folk guitar, all scuffed
and scratched and finger-printed. At the top is a bramble of copper-wound strings, each one
hooked through the eye of a silver tuning key. The strings are stretched down a long, slim neck,
its frets tarnished, the wood worn by years of fingers pressing chords and picking notes. The
body of the Madeira is shaped like an enormous yellow pear, one that was slightly damaged in
shipping. The blond wood has been chipped and gouged to gray, particularly where the pick
guard fell off years ago. No, it’s not a beautiful instrument, but it still lets me make music, and
for that I will always treasure it.
Sample Process Paragraph
The writing process has four distinct phases. (2) The first is invention, which is aided by
any number of techniques, including free-writing, mind-mapping and outlining. (3) In this first
stage, it’s important for a writer not to edit but to let ideas flow and simply get them down on
paper. (4) After invention, comes the first draft—the stage where the ideas start to take shape.
(5) Many writers use a sentence outline at this stage to see where they need to cut and where
they need to add material. The first draft is also where writers should develop a tentative thesis
to guide the structure of the essay. (6) The next stage of the process is when both the second
and third drafts are done. (7) Here, ideas and structure are refined, and the thesis is revised until
it becomes the unifying idea of the paper. (8) Finally, comes the last stage, that of editing. (9)
Writers should take care at this stage that all sentence structure and punctuation is correct, and
they should make corrections to documentation format as needed. (10) Writers often repeat four
phases more than once, or skip a phase and go back to it, making the writing process more
cyclical than linear.
Comparison-Contrast
 A comparison-contrast essay presents the relationship between two items; this may be in
the form of similarities and differences.
 This essay may be organized by using either the “point by point organization” or the
“block organization”
Point-by-Point or Alternating
Arrangement
I. Introduction in which you state your

purpose
II. First difference
A. Topic 1 21
B. Topic 2
III. Second difference
A. Topic 1
 In the “block organization,” the focus is on the two topics
Block Arrangement
I. Introduction in which you state your

purpose
II. Topic 1
A. Similarity / Difference or Factor 1
B. Similarity / Difference or Factor 1
C. Similarity / Difference or Factor 1
III. Topic 1
A. Similarity / Difference or Factor 1
B. Similarity / Difference or Factor 1
C. Similarity / Difference or Factor 1
IV. Conclusion
Sample Comparison-Contrast Paragraph

A scientist and a poet both strive for perfection: the poet refines his sensibilities, while the
scientist reduces everything to precise measurements. Both share the beauty of a rainbow; but
while the poet imagines a pot of gold at the end of it, the scientist wants to spell it out in
angstrom units measuring wavelength.
Cause-Effect
 The cause-effect essay presents the reasons or results for something.
 There are two possible ways to outline a cause-effect essay: (a) single cause, multiple
effects of (b) multiple causes, single effect.
Sample Cause-Effect Paragraph
The tropical rainforests of West Africa, Brazil, Latin America, and Southeast Asia are some
of the most important environmental regions of the world because they hold millions of unique
plants, animals, and people. However, they are being destroyed rapidly for agriculture, mining,
and logging. This essay will examine the causes of this destruction and outline its effects on our
lives.
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One of the main causes of this is logging for timber. Millions of hectares of trees are cut
down every year, often illegally. The most valuable wood is taken and not replaced, and landless
people move in along the new logging roads.
Argumentative
 An argumentative essay presents premises and conclusions regarding an issue. It presents
the writer’s stand—whether s/he agrees or not. However, it should be noted that an
argumentative essay is different from an opinion simply because an argumentative essay
shows evidences and support details, while most opinions are based on beliefs and
personal ideologies.
 Premises are reasons that support conclusions, while a conclusion is the key assertion, or
claim.
Sample Argumentative Paragraph
Because of the pressing issues regarding global economic recession, it is high time that
the government supports programs that would boost the country’s economy. We should set
aside moral issues and start thinking of ways to curb to growing problems in finance. One way to
deal with this is by legalizing prostitution.
We all know that this is the oldest profession and legalizing this will allow more revenues.
How? Well, basically, legalizing prostitution is tantamount to taxation. Each prostitute will be
taxed. Hence, a portion of their profits will contribute to the needs of the nation.
ENGLISH: Speech and Oral Communication

General:
 Use English accurately, meaningfully, and appropriately in oral discourse
GRAMMAR
I. The Parts of Speech
The parts of speech fall into two categories: 1) the content words (also called form classes
because they are best identified by form rather than by functions) which include nouns,
verbs, adjectives, adverbs; and 2) the structure words most of which do carry some
meaning but which also serve to form a structural framework so that the words can fit into
sentences.
A. Aspect and Tense of Verb

TENSE MEANING EXAMPLES
SIMPLE PRESENT
(verb + -s/-es) – -expresses events or a. It snows in Alaska
singular subject situations that exist always, b. Edbert and Kyle watch television
(verb, base form) – usually, and habitually every day
plural subject
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SIMPLE PAST -an action happened at one a. It snowed in Alaska last year.
(verb + -d/-ed) particular time in the past b. Edbert and Kyle watched
-it began and ended at a television last night.
specific time in the past
ASPECT
 PROGRESSIVE (also called continuous)
The progressive aspects give the idea that an action is in progress
during a particular time. It begins before, is in progress during, and continues
after another time or action.
PRESENT -an action began in the past,
PROGRESSIVE is in progress at the present a. Beth is sleeping right now
(am/is/are + V-ing) time, and probably will
continue
PAST PROGRESSIVE -an action began before and
(was/were + V-ing) was in progress at a b. Beth was sleeping when I
particular time in the past. arrived
FUTURE -an action will begin before
PROGRESSIVE another action, and it will be c. Beth will be sleeping when we
(will/shall + be + V- in progress at a particular arrive
ing) time in the future
NOTE: WILL vs. BE GOING TO
 To express a PREDICTION: Use either will or be going to.
 To express a PRIOR PLAN: Use only be going to.
 To express WILLINGNESS: Use onlywill.
e.g. 1. According to the weather report, it will be cloudy tomorrow
According to the weather report, it is going to be cloudy tomorrow
(Prediction)
2. Why did you buy this paint?
I am going to paint my bedroom tomorrow. (Prior plan)
3. I will do it for you (Willingness)
 PERFECT
The perfect aspects all give the idea that one thing happened
before another time or event
-an action happened
PRESENT PERFECT sometime before now at an a. Gary has already eaten
(has/have + V-en unspecified time in the past. b. I have known him for many
(past participle) The exact time is not years
important
(Adverbs like ever, never, NOTE: the difference between since
already, yet, still and just are and for:
frequently used with the FOR + a duration of time
present perfect SINCE + a particular time
-a situation that began in the

past and continues to the
present (usually used with for
or since)
PAST PERFECT -an action was completely
(had + V-en (past finished before another a. Gary had already eaten when
participle) activity or time in the past his friend arrived
FUTURE PERFECT -an action was completely b. Gary will already have eaten
(will/shall + have + V- finished before another time when his friend arrives
en (past participle) in the future
 PERFECT PROGRESSIVE
The perfect progressive aspects give the idea that one event is in
progress immediately before, up to, until another time or event.
PRESENT PERFECT -an event is in progress
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PROGRESSIVE -it happened before now up a. Abet has been delivering the
(has/have + been + to now speech for 30 minutes now
V-ing)
PAST PERFECT -emphasizes the duration of
PROGRESSIVE an activity that was in b. Abet had been delivering the
(had + been + V-ing) progress before another speech for 30 minutes before the
activity or time in the past President arrived.
FUTURE PERFECT -an event is in progress
PROGRESSIVE -it happened before another c. Abet will have been delivering
(will have + been + event in the future and will the speech for 30 minutes by the
V-ing) last for a particular period of time the President arrives
time
C. Dynamic Verbs, sometimes referred to as “action verbs,” express a wide range of

actions which may be physical, mental, or perceptual as opposed to a stative verb which purely
expresses a state in which there is no obvious action
Some examples of dynamic verbs are: eat, drink, go, type, read, write, listen, speak,
watch, say, grow, melt, sleep, cook, talk, etc.
II. Subject – Verb Agreement

Rule 1: A compound subject joined by or, or nor requires a singular verb if each part is
singular; if the parts differ in number or person the verb agrees with the subject
nearer to it.
e.g. My aunt of my uncle is arriving by train today.
The book or the magazines are on the shelf.
Rule 2: Two singular subjects connected by either-or or neither-nor require a singular
verb, but when a singular and plural subject are connected, use a plural verb
e.g. Either John or Susan is available.
Neither the teacher nor the principal is coming.
Either the house or the cars are for sale.
Neither Jenny nor the others are available.
Rule 3: When one of your two subjects is I, put it second and follow it with the singular verb
am.
e.g. Neither she nor I am going to the festival
Rule 4: Compound subjects joined by and require a plural verb, but when the parts refer to
the same person or have some other close relation, they take a singular verb. Also,
if parts of the compound subject are modified by each, or no, a singular verb is
required.
e.g. Her professor and thesis adviser is here. (same person)
Every branch and twig was covered with dust.
No one is here.
Rule 5: Sometimes the subject is separated from the verb by words such as along with, as
well as, besides or not. Ignore these expressions when determining whether to use
a singular of plural verb.
e.g. The politician, along with the newsmen, is expected shortly.
Excitement, as well as nervousness, is the cause of her shaking.
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Rule 6: The definite pronouns each, everyone, one, everybody, anyone, someone,
and somebody are singular and require singular verbs. Do not be misled by what
follows of.
e.g. Each of the girls sings well.
Everyone of participating teams is pleased about the judging.
Note: Everyone is one word when it means everybody. Every one is two words when
the meaning is each one.
e.g. Every one of the items on sale is gone.
Rule 7: With words that indicate portions—percent, fraction, part, majority, some, all, none,
remainder, etc.—look at the noun in your phrase (object of the preposition) to
determine whether to use a singular or plural verb. If the object of the
prepositions is singular, use a singular verb. If the object of the
preposition is plural, use a plural verb.
e.g. Fifty percent of the pie has disappeared.
Fifty percent of the pies have disappeared.
All of the pie is gone.
All of the pies are gone.
Some of the pie is missing.
Some of the pies are missing.
Rule 8: When either and neither are subjects, they always take singular verbs.
e.g. Neither of them is available to speak right now.
Either of us is capable of doing the job.
Rule 9: The words here and there have generally been labelled as adverbs even though
they indicate place. In sentences beginning with here or there, the subject follows
the verb.
e.g. There are four hurdles to jump.
There is a high hurdle to jump.
There sits the guest of honor.
Here sleeps my baby brother.
Rule 10: Use a singular verb with sums of money or periods of time.
e.g. Ten dollars is a high price to pay.
Five years is the maximum sentence for that offense.
Rule 11: Sometimes the pronoun who, that or which is the subject of the verb in the middle
of the sentence. The pronouns who, that, and which become singular or plural
according to the noun directly in front of them. So if that noun is singular, use a
singular verb. If it is plural, use a plural verb.
e.g. Charlene is the scientist who writes the reports.
The word in front of who is scientist, which is singular.
Therefore, the verb writes is singular.
He is one of the men who do the work.
Men preceding who is plural.
The verb do is likewise plural.
Rule 12: Collective nouns such as team and staff may be either singular or plural depending
on their use in the sentence.
e.g. The staff is in a meeting.
The staff are in disagreement about the findings.
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III. Nouns
Nouns are names of anything exists or that can be conceived, referring to a person,
place, thing, or idea. They can also be categorized based on the following:
1. The kind of thought or perception they convey (abstract or concrete)
2. The type of matter they name (common or proper)
3. The number (singular or plural)
4. The quantity or amount they indicate (collective or mass)
5. The gender (masculine, feminine, or neuter)
A. What to Remember About Noun Possessives and Pluralization

Possessives
1. An apostrophe is added to form the possessive case of singular and plural nouns ending in
–s or –z; ‘s to those not ending in –s or –z
2. An of phrase is used after nouns not related to people.
e.g. the tires of the car the surface of the road
the roof of the house the leaves of the tree
3. Nouns connected with people and human activity usually take the ‘s form.
e.g. Proper names: Abraham Lincoln’s speech
Personal nouns: the girl’s dress
Collective nouns: the team’s success
Relating to human activity: the body’s ability
Institution: the museum’s members
4. Many phrases of time take the ‘s form.
e.g. a month’s pay two weeks’ vacation
a year’s work season’s greetings
5. Certain idioms take the ‘s form.
e.g. our money’s worth an arm’s length
6. Higher animals can take the ‘s form.
e.g. a dog’s life the kitten’s cry
a bird’s nest the horse’s mane
7. Double possessives using both of and the ‘s form are common with proper nouns when
reference is definite and personal.
e.g. a novel of Conrad’s a painting of Picasso’s
Plurals
8. The plural of most nouns are generally formed by adding final –s when the singular form
can be pronounced without adding a syllable, or a final –es if the singular form ends in –s,
-ch, -z, and –x that cannot unite with s to form one syllable.
9. Plurals of figures, signs, and letters used as words add ‘s.
10.There are nouns generally used in the singular and therefore require singular verb. Among
these are beard, food, fish, fruit, grass, hair.
11.The following nouns do not have their plural form: baggage, chalk, furniture, jewelry,
scenery, information, machinery, pottery.
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12.The following nouns are always plural: trousers, binoculars, scissors, means, refreshments,
forceps, pliers, and falls.
13.Nouns ending in –ics are singular when they denote scientific subjects such as Physics,
Mathematics, Linguistics
14.Nouns ending in –ics are plural when they denote activities or qualities such as acoustics,
acrobatics, athletics
15.Hyphenated nouns or compound nouns usually attach –s to the element that is actually
being pluralized: mothers-in-law, officers-in charge, editors-in-chief, mayors-elect
16.Foreign plural:
Foreign Noun Plural Form Foreign Noun Plural Form
larva larvae criterion criteria
vertebra vertebrae phenomenon phenomena
alumnus alumni automaton automata
bacillus bacilli libretto libretti
cactus cacti/cactuses tempo tempi
focus foci virtuoso virtuosi
B. Order of Determiners in a Noun Phrase
Pre- Core Post- (Adjective) Noun
Determiner Determiner Determiner
A. Articles Cardinal school
Numbers
all a/an 1, 2, 3… red college
both the Ordinal Numbers old dormitory
half B. Possessive first, second,… new house
Adjectives last
double her everyfew big garden
his less high fence
its little(quantity) tall garage
my many(a) thick gate
our more intellectual summer
their most thoughtful rock
your other excellent wool
C. Possessive same Japanese silk
of names
Ex. John’s several silken steel
D. single woolen clay
Demonstrative
s
this such plastic
that cloth
these leather
those brick
E. Indefinite paper
another coat
any, each skirt
either
enough
much
neither
no
some
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what(a)
which
whose
IV. PRONOUNS
Pronouns are words that stand for a noun or noun phrase
SUBJECT OBJECT POSSESSIVE
PRONOUN PRONOUN PRONOUN
SINGULAR I me mine
you you your
he her hers
she him his
it it its
PLURAL we us ours
you you yours
they them theirs
The noun being referred back to is called the “antecedent” (e.g. I read a book. It was
good). The pronoun “it” refers to the antecedent noun “book”
Possessive pronouns are not followed immediately by a noun; they stand alone. (e.g.,
That book is hers.)
Possessive pronouns do NOT take apostrophes.
Possessive determiners are followed immediately by a noun; they do not stand alone.
(e.g. Her book is here.)
It has no apostrophe when used as a possessive determiner. (e.g. A bird uses its wings to
fly.)
It’s is a contraction of it is or it has.
V. ADJECTIVES
A. Degrees of Adjectives
Only the comparative and superlative adjectives show degrees. We use the comparative
for comparing two entities and the superlative for comparing three or more entities.
Gladys is a rich woman, but Josie is richer than Gladys, and Sadie is the richest
woman in town.
Positive Comparative Superlative
rich richer richest
lovely lovelier loveliest
beautiful more beautiful most beautiful
Certain adjectives have irregular forms in the comparative and superlative degrees:
Irregular Comparative Superlative
good better best
bad worse worst
little less least
much, many more most
far further furthest
Adjectives that do not admit comparative degree according to Bryan Garner:

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absolute impossible principal
adequate inevitable stationary
chief irrevocable sufficient
complete main unanimous
devoid manifest unavoidable
entire minor unbroken
fatal paramount unique
final perpetual universal
ideal preferable whole
B. The Order of Adjectives in a Series

The categories in the following table can be described as follows:
Determiners e.g. this, that, these, those, my, mine, your, your, him,
his, her, hers, they, their; or a, an, the
Observation / e.g. beautiful, interesting, polite, difficult, hardworking
Opinion
Size e.g. tall, wide, large, high, narrow, thin
Shape e.g. round, rectangular, circular
Age e.g. young, old, new, ancient
Color e.g. red, black, pale
Origin e.g. French, American, Canadian
Material e.g. woollen, metallic, wooden
Qualifier e.g. rocking chair, hunting cabin, passenger car
C. Collective Adjectives
When the definite article, the, is combined with an adjective describing a class or
group of people, the resulting phrase can act as a noun: the poor, the rich, the oppressed,
the homeless, the lonely, the unlettered, the unwashed, the gathered, the dear departed.
The rural poor have been ignored by the media.
The rich of Connecticut are responsible.
The elderly are beginning to demand their rights.
The young at heart are always a joy to be around.
D. Irregular Comparisons
A few of the comparatives and superlatives in English do not follow the usual
pattern. Here is a list of common exceptions:
Positive Comparative Superlative
bad worse worst
badly worse worst
far(distance) farther farthest
far(extent) further furthest
good better best
ill worse worst
late later latest or last
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less lesser least
little (amount) less least
many more most
much more most
well better best
E. Kinds of Adjectives
1. Possessive Adjectives
o Modify a noun by telling whom it belongs to
o Answer the question “Whose?”
o Include his, her, its, my, our, their, and your
e.g. You can share my rice. Have you seen their house?
2. Demonstrative Adjectives
o Include that, these, this, those and answer the question “Which?”
o Used to modify a noun or pronoun
e.g. I’m going to open that present
Those socks look warm.
3. Interrogative Adjectives
o Include what and which used in a question
o May look like an interrogative pronoun, but it is used differently in a sentence: It is
an adjective used to modify a noun or pronoun
e.g. What movie do you want to see?
Which leaves turn color first?
4. Indefinite Adjectives
o An indefinite adjective gives indefinite, or general information
o Often, it answers the question “How much?”
o Some common indefinite adjectives are all, any, each, every few, many, and some.
e.g. Many children like dinosaurs.
Did you want some bananas?
VI. Adverbs
Adverbs are modifiers of a verb, an adjective, another adverb, a phrase, or a clause.
They indicate manner, time, place, cause, or degree and answers questions such as
“how,” “when,” “where,” “how much.”
A. Types of Adverbs
1. Adverbs of Manner
 Provide information on how someone does something
 Placed after the verb or entire expression (at the end of the sentence)
e.g. Jack drives very carefully.
Their teacher speaks quickly.
2. Adverbs of Time
 Provide information on when something happens
e.g. We’ll let you know our decision next week.
3. Adverbs of Degree
 Provide information concerning how much of something is done
 Placed after the verb or entire expression (at the end of the sentence)
31
e.g. They like playing golf a lot.
She’ll attend the meeting as well.
4. Adverbs of Comment
 Provide comment, or opinion about a situation
 Placed at the beginning of a sentence
e.g. Fortunately, there were enough seats left for the concert.
Luckily, I was able to come to the presentation.
B. Adverb Placement
 Adverbs of frequency are placed after the verb ‘to be’ when used as the main verb
of the sentence.
e.g. Jack is often late for work.
 Some adverbs of frequency (sometimes, usually, normally) are also placed at the
beginning of the sentence for emphasis.
 Adverbs can also modify an adjective. In this case, the adverb is placed before the
adjective. e.g.
She is extremely happy. They are absolutely sure.
 Do not use ‘very’ with adjectives that express an increased quality of a basic
adjective. e.g. good—fantastic
 Adverbs of frequency (always, never, sometimes) usually come before the main
verb. e.g. He is often late for class
Do you always eat in a restaurant?
They don’t usually travel on Fridays.
 Adverbs of frequency expressing infrequency are not usually used in the negative or
question form. “Never,” “seldom,” “rarely,” and other adverbs of frequency with a
negative sense are not usually used in the question form. When using adverbs of
frequency in the negative form, put the adverb before the main verb.
e.g. Does she rarely eat fish? They don’t.
 Adverbs of frequency are often placed at the beginning of a sentence.
e.g. Sometimes, he likes to go to museums.
 Adverbs of frequency follow—come after- the verb ‘to be’
e.g. He is sometimes late for work.
 When an adverb modifies an adjective, there is no need to join the two with a
hyphen. e.g.
Thomas was a highly respected member of the team.
(Incorrect) Thomas was a highly-respected member of the team.
 With words like “well” and “fast” (which are both adjectives and adverbs), a hyphen
can be used to avoid ambiguity. e.g.
We will be visited by a well-known actress.
 Usual order when two or more adverbs modify a verb: MANNER-FREQUENCY-PLACE-
TIME-CAUSE/REASON
VII. Prepositions
Prepositions show relationships in time and space and relationship between ideas
(logical relationships).
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PREPOSITIO USES EXAMPLES
N
months, years, seasons in December
in 2009
in autumn
IN enclosure in a landmark in the box
special expressions in the meantime
in addition
in contrast
days of the week and dates on Wednesday
ON on the fifth of July
contact with a surface on the table
on the floor
AT time at six o’clock
place as a point of orientation at the corner
FROM separation from a point of away from me
orientation
OFF separation from contact with a fell off the stem
line or surface
OUT OF separation from inside a fish out of water
landmark
BY denotes the idea of Stand by me.
“connection” or nearness
association and/or dinner with friends
WITH accompaniment
equal standing or ability rank with the best
manner spoke with ease
structures space as a tunnel or through the woods
THROUGH channel
duration through the years
endurance through thick and thin
spatial movement in any walked about the room
ABOUT direction
approximation about 10 miles
concerning something about the book
UNDER at a lower point than a under the mango tree
landmark
below under 18
OVER at a higher point than the Over the fence
landmark
ABOVE higher than above average
BEFORE in front of before us
earlier than before the year ends
BETWEEN at an intermediate point in between you and me
relation to two entities
VIII. Conjunctions
AND addition
BUT shows contrast
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YET but at the same time
SO therefore
FOR because
OR one or the other two alternatives is true
NOR conjoins two negative sentences, both of which are true
Correlative Conjunctions—pairs of conjunctions that are used together

both…and neither…nor whether…or
either…or not only…but also
Correlative conjunctions must be followed by the same grammatical structures.
Incorrect: Either the meat (noun) was tough to begin with or overcooked (adjective)
Correct: Either the meat (noun) was tough to begin with or it (pronoun) was overcooked.
Subordinating Conjunctions connect two complete ideas by making one of the ideas
subordinate to or less important than the other.
e.g. He ran steadily as though wolves were after him.
(main idea) (subordinate idea)
Frequently Used Subordinating Conjunctions
after because now that until
although before since when
as even if so that whenever
as if even though than where
as long as if though wherever
as soon as in order that till while
as though lest unless
IX. Modals
Basic modals: can, could, may, might, must, ought to, shall, should, will, would
Phrasal modals: be able to, be going to, be supposed to, have to, have got to, used to
Modals do not take a final –s even when the subject is singular.
Correct: She can do it.
Incorrect: She can do it
Modals are followed by the simple form of the verb. the only exception is ought, which is
followed by an infinitive (to + simple form of the verb)
Correct: She can do it.
Incorrect: She can does it.
Summary Chart of Modals and Similar Expressions

USES PRESENT / FUTURE PAST
polite request (only May I borrow your
with I or we) pen?
MAY formal permission You may leave the
room.
less than 50% (Where’s John?) He may have been in
certainty He may be at the the library.
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library.
less than 50% (Where’s John?) He might have been
MIGHT certainty He might be at the in the library
library.
polite request Might I borrow your
(rare) pen?
advisability I should study tonight. I should have studies
last night, but I
SHOULD didn’t.
90% certainty She should do well on She should have
(expectation) the test. (future only, done well on the test.
not present)
advisability I ought to study I ought to have
tonight. studied last night,
OUGHT TO but I didn’t.
90% certainty She ought to do well She ought to have
(expectation) on the test. (future done well on the test.
only, not present)
expectation Class is supposed to
BE begin at 10:00.
SUPPOSED unfulfilled Class was supposed
TO expectation to begin at 10:00, but
it didn’t begin until
10:15
strong necessity I must go to class (I had to go to class
today. yesterday)
MUST prohibition You must not open
(negative) that door.
95% certainty Mary isn’t in class. Mary must have been
She must be sick. sick yesterday.
(present only)
100% certainty He will be here at
WILL 6:00.
willingness I will do that for you
polite request Will you please close
the door?
ability / possibility I can run fast. I could run fast when
I was a child, but now
I can’t.
CAN informal permission You can use my car
tomorrow
informal polite Can we talk?
request
impossibility That can’t be true! That couldn’t have
(negative only) been true!
past ability I could dance well
during my younger
years.
polite request Could you help me?
COULD suggestion You could talk to a He could have been
(affirmative only) doctor about your at home.
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problem.
less than 50% (Where’s Johnny?)
certainty He could be at home.
impossibility That couldn’t be true! That could not have
(negative only) been true!
polite request Would you consider
the offer?
preference I would rather go to I would rather have
WOULD the park than stay gone to the park
home.
repeated action in When I was a child, I
the past would visit my
grandparents every
weekend.
polite for “want” I would like an apple,
(with like) please.
unfulfilled wish I would have liked a
cookie, but there
were none in the
kitchen.
repeated action in He used to drink beer
the past every night.
USED TO past situation that I used to live in the
no longer exists province, but now I
live in the city
SHALL polite question to Shall I keep the
make a suggestion secret?
future with “I” or We shall celebrate
“we” as a subject after passing the
examination.
X. Tag Questions
A tag question is a question added at the end of a sentence. It aims to seek agreement
or to ascertain correctness of information. A tag question may be spoken (a) with a rising
intonation if the speaker is truly seeking to ascertain that his/her information, idea or
belief is correct, (e.g. Ann lives in an apartment, doesn’t she?) or (b) with a failing
intonation if the speaker is expressing an idea with which s/he is almost certain the
listener will agree (e.g. It’s a nice day today, isn’t it?)
Affirmative Sentence + Negative Tag  Affirmative Answer

Expected
Beth is here, isn’t she? Yes, she is.
You like coffee, don’t you? Yes, I do.
They have left, haven’t they? Yes, they have.
Negative Sentence + Affirmative Tag  Negative Answer Expected

Beth isn’t here, is she? No, she isn’t.
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You don’t like coffee, do you? No, I don’t.
They haven’t left, have they? No, they haven’t.
XI. Basic Verb Forms Used in CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
SITUATION IF- Clause RESULT - Clause Examples

True in the simple present simple present If I have enough time, I
present / simple future visit my parents every
future (will + simple form) week.
If I have enough time, I
will visit my parents next
week.
Untrue in the simple past would + simple form If I had enough time, I
present / would visit my parents
future now.
Untrue in the past perfect would have + past If I had enough time, I
past participle would have visited my
parents last month
ENGLISH PHONOLOGY
Effective oral discourse means being able to use grammatical structures accurately; having the
ability to express ideas, messages, and intentions meaningfully; and observing rules of use
appropriately when interacting with others in various social contexts. In other words, a
competent speaker has good pronunciation and correct intonation, forms grammatical
sentences, and uses language appropriately when communicating with others.
A. The Speech Mechanism
37
The speech-producing mechanism or vocal apparatus consist of the following parts as shown in
the figure:
 The resonators or resonating cavities: the pharynx or pharyngeal cavity, the nasal cavity,
and the oral cavity. These cavities serve as the passage of the moving stream of air. The
pharyngeal cavity is a space formed by the root of the tongue and the walls of the throat.
 The articulators: lower lip, lower teeth, the tongue and its parts (the tongue apex is made
up of the tongue tip and blade, the front of the tongue, and the back of the tongue or
dorsum), as well as the soft palate or velum with its pear-shaped appendage called the
uvula. Articulators are movable parts.
 The important points of articulation are the upper lip, the upper teeth, the alveolar ridge
(the gum behind the upper teeth), the hard palate (the bony roof of the mouth) and again,
the velum. Except for the velum, these parts are non-movable. They are the parts of
speech apparatus near which or against which the articulators are placed in the
production of the various speech sounds.
 The vocal cords / bands. They are two short bands of elastic flesh and muscle located
inside the larynx (Adam’s apple). The opening between them is called the glottis. The
glottis may be opened so as to cause no obstruction in the passage of air as in normal
breathing, completely closed, or partially closed. Speech sounds produced with an open
glottis are said to be voiceless. When the vocal bands are brought so close together than
the air passing through causes the glottis to vibrate, the speech sounds produced are said
to be voiced. When the vocal bands are pressed together so tightly as to resist
considerable air pressure from the lungs, the sound produced is a glottal stop.
B. The Phoneme
 The phoneme is a minimal significant or contrastive unit in a language. This speech
sound signals a difference in meaning e.g.. /p/, /b/, and /f/ as in pan, ban, and fan. Note
that a phoneme is enclosed in slants / /.
38
 A phoneme may be pronounced in different ways, depending on its position in the
utterance, and still remains the same phoneme. These variations in pronunciation,
called allophones, are enclosed in square brackets [ ]. For example, the phoneme /p/ is
pronounced differently in the following words: pin, spin, nip. It is aspirated in pin [p hin],
unaspirated in spin [spin] and unreleased in nip [nip-].
C. The Vowel Phonemes of English

 The following statements show the nature of vowels:
1. Vowels are oral sounds.
2. Vowels are voiced.
3. Vowels are characterized by a free flow of air through the oral cavity.
 Using Trager and Smith and the IPA transcription systems, the following are the simple
and complex vowels of English with their corresponding key words:
Key Word Trager- IPA Key Word Trager- IPA

Smith Smith
bit i I pall Ɔ Ɔ
bet e e beat iy i:
bat æ æ bait ey eI
just(adv) i - bite ay aI
ago Ə Ə bout aw aƱ
hut boat ow oƱ
hot a a boy oy ƆI
pull u Ʊ boot uw u:
D. The Consonant Phonemes of English

The first set of consonant sounds in English are the stops /p, b, t, d, k, g/. they are
produced by a stoppage of air. The sounds /p, t, k/ are voiceless because the vocal cords do
not vibrate. On the other hand, /b, d, g/ are voiced. The /p, t, k/ sounds are aspirated when
they occur initially in a stressed syllable. For example, the /t/ sound in the words ten and
attend are aspirated or produced with an accompanying puff of air. The sound /k/ in cat and
recount are likewise aspirated. The same is true with the /p/ sound in pen and append.
The second set of sounds are the fricatives / f v θ ð s z š ž h/. They are produced by
an obstruction of the airstream causing audible friction.
Further, English has two affricates /č/ and /j/, three nasals /m n դ/, a lateral /l/, a
retroflex /r/ and two semivowels /w v/. The retroflex and the semivowels are sometimes
referred to as glides.
The following table shows the consonant sounds of English in two transcription
systems.
Key Word Trager- IPA Key Word Trager- IPA
Smith Smith
pan p p sure š ∫
ban b b azure ž ž
ten t t hat h h
den d d cat č t∫
cot k k job j dჳ
got g g mine m m
39
fan f f nine n n
van v v sing դ դ
thin θ θ lot l l
hen ð ð rot r r
so s s well w w
zoo z z yell y y
Awareness of certain sounds are crucial in pronouncing noun plurals, and noun
possessives as well as the third person singular inflection of regular verbs. Similarly, it is also
significant in pronouncing the regular simple past inflection. To illustrate:
Noun plurals are spelled as –s or –es. This plural inflection can be pronounced in three
different ways, i.e., /-s/, /-z/, or /Əz/ as shown below:
/-s/ /-z/ /-Əz/
cats, ropes, rocks, graphs beds, chairs, seeds, dishes, churches, judges,
stones, leaves, dolls garages, buses
/Əz/ occurs after sibilants or s-like sounds such as /s, z, š, ž, č, j/
/s/ occurs after voiceless sounds except /s, š, č/
/z/ occurs after voiced sounds except /z, ž, j/
The pronunciation rules defined for the plural above also apply to noun possessives and third
person singular forms of regular verbs.
Likewise, the regular simple past tense inflection –ed has three variants, namely /t, d, Əd/
/Əd/ occurs after /t/ and /d/ as in planted, hated, needed, and raided
/t/ occurs after voiceless sounds except /t/, e.g. liked, surprised, realized, cooked
/d/ occurs after voiced sounds as in loved, played, owned and belonged
E. Suprasegmental Phonemes and Prosodic Patterns in English

Pronouncing consonant and vowel sound correctly in an utterance is not enough. As
consequential are other phonemic phenomena labelled as suprasegmentals which contribute to
a meaningful interpretation of what is being said. These phonemes consist of stress, pitch, and
juncture. A combination of them makes up the prosodic patterns of spoken language or oral
discourse.
1. Stress
 Stress refers to the degree of prominence a syllable has. In the word forgive, the
syllable –give sounds more prominent than for-. There may be as many degrees of
stress as there are syllables, but some of the differences may be imperceptible.
 For individual words, three stress phonemes are significant. These are:
‘ primary stress
` mid stress
˘ weak stress (usually not indicated)
 In words more than one syllable, there will be on syllable which is more heavily
stressed than others. This syllable carries the primary stress (e.g. rémedy, devélop,
understánd). In some longer words, other syllables may carry secondary stress e.g.
légendâry. The most important thing is to recognise where the primary stress is. The
assignment of primary stress can change between words derived from the same
base. (e.g. photograph, photographer, photographic).
40
 In word groups and sentences, there are four degrees of stress:
‘ primary stress
ᶺ secondary stress
` tertiary stress
˘ weak stress (usually not indicated)
Note the words intelléctual and curiósity.
In isolation each words get a primary stress; however, when put together to form
the phrase intellêctual curiósity, the primary stress in one is reduced to secondary
stress. A word group carries only one primary stress.
Note that the last content words generally is assigned the primary stress in a phrase
or sentence unless contrastive meaning is desired in which case there is a shift of
stress.
e.g. a black dóg
a bláck dog (not white or brown)
2. Grammatical Stress Patterns

Grammatical patterns are accompanied by regular stress patterns. Sometimes such
stress patterns are the sole means of differentiating one grammatical pattern, with its
concomitant meaning, from another. The common ones include:
 Compound noun ́ ` e.g.
rócking chair, póstmàn
 Modifier + noun ᶺ
e.g. blâck bírd, lông hand
 Verb + noun object
e.g. Carabaos êat gráss.
He is wâtching a móvie.
 Verb + adverbial ᶺ ́ e.g.
This information is not to be hânded óut.
My boyfriend câlled úp.
3. Pitch Levels and Terminals

 Although many degrees of pitch are employed in speaking, only four levels of
relative pitch are used as phonemes. These are:
4 extra high
3 high
2 normal
1 low
 Pitch is relative. The normal pitch of every individual’s speaking voice, whatever its
actual height (some speakers tend to be either high pitched or low pitched), is
called level 2. From this level, one makes departures either upward (level 3) or
downward (level 1). We begin on level 2, our natural normal level, and remain there
until we reach the primary stress.
 Pitches combine into patterns to make meaningful melodies over the whole phrase
or sentence, e.g. 231, 233, or 232. In 231, a statement or proposition is being
uttered.
41
 These melodies have three methods of closure called terminal junctures or simply
terminals. As the name suggests, these terminals occur at the end of the sentence.
oftentimes, they are marked with arrows as follows:
↓ = fading terminal
↑ = rising terminal
→ = sustained terminal
 The fading terminal as in 231↓ is characterized by a rapid fadeaway of the voice
into silence. It closes a statement.
e.g. 2I’m going to 3school↓
 The rising terminal as in 233↑ is a short, slight rise in the pitch from the last level
heard, but it does not go all the way up to the next level. This terminal commonly
occurs at the end of a yes-no question.
e.g. 2Are you 3happy3↑
 The sustained terminal as in 232→ is characterized by a slight lengthening of the
preceding pitch 3 word (i.e., the word that gets the primary stress. It may be heard
at the end of a long sentence subject
e.g. 2All of the members of the 3team2→look confused.
 Patterns of pitch, with their accompanying terminals such as 231↓, 233↑, and
232→ are called intonation contours.
4. Commonly Used Intonation Contours

 231↓ This contour occurs in:
1) Statement or declarative sentence
e.g. 2We watched a 3movie1↓
2) Command
e.g. 2Read the an3nouncement1↓
3) Wh- or information question (a question that begins with words like who,
what, where, when, why, which, and how) e.g.
2What’s your 3name1↓
 233↑ This contour commonly occurs at the end of yes-no questions.
1) Yes-no question in statement form
e.g. 2He’s an 3actor3↑
2) Yes-no question in question form
e.g. 2Are you 3coming3↑
3) Initial grammatical unit (phrase, clause, or sentence segment)
e.g. 2If you’ll 3notice3↑
 232→ This contour signals incompleteness.
1) Initial grammatical unit (an alternate for 233↑)
e.g. 2If you’ll 3notice2→
2) Statement to indicate the speaker has more to say; often the word
following this contour is but. e.g.
2She’s a bright 3girl2→but…
ORAL COMMUNICATION and LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS

42
There are three elements in oral communication: the speaker, the message, and the audience.
The purpose of the speaker’s message must be appropriate to the occasion and the intended
audience. Oral communication process may be illustrated as one-way or two-way as shown
below.
ONE- TWO-WAY
WAY
Conversation
Public Discussion
Speech Interview
Storytelling
Message
Speaker Audience Speaker Audience
Message
Feedback
A. Group Communication
The Four Criteria that Determine a Small Group (Morreale, Splitzberg, & Barge, 2007)
1. Includes Three of More People
2. Includes Shared Perception
3. Emphasizes Interdependence
4. Requires Communication
B. Public Speaking as Communication (O’Hair, Stewart, & Rubenstein, 2001)

In public speaking, a speaker delivers a message with a specific purpose to an audience of
people who are present during the delivery of speech. Public speaking always includes a
speaker who has a reason for speaking, an audience that gives the speaker its attention,
and a message that is meant to accomplish a specific purpose.
1. Special Speaker Considerations

 Context—The speech context includes anything that influences the speaker, the
audience, the speech, the occasion, or the situation.
 Goals—A clearly defined goal is a prerequisite for an effective speech. What is it
that you want the audience to learn or do or believe as a result of your speech?
How much ground do you want to cover? What do you personally want to
achieve by delivering the speech?
 Outcome—A speech is not truly complete until its effects have been assessed
and you decide whether you have accomplished what you set out to do. Usually
43
this assessment is informal, as in listening to audience reactions. Constructive
feedback is an invaluable tool for self-evaluation and improvement.
2. Types of Speeches
 An informative speech increases the audience’s understanding or awareness by
imparting knowledge. It provides audience with new information, new insights, or
new ways of thinking about a topic, and introduces new ideas, events, people,
places, or things.
 A persuasive speech attempts to influence the attitudes, beliefs, values, and acts
of others. It limits alternatives, seeks a response, and respects audience choices.
 Special Occasion Speeches
o Speech of Introduction prepares or warms up the audience for the speaker.
It aims to motivate audience members to listen to what s/he has to say.
o Speech of Acceptance aims to express gratitude for the honor bestowed on
the speaker.
o Eulogies and Tributes celebrate and commemorate the life the deceased
while consoling those who have been left behind.
o Speech of Inspiration aims to uplift the member of the audience and to
help them see things in a positive light.
Expressions of Advice
Asking Giving Accepting Rejecting
Can you give me any You should + verb Thanks for the Thanks, but I don’t
/ some advice? I advise you to + advice. think that’s a good
What should I do? verb That sounds like a idea.
What do you I suggest that you + good idea. Thanks. I’ll think
suggest/ verb Thanks. I’ll do that. about it.
recommend/ advise? You can / could Thanks, but I’m not
What do you think I +verb so sure.
should / ought to do? Why don’t you +
verb
Verb / Don’t + verb
Asking for a Favor Responding

Yes No
Can / could you do me a Sure. / Yes. / OK. / Yeah / Of I’m sorry but…
(small/big) favour? course. I’d like to, but…
Can / could I ask you for a Sure, what do you need? I wish I could, but…
favour? I’d be glad to. Let me think about it.
Will / can / could you + I really can’t.
verb?
Asking for Directions Giving Directions

Could you tell me where… is? Go straight.
Where is…? Go straight for two blocks on
44
Do you know how to get to…? Avenue/Street/Road.
How do you get to… Go past (the market).
I’m looking for… Go north/south/east/west.
I’m trying to find… Turn right/left.
Cross the street.
You’ll see it on your right/left.
Expressing Agreement Expressing Disagreement

I agree. I’m not sure about that.
I agree with that. I disagree.
I agree with you. I don’t agree.
I’m with you. I disagree with that.
You’re right. I disagree with you.
I couldn’t agree more. I completely disagree.
I completely agree. You’re wrong.
Expressions for Telephone Conversations

Answering the phone Finding out who is calling
Hello. (when answering home phone) May I ask who’s calling?
Full Name/Company Name (for business Can I tell him who’s calling?
people) May I tell her who’s calling?
Taking a phone message Asking for clarification
He’s not here right now. Would you like me Excuse me?
to give him a message? What was that again?
She just stepped out. May I take a Could you repeat that?
message?
Turn-taking and Turn-giving Expressions

Introducing the topic Today we are here to discuss…
The goal of our discussion today is…
Bringing in other people What is your opinion, Mr.___?
Do you agree with Mr.___’s opinion, Ms. ___?
Keeping the Discussion Let’s go to another point.
Moving Next, let’s talk about…
Giving an opinion In my opinion…
Personally, I believe that…
Getting further Would you mind explaining that a little more, please?
information Could you explain that more fully?
Could you tell us a bit more about that?
Interrupting Excuse me for interrupting, but…
Sorry to interrupt, but…
Seeking clarification What do you mean?
Sorry, I’m not quite sure what you mean.
Do you mean that…?
I’m sorry, I don’t quite follow.
I don’t quite understand what you’re saying.
Closing the discussion In conclusion, the purpose of this discussion…
We have concluded that…
45
ENGLISH: Philippine Literature

1. Trace the development of Philippine Literature in English from the early
American Period to the contemporary times.
2. Highlight the historical influences that inform Philippine literary productions.
3. Analyze the recurrent themes, pervading thought and styles in English literary
productions of Filipino writers.
4. Interpret and analyze some literary texts or representative writers.
I. Early literary historians divided Philippine literature in English into five periods
a. Period of Orientation (1898-1909)
b. Period of Imitation (1910-1924)
c. Period of Growth and Experimentation (1925-1941)
d. Post-Liberation Period (1945-onwards)
The Period of Orientation (1898-1909)

 It began with the Occupation of Manila by the American forces on August 13, 1898. It
extended to the publication of the College Folio in 1910 when Filipino writers made their
first attempts at expression in the new language.
 The nationalistic and rebellious spirit against the American occupation also found
expression in the Filipino literature in English of this period. It consisted mostly of articles
dealing with patriotism and nationalism.
 However, only El Renacimiento and the Free Press published writings in English.
The Period of Imitation (1910-1924)

 Began in 1910 when the College Folio made its appearance in the University of the
Philippines
 This period was characterized by a strict adherence to the conventional forms of literature
exemplified in the works of Longfellow, Hawthome, Emerson, Tennyson, Thackeray, and
Macaulay; and by careful observance of the rules of grammar and rhetoric.
 The publication of magazines and newspapers in English gave budding writers a chance to
see their compositions in print. Ex. Philippine Review, Independent, Rising Philippines, and
46
Citizens, in addition to the Philippine Collegian, the UP student organ. Philippines Herald
became the pioneer Filipino newspaper in English in 1920.
 Paz Marquez Benitez gained some measure of mastery far ahead of the period as
exemplified in her short story, “Dead Stars.” This story was, for a long time, considered a
model of perfection in character delineation, local color, plot, and message.
 The first book of poems and the first novel in English written by a Filipino were published
during this period: Procopio Solidum’s Never Mind and Other Poems and Zoilo M. Galang’s
A child of Sorrow.
It is the theme that poet sing about and glorify in sublime and
immortal poetry. It is the wine that intoxicates. It is one of the
greatest events in life—when two passionate lips dip into the
sweet realm of the cup of love, while Cupid stands smiling and
the angels in heaven sing of the faith of two loving souls,
blessing them with ineffable happiness.
“A Child of Sorrow”- Zoilo M.
Period of Expansion and Experimentation (1925-1941)
 Filipino writers mastered, not only the fundamentals, but also the nuances of the English
language sufficiently to be able to write it with more confidence. They tried all forms of
writing including the novel and the drama.
 A deep attachment to the soil and a strong spirit of liberalism took possession of the
writers
 Some critics considered this period from 1930 until 1940 as the Golden Era of Filipino
writing in English.
 Jose Garcia Villa (aka Doveglion) excelled as a critic, short story writer, and poet and
tremendously influenced Filipino writing. A number of short story writers “arrived” with
Villa—Manuel Arguilla, Paz Latorena, Loreto Paras, Arturo B. Rotor, and Alfredo E. Litiatco.
“Let me hold the bucket while you drink,” she offered.
He flashed her a smile over his shoulder as he poured
the water into her jar, and again lowered the bucket.
“No, no, you must not do that.” She hurried to his side
and held one of his arms. “I couldn’t let you, a stranger…”
“Why not?” He smiled down at her, and noticed a
slight film of moisture clinging down her upper lip and
experienced a sudden desire to wipe it away with his
forefinger. He continued to lower the bucket while she had to
stand by.
“Midsummer” –Manuel
Arguilla
 Filipino writers were influenced by Sherwood Anderson, Ernest Hemingway, William
Saroyan, and Dorothy Parker.
 Marcelo de Gracia Concepcion’s Azucena became the first book of Filipino verse to be
printed in America. Other poets were Amador T. Daguio, Angela Manalang Gloria, and Luis
Dato.
 In 1940, through the initiative and efforts of the Philippine Writers’ League, the
Commonwealth Government started a yearly literary contest.
47
 The first Filipino biographer to write in English is Carlos Quirino with his The Great
Malayan. I.V. Mallari’s The Birth and Discontent showed his mastery of the art of irony as
well as of the English language.
 In the essay, the notable writings included Salvador P. Lopez’ prize-winning collection
Literature and Society and Francisco P. Icasiano’s Horizons from My Nipa Hut.
 Filipino playwrights flourished during this period: Augusto C. Catanjal (The Oil Lamp), Vidal
A. Tan (The Husband of Mrs. Cruz), Severino Montano (The Land of Our Fathers), and
Wilfrido Ma. Guerrero (13 Plays), who became the most prolific dramatist.
RODOLFO: Did you come here to insult me, Mr. Bruno?

BRUNO: No, indeed. Kindly listen for a moment. I know
also that my election is assured, and your efforts
wasted.
BRUNO: Just a moment, please. I am giving you a
chance to cut down your losses. Ten thousand pesos if
you withdraw from this fight.
RODOLFO: Mr. Bruno, you don’t understand me. I
entered this fight to support certain principles. And
those principles are not for sale! If this is the purpose
of your (sarcastically) kind visit, (standing), I wish you
goodnight.
“The Husband of Mrs. Cruz” – Vidal
Period of Propaganda (1942-1944)
 The war dampened the literary enthusiasm of the preceding period.
 The writing of this period was largely journalistic, and the literary output was negligible for
two reasons: (1) it was, in the main, insincere, and (2) there was very little opportunity for
publication.
 This period saw the rise of Carlos P. Romulo, the first Filipino writer and journalist to win
international recognition. He won the Pulitzer Prize; and his I Saw the Fall of the
Philippines, I See the Philippines Rise, and Mother America became best sellers.
Post-Liberation Period (1945--)

 The militancy which might be expected as a result of the war was very evident among
journalists and editors.
 The most significant achievement of this period was the recognition afforded to Filipino
writers abroad.
 Carlos Bulosan put out an book of poems called Voice of Bataan immediately after the
outbreak of World War II. This volume was followed by The Laughter of My Father, a
collection of humorous short stories and America Is In the Heart, an autobiography.
Father and I hastened to the hut. He was proud of me, but
he had no intention of making me marry that girl, he
explained. He had better hopes for me. He opened his
coconut shell in which he kept his money and tool out all
he had saved for years. Then we ran to town, where my
mother lived with my two sisters. Father explained what
had happened.
48
 Stevan Javellana published his novel Without Seeing the Dawn, a war novel comparable to
Rizal’s masterpieces
Her words fell like a bolt of thunder in his ears and he could
not think clearly for some time. The boy, had he looked? Did
he ever come to learn to call his name, saying, “Tatay—
Father?” He wanted to ask her but he did not. He had come
home expecting to find peace in the bosom of his family.
Peace did not welcome him, but Grief sat on its haunches at
his doorstep.
Without Seeing the Dawn – Stevan
Javellana
 Jose Garcia Villa’s collection of poems Have Come, Am Here revealed great power both in
thought and expression and elicited the warmest praises from American and English
critics.
II. Philippine Contemporary Literature in English: Tradition and Change by Ophelia A.

Dimalanta and Virginia M. Mata (1985) outlined Philippine literary history into three
periods:
A. The Pre-War Years from the 20’s to 1941

 Philippine literature in English began with the coming of the Americans in 1898. Spanish
continued to dominate the circle of the elite, but in the 30’s it began to give way to
English. Vernacular languages continued to be used in homes.
 UP was established in 1908, a landmark in the literary development of the country along
the lines of Western traditions. It triggered the development and flowering of Philippine
literature in English.
 With American textbooks, American instructors, American writers as models, the Filipinos
started to learn not only a new language and a new way of life alien to their traditions: the
start of Western education or mis-education, the start of colonial orientation or dis-
orientation.
Pre-War Poetry
 S.P. Lopez, a prophet of socially committed literature, influenced as he was by the social
protest movement sweeping the USA at about that time in the wake of the great
economic collapse and the depression wrote:
The real artist has a deep compassion for the suffering of the oppressed and anger
at the oppressors. The highest form of art is that which springs from the wells of
man’s deepest urges and longings… his love for his own kind and his longing to be
free…of all the ends to which he (the artist) may dedicate his talents, none is more
worthy than the improvement of the condition of man and the defense of freedom.
(Literature and Society, 1939)
 Jose Garcia Villa, on the other hand, believed in “art for art’s sake;” that in art, craft
comes before meaning, that poetry should never be useful and propagandistic, that it
must only arouse pleasure in the beautiful, must lead to contemplation, not action.
49
 Prior to the 20’s the poems that were written were nothing more than mere versifications,
exercises in rhetoric, using specific classical moulds or patterns and poetic forms more for
discipline than for art.
 Literary models were mostly Romantic and Victorian 19 th century Anglo-American poets.
The 20’s and on to the 30’s saw the profusion of romantic poems, effusive personal
expression of all kinds of emotions, specifically love, love lost, love betrayed, love
unrequited, or love triumphant.
 Summarizing, pre-war poetry underwent three important phases:
1. Poetry used as vehicle for mere rhetorical exercises in the service of language-learning
rather than literature
2. Poetry used as vehicle for mere self-expression, personal and uncontrolled
outpourings.
3. Poetry as vehicle for a dawning nationalistic fervor in the wake of the great S.P Lopez
versus Villa debate and the establishment of the Commonwealth in 1935.
Pre-War Fiction
 Prior to the 20’s, Leopoldo Yabes said, “the short stories are better classified as tales
rather than stories.”
 The Philippine Free Press encouraged writers through its short story contest involving a
cash award of one hundred pesos for the winning piece, aside from the regular twenty-
peso publication royalty.
 By the end of the 30’s, Filipino short stories written in English already showed more
carefully crafted pieces:
a. The unified single impression or effect through atmosphere, tone, and style
b. Plausible characterization
c. A well-defined plot structure
d. Control of language as medium
e. Interesting situation an d a significant theme
B. The Post-War Years from the Late 40’s to the 70’s
 On July 4, 1946, the US granted the Philippines its political independence. Yet many
features of colonialism remained.
 Petronilo Daroy noted that “indeed, the national sensibility after World War II is
characterized by indignant perceptions which often manifest themselves in stories which
base their claim to realism on the mere fact of their brutal treatment of evil. At any rate,
this attention to the unsmiling aspects of Philippine life liberated our literature from
maudlin emotionalizing and excessive sentimentalism.”
 In 1949, the National Teachers College offered a 3-unit course in Contemporary Philippine
Literature in English to stimulate interest in our own literature.
 The Bureau of Civil Service included Philippine literature as a subject to be covered in the
Civil Service Examination for Teachers in 1951.
 The Carlos Palanca Sr. Memorial Awards for Literature started the most prestigious annual
literary contest sponsored by a liquor manufacturer, a magnate, and patron of the arts.
 The Philippine Free Press revived its annual award of P1,000 for the best short story.
Writer’s guilds were organized among them being the Philippine Writers Union (later the
Philippine Writers Association) and the Philippine International PEN (poets, essayists, and
novelists)
50
 In 1960, the Republic Cultural Heritage Awards for literature was created the purpose of
which was “to initiate a movement for greater and more dedicated efforts in cultural
advancement, to complement the country’s program of economic development.”
Post-War Poetry
 Modernism in poetry started in the 1950’s. the modern poet experimented in techniques
of versification, rhythm, music, and imagery.
 Modern poets were influenced by modern or western schools: (1) imagism, (2)
metaphysical school, (3) impressionistic-symbolistic school and (4) new criticism.
Post-War Fiction
 Carlos Bulosan’s America Is In the Heart pursued literature’s commitment to social
problems in the choice of subject matter, the peasants, the labourers, the interface of
economic conditions and politics.
 NVM Gonzales published Seven Hills Away in 1947.
 Francisco Arcellana joined the ranks of the finest writers with his Divide By Two by
showing his artistic ingenuity in point of structure, emotional impact, subtle manipulation
of symbols, and the powerful rhythm of his language.
 Bienvenido Santos wrote You Lovely People, his first book of short stories about Filipino
exiles in America.
“Look,” I said it, “one of these days, very soon, I hope,

I’ll be going home. I could go to your town.”
No,” he said softly, sounding very much defeated but
brave, “Thanks a lot. But, you see, nobody would remember
me now.”
Then he started the car, and as it moved away, he
waved his hand.
“Goodbye,” I said, waving back into the darkness. And
suddenly the night was cold like winter straying early in these
northern woodlands.
 Nick Joaquin stood above his contemporaries which included Kerima Polotan Tuvera, Gilda
Cordero Fernando, Aida Rivera Ford, Estrella Alfon, Rony Diaz, Lilia Pabloc Amansec, and
Gregorio Brillantes.
 The short story achieved a degree of mastery and became preoccupied with form: (1)
emphasis on key moment or illumination usually at the end of the story, (2) use of
consistent point of view, (3) use of symbols, the story existing in more than one level, (4)
evocative use of language and tone, and (5) overall structural unity, blending of form and
content.
 In the normal form, Nick Joaquin’s The Woman Who Had Two Navels showed a new way of
presenting the subject matter, employing rich multi-layered meanings, and incorporating
a sense of history and tradition.
 Francisco Sionil Jose started his Rosales saga with The Pretenders, an indictment against
the modern illustrados and social injustice.
51
 Kerima Polotan, writer-turned-publisher, showcased her artistic sensibility and social
conscience and portrayed the yearnings and frustrations of a Flaubertian heroine in The
Hand of the Enemy, a novel that is naturalistic in its pessimism, but romantic in its style
and presentation.
It’s bad enough having poor around us all the time, but not
use them their loyalty, to fail to harness them for a man or a
cause that can bring the country and themselves much good
—All right, we pander to their greed but if you want to
ensnare people’s minds, you must dangle a bit of bait before
them.
The Hand of the Enemy- Kerima Polotan
The Essay
 The political essay became popular and most suited for the discussion of ideas and timely
issues. Nationalist writers included Renato Constantino, Petronilo Daroy, Luis Teodoro, Jose
Lacaba, Bienvenido Lumbera, Epifanio San Juan, and Dolores Feria.
 Nick Joaquin as Quijano de Manila (his pen name) wrote many essays.
 Travel essay became popular with Cristina Pantoja Hidalgo leading the pack.
 Literary critics wrote reviews and became members of the Manila Critics Circle, among
them Isagani Cruz, Alfred Yuzon, Alfredo Salanga, Alice Guillermo, Doreen Fernandez, Rio
Alma, and Ophelia Dimalanta.
I shall lose them all again, or perhaps,

possibly, yes,
as I was wont, ,losing all death will be kinder and
ho, yes
in this final irretrievable allow me at last this
loss of my deathtime flowing final find.
The More Recent Times from the 70’s up to Present

 The immediate post-war years were years of conformism, it was not until the early 1960’s
that the students began to unite and hold mass protests and demonstrations against the
evils that gnawed the government. Most of these rallies ended in violent dispersals of the
police and the military.
 Using the pretext of saving the country from the threat of subversion and communist
takeover, Ferdinand Marcos declared Martial Law in September 1972.
 During the 1960s some writers exhibited the western trends of naturalism and surrealism
the use of stream-of-consciousness) to depict states of the subconscious). Language had
also become more dense, more elaborate.
 Writer’s personal commitment was questioned in terms of their choice of medium.
 Cirilo Bautista completed his trilogy of poetry books: The Cave, The Archipelago, and the
Telax Moon, a project epical in scheme, historical in perspective, and surrealistic in style.
10 Compute the square of guilt against an

integral
11 his age built when he was young
12 axiomatic; the sum52stands thus: Along
13 the curve x (none noticed the leap; what
they saw
14 was the red imprint) by which we know
III. The Development of Philippine Literature in English (Since 1900) by Richard Croghan, S.J.
(1975) divided Philippine literature in English into the three periods.
A. The Early Period (1900-1930)
B. The Middle Period (1930-1960)
C. The Modern Period (1960-1975)
IV. Josephine Serrano and Trinidad Ames in A Survey of Literature in English had the following
divisions:
A. The Apprenticeship Period (1910-1935)
B. The Emergence Period (1935-1945)
C. Contemporary Period (1945-present)
V. Silverio Baltazar et.al. in Literature Past and Present (1981) described Philippine Literature
in English as
A. Period of Transition and Learning (1900-1935)
B. Period of Emergence and Recognition (1935-1960)
C. Period of Diversity and Re-examination (1960-present)
VI. Bienvenido Lumbera and Cynthia Nograles Lumbera in Philippine Literature: A History and
Anthology (1982, revised 1997) chronicled Philippine Literature in English into:
 Literature during Pre-colonial Times (___-1564)
 Literature Under Spanish Colonialism (1565-1898)
 Literature Under American Colonialism (1898-1945)
 Literature Under the Republic (1946-1985)
 Literature After EDSA (1986-1995)
53
ENGLISH: Literatura ng Pilipinas

1. Mabalangkas ang kasaysayan ng literatura ng Pilipinas.
2. Matukoy and iba’t-ibang anyo ng literatura na gawa ng mga manunulat sa
Tagalog at iba’t-ibang rehiyon
3. Magpakita ng kakayahan na magbigay kahulugan at magsuri ng mga teksto
4. Maipaliwanag at madalumat ang iba’t-ibang tema, paksa, estilo, at ang
kaugnayan nito sa iba’t-ibang panahon ng panitikan sa Pilipinas.
I. Ang Literatura sa Pilipinas

 Sumasaklaw sa pasalita o pasulat na pagpapahayag ng mga damdaming ukol sa
mga gawi at kaugaliang panlipunan, paraan ng pamumuhay, kaisipang pampulitika,
at mga kapaniwalaang panrelihiyon, ang mga adhikain, ang mga pangarap—mula
pa sa bukangliwayway ng kanilang kabihasnan hanggang sa kasalukuyan.
 Maaaring naisulat o naisalimbibig sa iba’t-ibang wikain sa Pilipinas o mga salin sa
panitikang banyaga o naisulat ng Filipino sa wikang dayuhan.
A. Dalawang Anyo ng Panitikan

1. Tuluyan—nasa anyo ng karaniwang pagpapahayag—malaya at madaloy na pagbuo ng
mga salita. Halimbawa: maikling katha, kathambuhay o nobela, dula, salaysay,
talumpati, talambuhay o biography, ulat, sanaysay, atbp.
2. Patula—mga pahayag na nagtataglay kadalasan ng sukat at tugma sa mga pantig ng
taludtod o ang mga salita at paraan ng pagbuo ng pahayag ay piling-pili, matayutay, at
masining bukod sa pagiging madamdamin. Ang sukat ay bilang ng mga pantig sa isang
taludtod samantalang ang tugma ay ang pagkakasintunugan ng mga huling pantig sa
bawat taludtod ng saknong. Mayroon ding mga tula na may sukat at walang tugma
(blank verse) at mayroon pa ring walang sukat at walang tugma (free verse).
B. Mga Uri ng Tula

1. Tulang Liriko—mahimig, may musika, at puno ng damdamin
Kantahin—binubuo ng mga payak na salita at sukat
Oda—may marangal na uri at matinding damdamin, at karaniwang isang apostrophe o
patungkol-sabi sa isang kaisipang binigyan ng personipikasyon, o pagpapahayag ng
pangmadlang damdamin sa isang mahalagang pangyayari.
Elehiya—nagpapahayag ng pagninilay sanhi ng isang pangyayari o guniguni hinggil sa
kamatayan
Soneto—may labing-apat na taludtod at may iba’t-ibang kahatian
2. Tulang Salaysay—pagsasaad ng isang pangyayari na maaaring totoo o guniguni
Epiko—mahabang salaysay tungkol sa kabayanihan ng bida, kung minsa’y hango sa
mga karaniwang pangyayari ngunit kadalasa’y ukol sa mga di karaniwang tao na may
pambihirang katangian.
54
Awit at korido—karaniwang pagsasalaysay ng kagitingan, pagkamaginoo, at
pakikipagsapalaran ng mga prinsipe’t prinsesa, ng mga kabalyerong mandirigma sa
layuning pagpapalaganap ng relihiyong Kristiano.
Karaniwang tulang salaysay—tungkol sa mga karaniwang takbo ng buhay at maaaring
mga nobelang isinasalaysay na patula lamang. Hal. “Ang Lumang Simbahan”
(Collantes), “Ang Panggigera (Santos)
3. Tulang Pandulaan—itinatanghal at ang mga tauhang gumaganap ay may kani-
kaniyang bahaging binibigkas nang patula.
Saynete—“La India Elegante y El Negrito Amante”
Melodrama—“Plaridel” (j. Sevilla), “Katipunan” (G.B. Francisco)
TOMING: Uban, kung ibig mo sana, / dinggin mo kung

mabuti na ang itatapat kong kanta / kay
Menanggeng aking sinta.
UBAN: Kanta yata sa ambahan / di ko na ibig pakinggan.
TOMING: Marikit na kantang bayan / bago kong pinag-aralan
UBAN: Baya! Kantahin mo agad, / totohanan ko ng lundag
Mahiwalay man sa kumpas /
magagamot na ng tuwad.
“La India Elegante y el Negrito Amante” – Francisco
C. AngBaltasar
Tanaga—tulang palasak nab ago pa man dumating ang mga Kastila. Binubuo ito ng
apat na taludtod na may sariling pantigan.
D. Mga Uri ng Akdang Tuluyan
1. Ang nobela o kathambuhay—nagtataglay ng maraming likaw ng mga tagpo at

sumasaklaw sa mahabang kawing ng panahon
Nobelang makabanghay—binibigyan diin ang pagkakabalangkas ng mga pangyayari
Nobela ng tauhan—mga hangarin at pangangailangan ng mga tauhan ang nangingibabaw
Nobela ng kasaysayan—nasasalig sa kasaysayan ang ibinubuhay
Nobela ng layunin—nagbibigay diin sa mga simulain at mga layuning mahahalaga sa
buhay ng tao
Nobelang masining—mahusay na pagkakatalakay at pagkakahanay ng mga pangyayari
2. Maikling Kuwento—maiksi, may sadyang pangunahing tauhan at may kaisahang kintal sa
isipan ng bumabasa
Salaysay o sketch—hindi nagmamalabis bagamat masaklawa, timbang na timbang ang
mga bahagi
Kuwento ng katutubong kulay—binibigyan diin ang tagpuan, kapaligiran ng isang pook,
pamumuhay at kaugalian ng mga tao
Kuwento ng madulang pangyayari—pangyayari ay kapansin-kapalaran ng mga tauhan
Kuwento ng pakikipagsapalarang maromansa—ang kawilihan ay nasa balangkas sa halip
na sa mga tauhan
Kuwento ng kababalaghan—mga bagay na hindi kapani-paniwala at salungat sa hustong
bait, kaisipan, at karanasan
55
Kuwento ng katatawanan—kahawig lamang ng isang salaysay kaysa isang tunay na
maikling kuwento
Kuwentong sikolohiko—ang tauhang nasa harap ng isang pangyayari o kalagayan ay
inilalarawan sa mga pag-iisip ng mga mambabasa
Kuwento ng tauhan—binibigyang diin ang tauhan o mga tauhang gumagalaw sa kuwento
Kuwento ng katatakutan—damdaming makapigil hininga ang pinupukaw sa kawilihan ng
mga mambabasa
Kuwento ng talino—ang mahusay na pagkakabuo ng balangkas ang umaakit sa kawilihan
ng mga mambabasa
3. Dula—ang kaisipan ng sumulat ay inilalagay sa bibig ng mga tauhang gumaganap sa
tanghalan o dulaan
Trahedya—nagtataglay ng mahigpit na tunggalian, ang mga tauha’y may mapupusok at
masisidhing damdamin at humahantong sa pagkapahamak at pagakasawi ng
pangunahing tauhan o ng iba pang mga tauhan
Komedya—Masaya at nagwawakas ng kasiya-siya sa mga manonood
Melodrama—may malungkot na sangkap ngunit nagwawakas na kasiya-siya at Masaya
para sa mabuting tauhan ng dula
Parsa—may layuning magpatawa sa pamamagitan ng kawili-wili na mga pangyayaring
nakakatawa at mga bukambibig at pananalitang katawa-tawa
Saynete—ang paksa ay naglalarawan ng mga karaniwang ugali
4. Alamat—kathang ang pinakadiwa ay mga bagay na makasaysayan subalit ang ibang
pangyayari’y likhang isip na lamang ng maykatha
5. Pabula—kuwento na may tauhang mga hayop at may layuning makapagbigay aral sa mga
mambabasa lalo na sa mga kabataan.
6. Sanaysay—isang anyo ng paglalahad na kinapapalooban ng pangmalas, pananaw,
pagkukuro at damdamin ng may-akda.
7. Talambuhay—kasaysayan ng buhay ng isang nilikha: (1) talambuhay na pang-iba, (2)
talambuhay na pansarili
8. Talumpati—salaysaying inihanda upang basahin o bigkasin sa harap ng mga taong
handing making
II. Bahaging Saklaw ng Panitikang Filipino
A. Panahon ng Katutubo / Bago Dumating ang Mga Kastila (mula simula hanggang 1565)
1. Panahon ng Kuwentong-Bayan
a. Kuwentong bayan (folklore)
Mito- simula ng daigdig, ng tao, ng kamatayan, diyos at diyosa
Alamat—1) etiological nagpapaliwanag kung paano pinangalanan ang mga bagay o
pook, 2) non-etiological nauukol sa mga dakilang tao at sa pagpaparusa ng
malaking kasalanan. Hal. aswang, tikbalang, engkanto
Salaysayin (folktales—Juan Tamad, Pilandok
Pabula (fables)—“Ang Pagong at ang Matsing”
“Ako’y maharlika,” ang sabi ni Somusun sa Alongan kay

Pilandok. “Ako ang anak ng Solotan sa Agama Niyog. Kung
pababayaan mong patunugin ko ang batingaw ay bibigyan kita
ng isang sakong ginto.”
“Tatanggapin ko iyan kung pababayaan mo muna akong
makaalis bago mo patunugin ang batingaw.”
56
“Sige,” sabi ni Somusun sa Alongan. Ibinigay niya kay
Pilandok ang sako ng ginto at nagtatakbo si Pilandok paalis.
“Si Pilandok at ang Batingaw”—Abdullah t.
b. Kantahing-bayan
Oyayi o holoborin—awit pampatulog ng sanggol
Diona o ihiman—awit pangkasal
Soliranin o talindaw—awit pamamangka
Kundiman—awit ng pag-ibig
Tagumpay, kumintang o tikam—awit-pandigma
c. Karunungang-bayan
Bugtong at palaisipan
Salawikain at kasabihan
Bugtong Salawikain
Langit sa itaas, Ang kalabaw na apat
Langit sa ibaba, ang paa, nadudulas pa.
Tubig sa gitna.
Ang unti-unting patak,
Bongbong kung liwanag, Sa bato nakaaagnas.
Kung gabi ay dagat.
Madali maging tao,
Itinanim ng gabi Mahirap ang magpakatao
Sa umaga inani
d. Bulong—ginagamit na pangkulam o pang-engkanto
2. Panahon ng Epiko
a. Microepic—kumpleto at maaaring matapos sa isang upuan lang
b. Macroepic—ipinakikital lamang ang partikular na bahagi, nag-iisang awit
c. Mesoepic—maraming masalimuot na insidente
d. Epiko ng mga Kristiano: Lam-ang, Ibalon, Labaw Donggon
e. Epiko ng mga di-Kristiano—Alim, Tuwaang, Darangan, Agyu, Sandayo, Bantugan
Lahat sila ay tinungo ang kanilang vinta at naglayag

At nagmaamdali patungo sa Bayang-Nakapagitna-Sa-
Dalawang Karagatan.
Samantala, ang pinakamamahal na mga kaibigan ni Prinsipe
Bantugan,
Sina Mabaning at Madali, ay bumuo ng isang mapangahas na
balak
Na sakyan ang kanilang mahiwagang kalasag patungo sa
langit
At hingin sa anghel ng mga patay na ibalik sa kanila
B. Panahon ng Kastila / Pagpasok ng Kristyanismo (1565-1872)
1. Panahon ng Panitikang Pansimbahan
a. Dalit—iba’t-ibang santo’t santa ang pinagdadalitan
b. Nobena—katipunan ng mga panalangin na kailangans ganapin sa loob ng 9 na araw
57
c. Buhay ng mga santo’t-santa
d. Akdang pangmagandang-asal
Ang pagsasalita ay sasayahan, ilagay sa ugali, itunton
sa guhit, huwag hahaluan ng kahambugan at baka mapara
doon sa isang nagsasalitang hambog, na isinagot ng kausap:
Fuu, Fuu, na ang kahulugan ay: habagat, habagat. Huwag
magpalampas ng sabi at baka maparis doon sa isang palalo na
sinagot ng kaharap: hintay ka muna amigo’t kukuha ako ng
gunting at gugupitin ko ang labis.
“Urbana at Feliza”- P. Modesto de
2. Panahon ng Awit at Korido
a. Awit at korido
Awit—binubo ng 12 pantig sa loob ng isang taludtod, apat na taludtod sa isang
taludturan. Ang musika’y madalang o andante. Ang paksa ay tungkol sa bayani at
mandirigma at larawan ng buhay.
Korido—ang sukat ay walong pantig sa loob ng taludtod. Ang musika ay mabilis o
allegro. Ang paksa’y pananampalataya, alamat o kababalaghan.
Pasyon—Gaspar Aquino de Belen, Don Luis Guian, Padre Mariano Pilapil, Padre Aniceto
de la Merced
b. Tulang pang-aliw
“Arte Poetico Tagalo”
c. Tuluyang pang-aliw
Barlaan at Josaphat
Mga Buhok na Nangungusap
Tandang Basio Macunat
d. Dulang pang-aliw
Duplo—tagisan ng talino ng dalawang pangkat sa pamamagitan ng pagtula at ang mga
kaisipang taglay ng berso ay kadalasang buhat sa mga awit, korido, salawikain, at
kasabihan.
Karagatan—mimetikong laro batay sa alamat ng bisang prinsesang sa hangad na
makaisang dibdib ang binatang mahirap na kanyang iniibig ay inihulos sa dagat ang
kanyang singsing upang sisirin ng lahat ng kanyang manliligaw
Pangangaluluwa—
Tibag—paghahanap at paghukay sa krus na pinagpakuan kay Kristo
Santacruzan—marangyang parada ng mga sagala na kumakatawan sa iba’t ibang
tauhan sa Bibliya
Moro-moro o komedya—paglalaban ng mga Kristiyano at mga Muslim
Karilyo—binubuo ng mga papet na nilikha buhat sa ginupit na mga karton at
pinagagalaw sa harap ng putting tabing kung saan makikita ang mga anino ng papet
bunga ng ilawan sa likod ng talon
Senakulo—pagsasadula ng buhay at kamatayan ni Hesus
Panunuluyan—ang paghahanap ng matutuluyan nina Maria at Jose
Salubong—pagsalubong ni Maria at ng muling nabuhay na si Hesus
Sarswela—dulang musikal, binubuo ng pagsasalaysay na sinaniban ng mga sayaw at
tugtugin at may paksang mitolohikal at kabayanihan
58
C. Panahon ng Pagkamulat / Panahon ng Pagbabagong-isip (1872-1896)

 Mga Manunulat
1. Hermenegildo Flores—“Hibik ng Pilipinas sa Inang Espanya”
2. Marcelo H. del Pilar—“Dasalan at Tocsohan,” “Caiingat Cayo,” “Sagot ng Espanya sa
Hibik ng Pilipinas,” ‘Ang Cadakilaan ng Diyos”
3. Jose Rizal—“Sa Aking mga Kabata,” “Liham sa mga Babaeng Taga-Malolos,” “Junto al
Pasig,” Noli Me Tangere at El Filibusterismo
4. Graciano Lopez Jaena0- “Fray Botod”
5. Antonio Luna—“Por Madrid,” “Impresiones,” “La Tertulia Filipina”
6. Pedro Paterno—Ninay, Sampaguitas y Poesias Varias
Aba Guinoong Baria nakapupuno ka ng alcancia, ang Fraile

ang sumasaiyo bukod ka niyang pinagpala’t pinahiguit sa lahat,
pinagpala naman ang kaban mong mapasok. Santa Baria Ina ng
Deretsos, ipanalangin mo kaming huag anitan ngayon at cami
ipapatay. Siya naua.
“Ang Aba Guinoong Baria”- Marcelo H.
Del Pilar
D. Panahon ng Himagsikan (1896-1900)
 Mga Manunulat
1. Andres Bonifacio—“Katapusang Hibik ng Pilipinas,” “Pag-ibig sa Tinubuang Lupa”
Kayong mga dukhang walang tanging nais

Kundi ang mabuhay sa dalita’t hirap
Ampunin ang bayan kung nasa ay lunas
Pagkat ang guinhawa niya ay sa lahat.
Ipahandog-handog ang buong pag-ibig

Hanggang sa may dugo’y ubusing itiguis
Kung sa pagtatanggol buhay ay kapalit
Ito’y kapalaran at tunay na langit.
“Pag-ibig sa Tinubuang Lupa” –Andres

Bonifacio
2. Emilio Jacinto—“Kartilla ng Katipunan,” “Liwanag at Dilim”

3. Pio Valenzuela—“Catwiran”
4. Apolinario Mabini— “El Verdadero Decalogo”
5. Jose Palma—“Himno Nacional Filipino”
E. Panahon ng mga Amerikano (1900-1942)

1. Panahon ng Paghahangad ng Kalayaan
 Ginamit ang mga dula upang ipahayag ang paghihimagsik
 Ipinatupad ang ilang batas upang supilin ang mga mamamayan: Sedition Law, Anti-
Flag Law, Brigandage Act, Reconcentration Act
 Ginamit ang wikang Ingles sa mga paaralang pampubliko.
59
 Mabisang kasangkapan ng Amerikano ang pagpapalaganap ng romantisismo sa
kanilang lahatan at mabilisang pagbabago sa katutubong kamalayang Filipino.
2. Panahon ng Aklatang-Bayan (1900-1921)
a. Maiklling Katha
 Pasingaw—kadalasang tungkol sa mga dalagang hinahangaan, nililigawan,
sinasamba nang lihim o pinaparunggitan sa dahilang nais tawagin ang pansin ang
kapintasan sa pag-uugali o hitsura.
 Dagli—maikling salaysay na nangangaral, namumuna, nagpapasaring at
nanunuligsa
 Maikling kasaysayang pampatawa—pinamahalaan ni Patricio Mariano sa Muling
Pagsilang
b. Tula at Mga Makata
 Jose Corazon de Jesus—Huseng Batute, ang Makata ng Puso, “Isang Punongkahoy”
Kung tumingala ka sa gabing

payapa
at sa langit nama’y may ulilang tala,
na sinasabugan ikaw sa bintana
ng kanyang malungkot na sinag ng luha,
Iya’y ako, Mutya!
Kung ikaw’y magising sa dapit-

umaga
isang paru-paro ang iyong makita
nasa masetas mong didiligin sana
ang pakpak ay wasak at nanlalamig na;
Iya’y ako, Sinta!
“Kahit Saan”- Jose Corazon de

 Lope K. Santos—Makata
Jesus ng Buhay, manunulat, gobernador, senador, guro, “Mga
Hamak na Dakila,” “Puso at Diwa”
 Benigno Ramos--- ang “Bahag ng Diyos”
 Pedro Gatmaitan—pinaksa ang lipunang feudal, “Salamisim”
 Inigo Ed Regalado—“Ang Pinagbangunan”
 Florentino Collantes— “Ang Lumang Simbahan”
 Julian Cruz Balmaceda—“Kung Mamili ang Dalaga”
 Valeriano Hernandez Pena—“Luha ng Panulat”
c. Nobela o Kathambuhay
 Banaag at Sikat ni Lope K. Santos
 Pinaglahuan ni Faustino Aguilar
 Pinuno ng Tulisan ni Patricio Mariano
 Bulaklak ng Kalumpang ni Roman Reyes
 Madaling –Araw ni Inigo Ed Regalado
d. Dula at Dulaan
 Severino Reyes—“Mga Kuwento ni Lola Basyang,” ‘Walang Sugat,” Gran
Companada de Zarsuela Tagala
60
RELIGIOSO 1: Ah, si Capitang Luis. Ito tagaroon sa amin.

Masamang tao ito.
MARCELO: Mason po yata among.
RELIGIOSO 1: Kun hindi man mason, marahil filibustero,
sapagka’t kun siya sumulat maraming K, kabayo ka.
MARCELO: Hindi po ako kabayo Among.
RELIGIOSO 1: Hindi ko sinasabi kabayo ikaw, hindi kun isulat
niya an kabayo may K, an lahat nan C pinalitan nan K.
Masama tao iyan, mabuti mamatay siya.
RELIGIOSO 2: Marcelo, si Capitan Piton si Capitan Miguel at an
Juez de Paz, ay daratdagan nan racion.
MARCELO: Hindi sila makakain en.
RELIGIOSO 2: Hindi na racion and sinasabi ko sa iyo na
dagdagan ay an pagkain,
Hindi ano sa akin kundi sila kumain. Mabuti nga
mamatay silan lahat. An racion na sinasabi ko sa inyo
ay an palo, maramin palo na kailangan.
“Walang Sugat”- Severino
Reyes
 Hermogenes Ilagan—“Dalagang Bukid,” Ilagan Films
 Pascual H. Poblete—“Amor Patria”
 Juan K. Abad—“Tanikalang Ginto”
 Jose Ma. Rivera—“Ang Mga Kamag-anak”
 Juan Crisostomo Sotto—“Ang Kasalanan ng Patay”
 Juan Matapang Cruz—“Hindi Ako Patay”
 Aurelio Tolentino—“Kahapon, Ngayon, at Bukas”
 Balagtasan
 Balagtasan-balitaw—dulang Cebuano, pinaghalong duplo at balitaw
 Batutian—mimetiko at satirikong pagtatalong patula
 Bukanegan—balagtasan ng mga Ilocano
 Crissotan—balagtasan ng mga Kapampangan
3. Panahon ng Ilaw at Panitik (1922-1934)

 Nagsimula sa paglitaw ng magasing Liwayway
 Panahon ng pagpapalaganap o popularisasyon
 Sa pamamagitan ng “Parolang Ginto” ni Clodualdo de Mundo, pinipili ang
pinakamagagaling na katha ng mga buwan at taon
 “Talaang Bughaw” naman ang buwanan at taunang pamimili ni Alejandro G.
Abadilla ng pinakamahuhusay na tula at katha.
 Kinilalang “Makata ng Manggagawa” si Amado V. Hernandez
 Hinangaan anbg karikyan ng pananalitang ginagamit at katayugan ng diwang
ipinapahayag ni Ildefonso Santos
Nangagtigil
ang gawain
sa bukirin
61
napahinga
ang makina
sa pabrika.
4. Panahon ng Malasariling Pamahalaan (1935-1942)

a. Pagsilang ng Panitikan, isang kapisanang itinuturing na siyang Sakdakista at
aristokrata ng panulaang Filipino.
b. Sinunog ng mga kasapi ng Panitikan ang mga akdang itinuturing nilang basura na.
c. Ganap nang nababakas ang tinatawag na katimpian sa larangan ng paglalarawan at sa
pagpapahayag ng nadarama
d. Nagsimulang gumamit ng unang panauhan sa mga kuwento
e. Pagtalakay at paghahambing sa buhay-lunsod at buhay sa nayon.
f. Pinagbagong-bihis ni AGA ang tula sa paggamit nga malayang taludturan at
modernong tema.
g. Nanlupaypay and dula dahil nauso ang bodabil sa stage shows at dumating ang mga
pelikulang galing sa Amerika.
h. Mula sa “gintong panahon ng nobela” sa nakaraang panahon, nanlupaypay din ang
nobela.
F. Panahon ng Hapones (1942-1945)

a. Itinuturing itong “gintong panahon” ng maikling kuwento at ng dulang tagalog.
b. Ipinagbawal ang Ingles kayat nagtamasa ang mga vernacular na wika.
c. Nabigyang-sigla ang Pambansang Wika dahil sa pagtataguyod ng mga mananakop
d. Karaniwang damdaming makabayan ang mga naisulat ngunit ang mga manunulat
ay ingat na ingat na hindi ito mahalata.
e. Nabigyan ng diin ang katutubong kulay, ang pananalat at kadahupan ng pang-araw-
araw na buhay.
f. Isinaaklat ang mga itinuturing na pinakamahusay na Kathang Filipino noong 1943
—“25 Pinakamabubuting Kathang Pilipino ng 1943”
g. Namalasak ang haiku. Binuhay naman ni Ildefonso Santos ang tulang tanaga
h. Naisulat ang mahuhusay na kuwentong “Lupang Tinubuan” ni Narciso Reyes, “Uhaw
ang Tigang na Lupa” ni Liwayway Arceo, at “Dugo at Utak” ni Cornelio S. Reyes
G. Panahon ng Republika (1946-1972)
62
a. Lumabas ang dalawang uri ng maikling katha—(1) and komersiyal, at (2) ang
pampanitikan.
b. Sinimulan ang taunang timpalak sa Tagalog at Ingles ng Carlos Palanca Memorial
Awards noong 1950.
c. Binigyang puwang ng maraming magasing komersiyal ang mga bagong manunulat
ng maikling kuwento.
d. Nagkaroon ng maraming paksain ang mga manunulat: ang mga G.I. at ang mga
babaeng hanggang piyer lamang, mga suliraning panlipunan, buhay-buhay sa mga
barong-barong, sa mga estero, sa Tundo at sa Sapang-Palay.
e. Nagkaroon ng tatak ng makabagong panahon ang mga akda:
Kalamnan o paksang-diwa Pamamaran, porma o estilo
Paglalarawang-tauhan Pananalita o lenggwahe
f. Ilan sa mga pagbabago sa pamamaraan at porma sa balangkas ng kuwento:
o Uring may balangkas o bahagyang balangkas, ngunit ang tunay na dula ay
wala sa mga pangyayaring nababasa kundi nasa paglalaro ng damdamin
o Uring walang balangkas at tila sinasadyang guluhin ang pagsasalaysay
o Uring ginagamitan ng daloy ng kamalayan (stream of consciousness)
o Uring pinuputol and maikling kuwento pagkatapos na maihatid ang mga
tauhan ss bungad ng pinaksukdol na pangyayari.
o Uring ang maikling kuwento ay binubuo ng pansariling ulat ng bawat tauhan
o pangyayari
g. Nagkaroon ng mga pandulaang grupo:
Children’s Museum and Library, Inc.
Philippine Educational Theater Association (PETA)
U.P. Mobile Theater Arena
Theater ni Severino Montano
h. Nagkaroon din ng dalawang uri ng dula: (1) ang dulang romantiko, (2) dulang
mapanghimagsik.
i. Ang mga mandudula ay gumamit ng iba’t ibang pamamaraan ng Realismong
Panlipunan at Sikolohikal, ng Ekspresyonismo, at Absurdismo.
“Ang Paglilitis kay Mang Serapio” ni Paul Dumol
“Moses, Moses” ni Rogelio Sikat
H. Panahon ng Bagong Lipunan / Panahon ng Batas Militar (1972-1986)

Kathang naisulat sa panahong ito.
Buti pa sila at nakukunang ngumisngis. Ako kaya, kangino

puwedeng magreklamo? Sulatan ko kaya si Valencia? Baka
naman sagutin ako nito ng “Uminom ka na lang ng kape.” Si
Marcos kaya? Santambak ang problema nito sa buhay, biro mong
problemahin nito pati kapalaran ng Pilipinas, tapos ipasasagot pa
ito sa kanya sa kasaysayan balang araw, paano ako nito
mapapansin? Magreport kaya ako kay Carter, issue rin ito ng mga
sinasadistang estudyante, pero mahirap namang umingles. Baka
interesado lang ito sa giyera na naluluma na.
“Utos ng Hari” – Jun Cruz
Reyes 63
I. Panahon ng Ikaapat na Republika / Panahon Matapos and EDSA (1986-hanggang sa
kasalukuyan)
Eksibit Blg. 1: Patalim, baril

o kahit na anong sandata,
patunay ng pagbabanta.
Eksibit Blg. 2: Panty na may mantsa,

patunay ng kabirhenan ng dalaga.
Eksibit Blg. 3: Sertipikasyon ng doktor,

patunay na—
a: sapilitan
b: lubusan
ang pagpasok ng ari,
“Gahasa” – Joi Barrios
ENGLISH: World Literature

1. Show knowledge of the different genres of literature and the elements and
conventions characteristics of each genre.
2. Apply interpretive and analytical skills in reading selected works in world
literature .
3. Display knowledge and understanding of figures of speech and figurative
language.
4. Point out the literary techniques and devices employed by the authors.
5. Identify the theme/s and/or universal insights conveyed by different literary
works in world literature.
6. Define some literary concepts evident in particular texts (e.g. in medias res,
arche type, tragic flaw, etc.)
A. Sumerian, Egyptian, and Hebrew Literature (3000 B.C.-100 B.C.)
1. Gilgamesh. The epic poen Gilgamesh is the first great heroic narrative of the world
literature. It origins date back to the margins of prehistory, and its evolution spans
millennia. Tablets containing portions of Gilgamesh have been found at sites throughout
the Middle East and in all the languages written in cuneiform characters, wedge-shaped
characters incised in clay stone. The epic developed over a period of nearly a thousand
years. The version discovered in the city of Nineveh amid the ruins of the great library of
Assurbanipal, the last king of the Assyrian Empire – what modern scholars call the
Standard Version—circulated widely throughout the ancient Middle East for a millennium
or more.
64
The epic narrates the legendary deeds of Gilgamesh, the king of Uruk, but it begins
with a prologue that emphasizes not his adventures but the wisdom he acquired and the
monuments he constructed at the end of his epic journey. It also tells us that Gilgamesh
was endowed by his divine creators with extraordinary strength, courage, and beauty. He
is more god than man—2/3 god and 1/3 human.
Gilgamesh is an epitome of a bad ruler: arrogant, oppressive, and brutal. The
people of Uruk complain of his oppression to the Sumerian gods, and the gods’ response is
to create Enkidu as a foil to Gilgamesh. The goddess Aruru creates Enkidu to contend with
Gilgamesh and absorb his energies. Gilgamesh and Enkidu fight savagely and for a long
time, but no one emerges as the winner for both are strong and a match for each other.
Later Enkidu becomes a faithful friend of Gilgamesh. Together they set off to destroy
Humbaba, the giant who guards the cedar forest. Both of them also kill the bull Ishtar
sends to punish Gilgamesh for rejecting her advances. Enkidu is destined to die for helping
to kill the bull and Humbaba. When he dies, Gilgamesh is so grief stricken that he embarks
on a quest not for glory but for everlasting life. The death of Enkidu reveals to Gilgamesh
the hollowness of mortal fame, and this leads him to undertake a solitary journey in search
for immortality. He travels far and wide in search of the plant of immortality. When he
finally gets it, he loses it to a snake which ate it while Gilgamesh sleeps.
From the Prologue
I will proclaim to the world the deeds of Gilgamesh. This was the
man whom all things were known; this was the king who knew the
countries of the world. He was wise, he saw mysteries and knew
secret things, he brought us a tale of the days before the flood. He
went on a long journey, was weary, worn-out, returning he rested,
he engraved on a stone the whole story.
When the gods created Gilgamesh they gave him a perfect body.
Shamash the glorious sun endowed hin with beauty, Adad the god
of the storm endowed him with courage, the great gods made his
beauty perfect, surpassing all others, terrifying like a great wild
bull. Two-thirds they made him god and one-third man.
2. Ancient Egyptian Poetry. The literature of ancient Egypt has survived only in scattered
fragments, and because of the difficulty of the Egyptian language and writing system (a
complex system of stylized pictographs called hieroglyphics), it is far less well known than
either the art of the architecture.
The ancient Egyptians possessed a poetry that was rich and varied in both its
subjects and its forms. The largest and earliest group of poems comes from the pyramids
that were constructed in the period of the Old Knigdom (ca. 2575-2130 B.C.). They include
narratives, incantations, and invocations designed to help the pharoah’s soul on its
journey to the other world. There were also lyrics and devotional poems that were
composed during the millennium that includes all the dynasties of the Middle and New
Kingdoms (ca. 2130-1200 B.C.).
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The flowering of ancient Egyptian culture came between 1570-1085 B.C., the time
of the New Kingdom in Egypt. One type of poetry that emerged in the New Kingdom is the
pastoral poem which deals with the pleasures of simple rural life or that treats the
longings and desires or simple people. The word pastoral comes from the Latin word for
shepherd—pastor—but pastoral poetry is not merely about shepherds.
Sample of Egyptian poetry (excerpt only)
When in splendour you first took your throne

high in the precinct of heaven, O living God, life truly began!
Now from easter horizon risen and streaming,
you have flooded the world with your beauty.
You are majestic, awesome, bedazzling, exalted,
Overlord over all earth,
yet your rays, they touch lightly, compass the lands
to the limits of all your creation.
There in the Sun, you reach to the farthest of those
you would gather in for your Son, *whom you love;
Though you are far, your light is wide upon the earth;
and you shine in the faces of all who turn to follow your
journeying.
*Pharoah Akhenaten
Translated by John L.
Foster
What inferences do you make about the speaker? How does the speaker portray God (line 3), the
father of Pharoah Akhenaten? What lines or words would support your answer? What figure of
speech is used in ‘you have flooded the world with your beauty? What does it mean?
Below is an excerpt from an Egyptian love poem.
[Love of you is mixed deep in my vitals]
Love of you is mixed deep in my vitals, like water stirred into flour for
bread,
Like simple compound in a sweet-tasting drug, like pastry and honey mixed
in perfection.
Oh, hurry to look at your love! Be like horses charging in battle,
Like a gardener up with the sun burning to watch his prize bud open.
High heaven causes a girl’s lovelonging. It is like being too far from the
light,
Point out the lines that show the use of simile and metaphor. What do they mean? Why are they
used by the speaker?
3. The Bible: The Old Testament. The religious attitudes of the Hebrews appear in the
story that they told of the creation of the world and humankind. The most important
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example of Hebrew literature is the Jewish Bible called by Christians as the Old Testament
in contrast to the New Testament).
The word Bible came from the Greek word biblia, meaning a collection of writings.
Despite the diversity of the Bible, it is unified by a few constant themes. Among these are
power, goodness, and mercy of one God; the covenant, or solemn agreement, into which
God enters with the Hebrew people; the tendency of humans to commit sins; and the
forgiveness they win from God. The Bible has also been of major importance for Muslims
and Christians. One famous translation of the Bible was the English version done by a
committee of scholars of King James (1611).
From Genesis 1 (King James Version)
In the beginning God created the heaven abd the earth. And the earth was
without form, and void; and darkness was upon the face of the deep. And
the spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters. And God said, Let
there be light: and there was light. And God saw the light, that it was good:
and God divided the light from darkness. And God called the light Day, and
the darkness he called Night. And the evening and the morning were the
first day. And God said let there be a firmament in the midst of the waters,
and let it divide waters from the waters. And God made the firmament, and
divided the waters which were under the firmament from the waters which
were above the firmament: and it was so. And God called the firmament
Heaven. And the evening and the morning were the second day…
4. The Bible: The New Testament. The collection known to Christians as the New
Testament was formed by combining the four gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John
with another book by Luke. The Acts of the Apostles, which is an account of Paul’s
missionary journeys to the cities of Greece and Asia Minor. The Gospel of John draws on
different sources and also has greater theological density than the other three.
From Luke 15
Then drew near unto him all the publicans and sinners for to hear him.
And the Pharisees and the scribes murmured, saying, This man receiveth
sinners, and eateth with them.
And he spoke this parable unto them saying, What man of you, having a
hundred sheep, if he lose one of them, doth have to leave the ninety and nine
in the wilderness, and go after that which is lost, until he find it? And when he
hath found it, he layeth it on his shoulders, rejoicing. And when he cometh
home, he calleth together his friends and neighbours, saying unto them,
Rejoice with me; for I have found my sheep which was lost. I say unto you that
likewise joy shall be in heaven over one sinner that repenteth, more than over
ninety and nine just persons, which need no repentance.
B. Persian and Arabic Literature (c.a. A.D. 600 – A.D. 1400)
Arabic Literature
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By the time of Muhammad’s birth, the Arabs alreadr possessed a large body of poetry. For
centuries, poets from all over Arabia had gathered to recite odes (qasidas) praising their own
tribe or making fun of others. Even after the rise of Islam, Arabs continued to appreciate poetry.
Arabic prose also began to develop, although the earliest works were religious in nature and
dealt, directly or indirectly, with the text of Koran. Islamic Arabs also enjoyed listening to fables
and folktales. The Thousand and One Nights (also known as The Arabian Nights) is by far the
most famous. This collection of stories puts together tales into one long narrative. One of the
simplest and oldest tales in the The Thousand and One Nights is “The Fisherman and the Jinnee.”
From the Koran
1) God changes not what is in a people,

until they change what is in
themselves.
2) When the help of God arrives and

victory,
Then recite the praises for you
Lord and seek forgiveness of Him.
Indeed, he is relenting.
Persian Literature
The form of literature for which Persia is best known is poetry. In the 9 th and 10th centuries,
several poets attempted to write epic poems describing Persian history. The most famous of
these poems is The Shah-nama, or “Epic of Kings,” by Firdawsi. This epic is still considered a
national treasure in Iran. The Shah-nama is presented as a history of Persia form the beginning
of the world until the conquest of Iran by the Arabs. The most important hero is the warrior
Rustam.
From Firdawsi’s The Shah-nama
‘From sunrise till the shadows grew they

strove
Until Suhrab, that maddened elephant,
Reached out, upleaping with a lion’s
spring…’
Another Persian poet is Omar Khayyam, who is also a mathematician and a scientist. He is
probably the best known. He is probably the best known Islamic poet in the West. A collection of
poetry called The Rubaiyat is attributed to him. His poems are written in a literary form known as
the rubai. This form takes its name from the Arabic word for ‘four,’ because each poem consists
of four lines, the first, second, and fourth of which rhyme with one another. The poet must use
concise and vivid imagery to convey his message to the reader through the use of elaborate
metaphor.
From The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam XXVIII

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‘With them the seed of Wisdom did I sow,
And with mine own hand wrought to make it
grow;
C. Indian Literature (c. 1400 B.C. – c. A.D. 500)

Ancient Indians had no literary genres like the novel or the short story. Except for
poetry and drama, most Sanskrit texts imitated the Rig-veda in attempting to convey
general and timeless truths.
Hinduism, an Indian religion, claims the Vedas as the source of all truth and the
basis of its religious beliefs. The earliest and most influential of these sacred texts is the
Rig-veda. Compiled around 1400 B.C., the Rig-veda is a collection of 1,028 hymns
composed by different authors at different times. It also contains poems like the “Creation
Hymn” which speculates about the origin and nature of the universe.
From the “Creation Hymn” of the Rig-veda.
1 There was neither non-existence nor existence then;

there was neither the realm of space nor the sky which
is beyond. What stirred? Where? In whose protection?
Was there water, bottomlessly deep?
2 There was neither death nor immortality then. There
was no distinguishing sign of night and day. That one
breathed, windless, by its own impuls. Other than that
there was nothing beyond.
The Mahabharata is the world’s longest epic. The myths and tales in this epic are woven
into the fabric of its main story: the account of a fight over the rights to a kingdom. Two
branches of a family, the Pandavas and the Kauravas, are involved in this dispute. When the five
Pandava brothers are banished or exiled to the forest, they meet various characters who tell
them instructive and entertaining stories. One such story is “Sibi” about how righteous behaviour
is rewarded.
The Panchatantra (The Five Books or The Five Strategies) attributed to Visnusarman, is
the best known collection of folktales and animal fables in Indian literature. It aimed to teach the
young princes of India in the ancient times about political matters and interpersonal relationships
in general.
Each of the five books of the Panchatantra begins with a frame story, whose characters tell each
other stories illustrating the conduct appropriate to diverse social and political situations. The
characters within the illustrative tales tell each other stories as well and so on, until the nested
tales eventually lead back to the frame of the story.
From the Panchatantra – Book V

III – Considered Action
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Let the well-advised be done;
Ill-advised leave unbegun;
Else, remorse will be let loose,
Sakuntala by Kalidasa is the most beloved of Indian plays. Rooted in the values of India’s
classical civilization, and at the same time articulating a profoundly human vision, the play about
lovers parted and reunited transcends cultural particularities. The plot, adapted from an older
epic tale, is simplicity itself.
On seeing the lovely maiden Sakuntala in the enchanting setting of the woodland
hermitage presided over by the sage Kanva, Dushyanta inevitably falls in love with her. The
young woman returns his passion. Circumstances cause the lovers to part. A sage’s curse and
the loss of the king’s signet ring result in the king’s forgetting of his liaision with Sakuntala, and
plunge her into further suffering, far away from her lover. Thre recovery of the ring jogs the
Dushyanta’s memory, and now it is his turn to suffer, not knowing where to find Sakuntala. With
the intervention of the sages and gods, the two lovers are reunited together with their young
son.
D. Chinese Literature (1000 B.C. – A.D. 1890)

In contrast to other ancient literary cultures, which begin with epics, prose legends
or hymns to the gods, the Chinese tradition begins with lyric poetry. The Classic Poetry
(also known as the Book of Songs) is a collection of 305 songs representing the heritage
of the Chou people. The earliest in the collection are believed to dat from around 1000
B.C. and the latest from around 600 B.C., at which time it seems to have reached
something like its present form.
70
There are temple hymns to the ancestors of the Chou ruling house, narrative
ballads on the foundation and history of the dynasty, royal laments, songs of soldiers
glorifying war and deploring war, love songs, marriage songs, hunting songs, songs of
women whose husbands had deserted them, banquet songs, poems of mourning, and
others. Many seem to have originated as folk songs, but these are mixed together with
poems from the Chou aristocracy.
However, simpe as the poems of the Book of Songs may appear on the surface,
they embody the central values (if not the realities) or early Chinese civilization. Again and
again the poems return to a fascination with timely action, to the need to speak out, to
balances and exchanges, and to acts of explanation.
For example, a young woman tosses a man a piece of fruit as a love gift, and the
young man answers with an exchange:
#64 She cast a quince to me, She cast a peach to me,

a costly garnet I returned; costly opal I returned;
it was no equal return, it was no equal return,
but by this love will last. but by this love will last.
The exchange is economically unequal, a jewel returned for fruit. But the young
man acts at once to restore the exchange to balance, explaining that the jewel was not given as
an object of value, but as a token and message, just as the fruit she threw had been a message.
From the Book of Songs #20
Plums are falling, Plums are falling, Plums are falling,

seven are the fruits; three are the fruits, catch them in the
basket;
many men want me, many men want me, many men want me,
let me have a fine one. let me have a steady one. let me
be bride of one.
What do the plums represent in the poem? What does each of the last line mean? What does
each imply?
Along with poetry, the most highly valued Chinese literary works are philosophical texts.
Of these books, the most notable are The Analects of Confucius and the Tao Te Ching of Lao Tzu
—the principal works of Confucianism and Taoism, respectively.
The Analects represents the memory of Confucius’ teachings and was probably not
written down until many centuries after his death. In its present form the Analects consists of
twenty “books” or chapters. It is a collection of terse and sometimes apparently innocuous
sayings as well as a few longer anecdotes. Throughout the Analects the reader is reminded that
wisdom comes in fragments and fractions; the burden of understanding is placed on the reader.
At the heart of the Analects is the hope that the members of society behave with a natural
decency toward one another, respecting age and hierarchy and adapting to their changing roles.
From The Analects of Confucius

The Master said, “At fifteen I set my heart on learning; at thirty I took
my stand; at forty I came to be free from doubts; at fifty I understood the
decree of heaven; at sixty my ear was atuned; at seventy I followed my
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heart’s desire without overstepping the line.” (from Book II)
The Master said, “It is these things that cause me concern: failure to
cultivate virtue, failure to go more deeply into what I have learned, inability,
when I am told what is right, to move where it is, and inability to reform
What values or virtues are emphasized in the two teachings from the Analects?
The Tao Te Ching is widely regarded to be the most influential Taoist text. The title
means “The Classic of the Way and Its Power of Virtue.” It is a foundational scripture of
central importance in Taoism purportedly written by Laozi. The earliest text of the Tao Te Ching
that has been excavated (written on bamboo tablets) dates back to the late 4 th century B.C. It
has been used as a ritual text throughout the history of the religious Taoism.
The Tao Te Ching is not thematically ordered. However, the main themes of the text are
repeatedly expressed using variant formulations, often with only a slight difference. The leading
themes revolve around the nature of Tao and how to attain it. Tao is said to be unnameable and
accomplishing great things through small means.
From the Tao Te Ching IX

‘Rather than fill it to the brim by keeping it
upright
Better to have stopped in time;
Hammer it to a point
And the sharpness cannot be preserved
forever;
There may be gold and jade to fill a hall
But there is none who keep them.
To be overbearing when one has wealth and
position
Is to bring calamity upon oneself.
To retire when the task is accomplished
What virtue or value is emphasized in this
Is the way to Taoist
heaven.’teaching? What metaphor is used in this text?
E. Japanese Literature (500 B.C. – A.D. 1890)

Poetry is one of the oldest and most popular means of expression and
communication in the Japanese culture. Poetry has already existed for centuries as part of
the oral tradition of the Japanese. The first anthology of Japanese potry is the Manyoshu,
or the “Book of Ten Thousand Leaves.” This anthology, containing four thousand poems,
includes the works by poets from a wide range of social classes, including the peasantry,
the clergy, and the ruling class.
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The poems of the The Manyoshu were recorder using Chinese characters in three
different ways: for meaning, for sound when read in Chinese, and for sound when read in
Japanese. The anonymous poems in the collection, nearly two thousand, far outnumber
those by any of the known poets. The collection includes poems that tell life in the
wilderness, poems by fishermen, farewell poems, even poems by travellers to Korea.
From the Manyoshu
I Loved Her Like the Leaves

Kakinomoto Hitomaro
‘I loved her like the leaves, The laws of this world.

The lush leaves of spring To the wide fields where the
heat haze
That weighed the branches of the shimmers,
willows Hidden in a white cloud,
Standing on the jutting bank White as white mulberry scarf,
Where we two walked together She soared like the morning
bird
While she was of this world. Hidden from out world like the
setting
My life was built on her; sun…
The above poem is an example of a choka, a poem that consists of alternate lines of five
and seven syllables with an additional seven-syllable line at the end. Unlike other Japanese verse
forms, there is no limit to the number of lines in a choka.
Another Japanese poetic form is the tanka which consists of five lines of five, seven, five,
seven, seven syllables. This poetic form shows the Japanese preference for simplicity,
suggestion, and irregularity. The most common subjects of a tanka are love and nature. Tanka
poets generally exhibit restraint, relying on clear, powerful imagery to evoke an emotional
response rather than using abstract words to directly express their feelings. The Japanese place
more emphasis on the imagery used and the emotions evoked by a tanka than they do on the
structure of the poems.
Here is an example of a tanka:
‘At the great sky

I gaze all my life:
For rushing wind,
Though it howls as it
goes,
Can never be seen.’
-O. Mitsune
Still another Japanese poetic form is the haiku, which consists of three lines of five, seven,
and five syllables. Originally, it is the opening verse (the hokku) of a renga, a form of
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collaborative poetry, but later the haiku developed into a distinct literary form. Reflecting the
dominant tastes of the Japanese culture, haiku are characterized by precision, simplicity, and
suggestiveness. Almost all haiku contains a kigo, a seasonal word, such as cherry blossoms,
snow, falling leaves.
Here are two examples of the haiku:
‘Melting snow: An old

pond:
And on the village a frog jumps in—
Fall the children.’ the sound of
water.
Appearing in the early part of the 8th century, the first works of Japanese prose, the Kojiki,
or “Record of Ancient Matters,” and Nihon Shoki, or “Chronicles of Japan,” focused on Japanese
history. Before Lady Murasaki Shikibu’s Tale of Genji appeared, there was The Tale of the
Heike written by an unknown author during the 13 th century. Another important work of prose
produced during the age of feudalism is Essays in Idleness, a loosely organized collection of
insights, reflections, and observations, written during the 14 th century by a Buddhist priest
named Kenko.
From Essays in Idleness by Kenko
“How delightful it would be to converse intimately with someone

of the same mind, sharing with him the pleasure of uninhibited
conversation on the amusing and foolish things of this world, but
such friends are hard to find.”
The Nō, the classical theatre of Japan, is the world’s extant professional theatre. It is also
among the world’s gravest and most stylized. The word nō may be translated as “talent,” “skill,”
or “accomplishment.” Performed on an austere, undecorated stage of polished cypress, with no
scenery and virtually no props, the ritual-like poetic dance-dramas of the Nō have been described
as theatre free of the artifice of stagecraft. The small cast of actors, all males, wearing masks is
accompanied by a chorus, and because the stage is bare with no trappings of representational
theatre, the actor’s own talent or accomplishment (that is his nō) became paramount.
Two other forms of drama emerged later: the Joruri (now called Bunraku) and the
Kabuki. Joruri is staged using puppets. Kabuki involves lively, melodramatic acting and is
staged using elaborate and colourful costumes and sets.
F. Greek Literature (c. 800 B.C. -323 B.C.) and Roman Literature (c. 300 B.C. – A.D.
500)
The stories told in the Homeric poems are set in the age of the Trojan War, which
archaeologists date back to the 12th century B.C. the poems preserve some of the faded
memories of the Mycenean Age. This was the time of the final statement of the Greek
peoples, an age of invasion perhaps and migration which saw the foundation and growth
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of many small independent cities. The geography of Greece—a land of mountain barriers
and scattered islands—encouraged this fragmentation.
Greek literature begins with two masterpieces, the Iliad, and the Odyssey which
are attributed to the poet Homer, about whom nothing is known except his name. Revered
as statements of cultural identity, the Iliad and the Odyssey center on heroes who embody
the values of ancient Greek culture.
The Iliad recounts only part of a long series of events in the Trojan War, which was
fought, according to the legend, because of a quarrel among the gods and the resulting
betrayal among mortals. All the action in the Iliad is, more or less directly, the
consequence of Achilles’ anger at being dishonoured.
From the Iliad by Homer
‘…Achilleus of the sweet feet spoke:

“O wrapped in shamelessness, with you mind forever in profit,
how shall any one of the Achaians readily obey you
either to go on a journey or to fight men strongly in battle?
I for my part did not come here for the sake of the Trojan
spearmen to fight against them, since to me they have done
nothing.
Never yet have they driven away my cattle or my horses,
never in Phthia where the soil is rich ansd men grow great did
they
spoil my harvest, since indeed there is much that lies between
us,
the shadowy mountains and the echoing sea; but for your
sake,
o great shamelessness, we followed, to do you favour,
you with the dog’s eyes, to win you honor and Menelaos
from the Trojans. You forget all this or else you care nothing…
And now my prize you threaten in person to strip from me,
for whom I labored much, the gift of the sons of the Achaians.
Why does Achilles
Never, whenrefer
theto Agamemnon
Achaians as shameless?
sack some What
well-founded figure of speech is evident in
citadel
the line ‘you with the dog’s eyes’? ‘there is much that lies between us/ the shadowy mountains
of the Trojans, do I have a prize that is equal to your prize…’
and the echoing sea’?
The Odyssey is concerned with the peace that followed the war and in particular with the
return of the heroes who survived to their own kingdoms. Its subject is the long drawn-out return
of Odysseus to Ithaca. He was destined to spend ten years wandering in unknown seas before he
returned to his own kingdom. It celebrates return to ordinary life after all the excitement, toil,
and danger. The Odyssey offers a more positive meditation on the nature of civilization and of
the structure of political daily life as the Greeks experienced it. It does so by showing what a
community has to lose by the absence of those structures and to gain by their affirmation.
From the Odyssey – Book XXII (Death in the Great

Hall)
75
For they imagined as they wished—that it was a wild
shot,
an unintended killing—fools, not to comprehend
they were already in the grip of death.
What does the scene reveal about the character of Odysseus? What lines will support your
answer? What figures of speech is used in ‘Your last hour has come.’?
The Greeks are also known for their lyric poetry. One of the poets of the lyric is Sappho
—singing or chanting poems to her own accompaniment on the lyre. The musical quality of her
poems heightens their emotional quality. Here is an example of a lyric poem by Sappho:
Awed by her splendour

Stars near the lovely moon cover their own
bright faces
when she is roundest and lights earth with her
Greek drama silver.
reached its peak in the 5th century Athens. During that time, tragedies and
comedies were performed in conjunction with the worship of Dionysus and fertility rituals
connected with the seasons and the staple crops of the community. Tragedies dealt with
universal issues and indirectly with contemporary politics, but the plots were taken from the
same cycle of legends found in the Homeric epics. Themes such as war, incest, and murder were
treated seriously.
One of the great Greek tragedians, aside from Aeschylus and Euripides, is Sophocles.
He wrote the trilogy of Oedipus Rex, Oedipus at Colonus, and Antigone.
From Oedipus Rex by Sophocles

Teiresias: Alas, how terrible is wisdom when it brings no profit to
the man that’s wise! This I knew well,
but had forgotten it, else I would not
have come here.
Oedipus: What is this? How sad you are now that you have come!
Teiresias: Let me go home. It will be76 easiest for us both to bear
our several destinies to the end if you will follow my
advice.
Oedipus: You’d rob us of this your gift of prophecy? You talk as
What does Teiresias really want to say in line 1-4? What is his attitude towards Oedipus?
What line/s support your answer?
Certain conditions must exist in tragedies. First, the character must be of high birth or
noble status in society. Second, they must experience a series of events that threaten their
positions. Finally, the tragic character must suffer a tragic fall through his/her own actions. The
gods interfere to some extent, but they never direct the plot or the characters’ actions.
Characters are responsible for their own actions—that is what renders tragedy tragic. Tragic
characters choose their destinies. It is their choices that cause their downfall.
Oedipus Rex is famous for its dramatic irony, which is the contradiction between what the
character thinks and what the audience knows to be true. Sophocles’ use of dramatic irony
brings out the play’s knowledge motif. The knowledge Oedipus relentlessly seeks causes his
downfall.
Roman Literature
The Romans as well as the Greeks venerated the Homeric epics, the most ancient texts of
Greek literature. To take his place alongside Homer, Virgil situates this story at the time of the
fall of Troy, and adopts conventions such as invoking the muse, involving Olympian gods in the
action, and beginning the story in medias res. The Aeneid recombines and transforms the major
works of Greek and Roman treadition to make a new, original, and fundamentally Roman work.
From The Aeneid by Virgil

(This is the part where Aeneas is about to leave Dido.
Aeneas has to fulfil the duty he is destined to do—to
found Rome)
‘At this abruptly she broke off and ran

In sickness from his sight and the light of day
Leaving him at loss, alarmed and mute
With all he meant to say. The maids in waiting
Caught her as she swooned and 77 carried her
To bed in marble chamber.
Duty-bound,
Aeneas, though he struggled with desire
What do you infer about the value Virgil places on self-control as opposed to passion? This
situation shows the conflict Aeneas undergoes in being a dutiful Roman and a husband.
Conflict is a struggle between opposing forces. Sometimes this struggle is internal, or
within a character. At other times the struggle is external, or between the character and some
outside force.
Another Roman writer is Catullus who is known for his lyric poems. He is a poet whose
polished verses rivalled those of his Greek predecessors, including Sappho. A key element of
Catullus’ literary expression is his ability to make the emotions real in his lyric poems.
Here is a sample lyric poem of Catullus:
‘I crossed many lands and a lot of

ocean
to get to this painful ceremony, my
brother,
so I can finally give you gifts for the
dead,
and waste time talking to some silent
ashes
being that you’re not here yourself
with me.
Fate did wrong, my brother, to tear us
apart.
What is the overall mood of the passage? What lines or words will support your answer?
But I bring you these offerings now
anyway,
after the old custom our parents taugh
G. The Middle Ages (A.D. 450 – 1300)
us.
1. The Song of Roland (Chanson de Roland)—this long historical poem about a medieval
Take them, soaked with your brother’s
knight, Roland, who is the nephew of King Charlemagne, is by far the best known and
tears,
most studied of all medieval poems. Central to the medieval epic are the deeds, or
and forever more, my brother,
gestes, of heroic figures. The Song of Roland is an example of a chanson de geste, or
goodbye.
song of deeds. This epic treats one of the greates themes of medieval heroic literature:
the deeds surrounding Charlemagne and his court.
2. The Nibelungenlied is one of the great works of German literature. This epic of murder
and revenge highlights the relationship between Kriemhild and Siegfried. It is an epic
which is a tragedy in two parts: the first describes the life and death of Siegfried and the
second features the story of the vengeful Kriemhild.
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3. The Divine Comedy by Dante—this epic is a poetic journey of a man struggling to
reconcile himself to a bitter political exile through the triumph of love. It takes the reader
to a journey that symbolically begins in a despairing world not yet redeemed by Christ’s
Crucifixion and ends with the poet’s return as a man, renewed in hope, having beheld the
beatific vision of divine grace.
H. The Renaissance (1300 – 1650)

1. The Canterbury Tales is a collection of stories written in Middle English by Geoffrey
Chaucer at the end of the 14th century. The tales, mostly in verse, although some are in
prose, are told as part of a story-telling contest by a group of pilgrims as they travel
together on a journey from Southwark to the shrine of St. Thomas Becket at Canterbury
Cathedral. The prize is a free meal at the Tabard Inn at Southwark on their return. Chaucer
uses the tales and descriptions of the characters to paint an ironic and critical portrait of
English society at the time, and particularly of the Church.
2. Francesco Petrarca or Petrarch was the greatest Italian poet of the 14 th century. He was
both well-versed in Italian and Latin. He wrote lyric poems, especially the sonnet and the
canzone, lyrics with intricate stanzas. Majority of his poems is dedicated to Laura. His
poems contain a lot of oxymoron, a phrase that joins two logically contradictory terms like
‘pleasant pain’ or ‘cruel kindness.’ He also uses allegory, or extended metaphor; for
instance, in one poem he compares his love to a dangerous voyage on a stormy sea,
guided by a blind pilot.
From a Petrarchan Sonnet
‘She used to let her golden hair fly free

For the wind to toy and tangle and
molest;
Her eyes were brighter than the
radiant west.
(Seldom they shine so now.) I used to
see
Pity look out of those eyes on me.
(“It was false pity,” you would now
protest.)
3. The Decameron by Boccaccio
I had has delighted
love’s tinder heaped readers and inspired writers for half a
within my
th
millennium. It is a 14 century medieval allegory told as a frame story encompassing 100
breast;
short prose tales orWhatnovelle (singular:
wonder novella)
that the flameby ten young people, three men and seven
burned
women, whofuriously?’
are fleeing from plague-ridden Florence to a villa in the countryside for two
weeks. The word decameron means ‘ten days.’ Rather than telling the stories directly,
Boccaccio creates a fictional background or frame for the book. One famous story from
this book is the ‘Tale of the Falcon.’
4. The Adventures of Don Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra is one famous work
from the Renaissance. Don Quixote and Sancho Panza, the knight and the squire, ride
from one ludicrous adventure to another in pursuit of the knight’s dreams of glory. The
central concern of the novel is the relationship between reality and fantasy.
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5. The most important figure of the Renaissance is William Shakespeare he wrote sonnets,
comedias, tragedies, and historical plays. His major work in the second half of his career
included a series of tragedies from Julius Caesar to Coriolanus. In the final phase of his
career, he produced four plays which are now called romances, works that blend the
happy ending of a comedy with elements of tragedy.
From Hamlet by William Shakespeare
‘To be, or not to be: that is the question:

Whether ‘tis nobler in the mind to suffer
The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune,
Or to take arms against a sea of troubles.
And by opposing end them? To die: to sleep;
No more; and by a sleep to say we end
The heart-ache and the thousand natural shocks
That flesh is heir to? ‘Tis a consummation
Devoutly to be wish’d. To die, to sleep;
To sleep: perchance to dream: ay, there’s the
rub;’
Sonnet XXIX
When in disgrace with fortune and men’s eyes

I all alone beweep my outcast state,
And trouble deaf Heaven with my bootless cries,
And look upon my self, and curse my fate,
Wishing me like to one more rich in hope,
Featur’d like him, like him with friends possess,
Desiring this man’s art, and that man’s scope
With what I most enjoy contented least;
Yet in these thoughts myself almost despising
Haply I think on thee,-- and then my state
(Like to be the lark at break of day arising
From sullen earth) sings hymns at heaven’s gate;
For thy sweet love rememb’red such wealth
brings,
That then I scorn to change my state witgh Kings.
I. The Age of Rationalism

The age was a time of progress and betterment in human affairs. Literature profited
from rationalism, which left its mark on poets, essayists, playwrights and journalists.
1. Francis Bacon was an English essayist, philosopher, and statesman. His collections of
essays are written in clear English, and contain memorable maxims on such subjects as
friendship, studies, truth and adversity.
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From Of Studies by Francis Bacon
‘Studies serve for delight, for ornament, and for

ability. Their chief use for delight, is in privateness and
retiring; for ornament, is in discourse; and for ability, is in
judgment and disposition of business… Some books are to
be tasted, others to be swallowed, some few to be chewed
and digested; …’
2. Gulliver’s Travels is Jonathan Swift’s famous work. Swift was a master craftsman of irony
and satire. His other works are A Modest Proposal, A Tale of the Tub, and The Battle of the
Books.
Irony is the general name given to literary techniques that involve surprising, interesting,
or amusing contradictions. Satire is writing that ridicules or holds in contempt the faults of
individuals and groups.
J. Romanticism, Realism, and Naturalism (1800-1890)

Romanticism was a literary movement that emerged in the late 1700s out of the
revolutionary spirit fuelled by the uprisings in America and France. The Romantics tended
to be inspired by their imagination, inner feelings and emotions. They wished to discard
the dominant forms and approaches of the 18 th century writers. They also showed a deep
interest in ordinary people and favoured the use of simple, common language.
Realism and Naturalism emerged during the middle of the 19th century. Realism
sought to depict life as faithfully and accurately as possible. The Realists confronted many
of the harshe realities of the 19th century world, often presenting pessimistic visions of the
world.
Naturalism grew out of Realism. The Naturalists frequently depicted characters
whose lives were shaped by forces of nature or society they could not understand and
control. The naturalists believed that a person’s fate is determined by heredity, chance,
and the environment.
1. William Blake’s poems have a charming simplicity that reveals his childlike
imagination. He was a lover of flowers and animals as well as his fellowmen. Many
of his poems show an appreciation of nature that marks him as a romanticist.
From Auguries of Innocence
‘To see the world in a grain of

sand,
And a heaven in a wild flower;
Hold infinity in the palm of your
hand,
And eternity in an hour.
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2. The short stories of Guy de Maupassant show a realistic depiction of life, its
underlying pessimism, inescapable irony, surprise ending. His more popular works
are The Necklace, A Piece of String, The Jewels, and Madame Sauvage.
3. Henrik Ibsen, a Norwegian writer, was the creator of the modern, realistic prose
drama. He was also one of the first writers to make drama a vehicle for social
commitment. He wrote the following dramas: A Doll’s House, Ghosts, An Enemy of
the People. The last one is about a man who comes into conflict with the people in
the village because of a truth he wants to reveal, but he is pressured not to do it
for political reasons.
4. Leo Tolstoy was regarded as the greates 19th century Russian writer. He is
remembered most for his short stories like God Sees the Truth but Waits;
Where Love is, There God is Also; and How Much Land Does a Man Need?
Which probed human nature and its strengths and weaknesses.
5. Edgar Allan Poe is noted not only for being the greatest American short story
writer, but also for having first standardized the short story as a literary type. His
subjects were weird, often supernatural, with no bearing whatever on life as it is
normsally lived. The Raven, The Bells, and Annabel Lee are some of his
popular poems. His popular short stories are The Cask of Amontillado, The
Masque of the Red Death, Tell-Tale Heart, The Purloined Letter, and The
Pit and the Pendulum.
K. The Modern World (1890 – 1945)

The time that ushered in the coming of modernism saw many changes and
developments: technological revolution (the airplane, the automobile, the radio and
television, electricity, movies and new medical remedies), scientific breakthroughs
(Mendel’s work of heredity, Marie and Pierre Curie’s breakthrough concerning
readioactivity, Einstein’s theories), World War I, the rise of Nazism, attack on Pearl Harbor,
the Holocaust.
Many writers turned away from the dominant literary forms and approcaches of the
past and began experimenting with new themes and techniques. The modernist writers
tried to capture in their works the essence of modern life in both the form and content of
their works.
1. Luigi Pirandello was both a dramatist and short story writer. His works dealt with the
difficulties of achieving identity and questioned the distinction between appearance
and reality. He is famous for his plays Six Characters in Search of an Author and It
is So (If You Think So). His short stories include A Breath of Air, The Jar, and War
which particularly reflected his views on human nature and the emotional effects of
war on people.
2. Rabindranath Tagore showed a deep awareness of the poverty and other hardships
faced by so mane of his people. He was also a vocal supporter of human and personal
freedom. He was best known for his collection of poems called the Gitanjali or Song
Offerings.
From the Gitanjali by Rabindranath Tagore

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Where the mind is without fear and the head is held high;
Where knowledge is free;
Where the world has not been broken up
3. Robert Frost is ranked as one of the best modern American poets. His popular poems
are Mending Wall, The Road not Taken, Fire and Ice, Birches, and Stopping by Woods
on Snowy Evening. His collection of poems includes North Boston, A Boy’s Will, and A
Further Rage.
(for the poem below) Why does the persona stop in the woods? What figure of speech is used in
lines 5-6? What is the central irony of the poem?
Stopping by the Woods on a Snowy Evening by Robert Frost
Whose woods these are I think I know He gives his harness bells
a shake
His house is in the village though To ask if there is some
mistake.
He will not see me stopping here The only other sound’s
the sweep
To watch his woods fill up with snow. Of easy wind and downy
flake.
My little horse must think it queer The woods are lovely, dark and
deep,
To stop without a farmhouse near, But I have promises to
4. Ernest Hemingway’s writings emphasize the disillusionment of American expatriates
keep,
among whom he lived in Paris during the
Between the woods and frozen lake
postwar period. He was part of the so-called
And miles to go before I sleep.
‘lost generation’
The darkest of writers
evening who became preoccupied
of the year. And mileswith thebefore
to go macabre,
I suffering,
death,
sleep. and loss of value. He wrote about people’s struggles to maintain a sense of
dignity while living in a seemingly hostile and confusing world.
His works include novels such as Farewell to Arms, The Sun Also Rises, For Whom the
Bells Toll, The Old Man and the Sea, and A Movable Feast. He also wrote numerous
short stories like Hills Like White Elephants, The Killers, A Clean, Well Lighted Place, Cat
in the Rain, and In Another Country.
83
5. Anton Chekhov is considered one of the greatest writers of the short story. He
received a medical degree at the University of Moscow in 1884, but he soon neglected
his medical practice in order to write. His numerous stories and plays gave him a
commanding position in literary Russia. He gave a poignant illumination to such human
experiences as loneliness, grief, hunger, and misery.
Among his famous works are the plays The Bear and the Cherry Orchard, and one of
his most famous short stories is The Lady with the Dog which depicts what at first
seems a casual liaison between a married man and a married woman. Neither expects
anything lasting from the encounter, but they find themselves drawn back to each
other, risking the security of their family lives.
6. James Joyce was an Irish author of the 20th century. He is best known for his novels
Ulysses (1922) and Finnegan’s Wake (1939), as well as the short story
collectionDubliners (1914) and the semi-autobiographical novel A Portrait of the Artist
as a Young Man (1916). Some of his popular short stories are Eveline, Araby, and
Boarding House.
From Eveline
She sat at the window watching the evening invade the

avenue. Her head was leaned against the window curtains and in
her nostrils was the odour of dusty cretonne. She was tired.
Home! She looked around the room, reviewing all its
unfamiliar objects which she had dusted once a week for so many
years, wondering where on earth all the dust came from. Perhaps
she would never see again those familiar objects from which she
never dreamed of being divided.
She had consented to go away, to leave her home. Was that
wise? She tried to weigh each side of the question. In her home
anyway she had shelter and food; she had those whom she had
known all her life about her. Of course she had to work hard, both
in the house and at business. What would they say of her in the
Stores
What when
figure they found
of speech out in
is used that
‘…she had run
watching away
the with invade
evening a fellow?...
the avenue’? What is the
mood of the persona? What words / passages point to this?
L. The Contemporary World (1946 – to present)

1. William Faulkner wrote from the background of his native Mississippi where he lived
most of his life. He is generally regarded as the most innovative American novelist of his
time. He experimented with narrative chronology, explored multiple points of view, and
delved deeply into the minds of his characters. His more notable novels are The Sound
and the Fury, As I Lay Dying, and Sanctuary. His short story, A Rose for Emily, is
one of his unforgetable works.
84
2. Gabriel Garcia Marquez, a Colombian writer, is one of the most innovative writers of the
time. His style combines realistic storytelling with elements of folklore and fantasy. This
style enabled him to depict the realities of Colombia. He wrote many novels and shorts
stories. Among his novels, the most famous is One Hundred Years of Solitude. His
short stories include The Handsomest Drowned Man in the World, A Very Old Man
with Enormous Wings, and Big Mama’s Funeral.
3. the Chilean poet Pablo Neruda drew the inspiration for some of … This best poems from
objects that other hardly notice. Much of Neruda’s later work expresses political
sentiments. In 1971 he received the Nobel Prize for Literature. One of his famous poems is
The United Fruit Co.
(for the poem below) Why does Neruda use a biblical allegory in the first three lines?
What tone does he want to achieve in using such allegory?
From The United Fruit Co. by Pablo Neruda
When the trumpet sounded, it was reserved for itself the most
succulent,
all prepared on the earth, the central coast of my
own land,
and Jehovah parceld out the earth the delicate waist of
America.
to Coca-Cola, Inc. Anaconda, it rechristened its territories
Ford Motors, and other entities: as the “Banana
Republics”
4. Wole Soyinka
The FruitisCompany,
a Nigerian novelist, poet, and playwright. Some consider him Africa’s
Inc.
most distinguished playwright, when he won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1936, the
first African to be so honoured. He is known for the following works: Telephone
Conversation (a poem), Ake: The Years of Childhood (a memoir), and The Interpreters (a
novel).
From Telephone Conversation by Wole Soyinka
The price seemed reasonable, location

Indifferent. The landlady swore she lived
Off premises. Nothing remained
But self-confession. “Madam,” I warned,
I hate a wasted journey—I am African.”
Silence. Silenced transmission of
Pressurized good-breeding. Voice, when it came,
Lipstick coated, long gold-rolled
Cigarette-holder piped. Caught I was foully.
“HOW DARK?”… I had not misheard… “ARE YOU
LIGHT
OR VERY DARK?”…
85
Why does the persona have to confess over the phone that he is African? Why is the
landlady silent as soon as the persona confessed that he is African?
5. The Indonesian writer Pramoedya Ananta Toer wrote novels, short stories, essays and
histories of his homeland and his people. His works span the colonial period, Indonesia’s
struggle for independence, the Japanese occupation during WW II, as well as post-colonial
authoritarian regimes of Sukarno and Suharto. Two od his best know works are The
Fugitive (a novel) about how Indonesians lived and suffered during the Japanese
occupation, and the short story Inem is about the traditions of Indonesia.
From Inem by Pramoedya Ananta Toer
Inem was my friend. She was eight, two years older than I
was. She was just like all other girls, except that she was thought
to be rather pretty. People liked her. She was polite, natural,
intelligent and a good worker. Because of this she quickly became
well-known in the village and people began to say: “Inem would
be a good daughter-in-law to have.”
Then one day, as she boiled water in out kitchen, she told
me, “Muk, I’m getting married.”
“Really?” I said.
“Yes. Someone asked for me a week ago. My parents and
kin have accepted him.”
“Imagine being married!” I shouted.
It was true. Her mother came one day and talked to my
mother. Inem had been entrusted to my parents. She helped with
the cooking and looked after me and the others when we played.
...
Mother tried to dissuade her, but Inem’s mother had other
reasons. Finally she said: I’m glad someone’s asked for her last. If
we postponed this, perhaps no one would ask for her again. I’d be
ashamed of her if she was an old maid. Perhaps she can make
things easier for me when I’m old.”
How would you characterize Inem’s mother? What is she really worried about?
6. Siew Yue Killingley was a Malaysian poet, dramatist, teacher, and linguist. A Question
of Dowry and Everything’s Arranged published in Twenty-Two Malaysian Stories
(1968) brought her immediate recognition and probably urged her to cultivate a literary
career alongside her professional teaching and research duties.
(for the excerpt below) How would you characterize Mr. Ramachandran?
What is Mrs. Ramachandran’s concern after learning they could not
pay for the dowry?
86
From A Question of Dowry by Siew Yue Killingley
There was much excitement in Mrs. Ramachandran’s household.

The daughter of the house, Sivasothie, was going to be engaged. The
festive air was laden with the spice smell of curries and wades sizzled in
the kwali saucepan. The young lady of the house, as befitted her present
condition, assumed a calm pose amidst the general bustle and noise. Mrs.
Ramachandran flew here and there, as fast as her hundred and sixty
pounds would allow her, and helped with her commanding suggestions.
‘Don’t put too much coconut milk in at once, Ayah! It’s got to go in
by stages. The last bit—the richest part, must be kept to the last! Now,
Tamby, go out and play—but don’t dirty your shirt. What will Uncle
Thiruchelvam think if you’re dirty?
…
‘We have to return the necklace.’
‘Return it? Why, what will Thiruchelvam’s mother and—‘
Mr. Ramachandran raised his hand.
‘There’s something which I’ve wanted to tell you for some time, but
I didn’t want to worry you. We can’t pay for the necklace. Do you
remember the land we were going to sell to get the dowry and money for
the necklace?’
‘Oh, be careful, you old man! Do you want people to think that we
have no money for our daughter?’ Mrs. Ramachandran hissed in fierce
Literary Terms / Concepts
whispers…
1. Allegory—a story or a tale with two or more levels of meaning—a literal level and one or
more symbolic levels. The events, setting and characters in an allegory are symbols for
ideas and qualities.
2. Alliteration—is the repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning or words or accented
syllables.
3. Allusion—a reference to a well-known person, place, event, literary work, or work of art.
4. Anaphora—a sound device that repeats a word or words at the beginning of two or more
successive clauses or verses.
5. Anecdote—a brief story about an interesting, amusing, or strange event.
6. Antagonist—a character or force in conflict with a main character, or protagonist. Not all
stories contain antagonists.
7. Aphorism—a general truth or observation about life, usually stated concisely and
pointedly. Often witty and wise, aphorisms appear in many kinds of works.
8. Apostrophe—a figure of speech in which a speaker directly addresses an absent person,
or a personified quality, object, or idea.
9. Aside—in a play, it is a speech delivered by an actor in such a way that other characters
on stage are presumed not to hear it.
87
10.Assonance—the repetition of vowel sounds in conjunction with dissimilar consonant
sounds.
11.Ballad—a songlike poem that tells a story, often dealing with adventure and romance.
12.Blank verse—poetry written in unrhymed iambic pentameter. An iamb is a foot consisting
of one weak stress followed by one strong stress.
13.Caesura—a pause or a break in the middle of a line of poetry.
14.Climax—the highest point of interest or suspense in a literary work.
15.Conceit—an unusual or surprising comparison between two different things.
16.Connotation—an association that a word calls to mind in addition to the dictionary
meaning of the word.
17.Consonance—the repetition of consonant sounds at the ends of words or accented
syllables.
18.Denotation—the objective meaning of a word, independent of other associations that the
word brings to mind.
19.Dialogue—a conversation between characters. Writers use dialogue to reveal character,
to present events, to add variety to narratives, and to arouse their readers’ interest.
20.Elegy—a solemn and formal lyric poem about death, often one that mourns the passing of
some particular person.
21.Essay—a short non-fiction work about a particular subject.
22.Fiction—prose writing that tells about imaginary characters and events. Short stories and
novels are works of fiction.
23.Figurative language—writing or speech not meant to be taken literally.
24.Figure of Speech—an expression or a word used imaginatively rather than literally. Many
writers use figures of speech—apostrophe, hyperbole, metaphor, simile, metonymy,
synecdoche, personification, oxymoron.
25.Flashback—a section of a literary work that interrupts the chronological presentation of
events to relate an event from an earlier time.
26.Foil—a character who provides a contrast to another character.
27.Foreshadowing—the use of clues that suggest events that have yet to occur.
28.Free verse—potry that lacks a regular rhythmical pattern or meter.
29.Hyperbole—a deliberate exaggeration or overstatement. (e.g. There is garden on her
face)
30.Image—a word or phrase that appeals to one or more of the five senses.
31.Imagery—the descriptive or figurative language used in literature to create word pictures
for the reader. These pictures are created by details of sight, sound, taste, touch, smell, or
movement.
32.Irony—a contrast between what is stated and what is meant, or between what is expected
yo happenand what actually happens. In verbal irony, a word or a phrase is used to
suggest the opposite of its usual meaning. In dramatic irony, there is contradiction
between what a character thinks and what the reader or audience knows to be true. In
irony of situation, an event occurs that directly contradicts the expectations of the
characters, of the reader, or of the audience.
33.Litotes—a figure of speech that makes a deliberate understatement to affirm by negating
its opposite (e.g. Barbara Streisand is not a bad singer)
34.Local color—the use of characters and details unique to a particular place or geographic
area.
88
35.Lyric Poem—a melodic poem that expresses the observations and feelings of a single
speaker.
36.Metaphor—a figure of speech in which one thing is spoken of as though it were
something else. It expresses an indirect or implied comparison of two things which are not
evidently comparable.
37.Metonymy—a figure of speech that entails using a word that closely relates to a person
or thing (e.g. The pen is mightier than the sword)
38.Mixed metaphor—when two metaphors are jumbled together e.g. the thorns of life
rained down on me.
39.Onomatopoeia—the use of words that imitate sounds e.g. buzz, hiss, murmur, hum.
40.Oxymoron—a figure of speech that combines two opposing or contradictory ideas (e.g.
freezing fire, cruel kindness)
41.Paradox—a statement that seems to be contradictory but actually presents a truth. It is
surprising or shocking to draw the readers’ attention to what is being said, e.g. ‘Because I
could not stop for death / He kindly stopped me.’
42.Parody—a humorous imitation of a literary work, one that exaggerates or distorts the
characteristic features of the original.
43.Personification—a figure of speech that gives human traits to inanimate objects or ideas.
44.Satire—writing that ridicules or criticizes individuals, ideas, institutions, social
conventions, or other works of art or literature.
45.Simile—a figure of speech that makes a direct comparison between two subjects using
like or as.
46.Sonnet—a lyric poem composed of 14 iambic pentameter lines focusing on a single
theme
47.Symbol—anything that stands for or represents something else.
48.Synecdoche—a figure of speech in which a part of something is used to stand for the
whole thing (e.g. No roving foot shall crush thee here.)
49.Theme—a central message or insight into life revealed by a literary work.
50.Tone—the writer’s attitude toward his or her subject, characters, or audience.
FILIPINO: Komunikasyon sa Akademikong Filipino

Nagagamit nang may lalong mataas na antas ng kasanayan at kahusayan ang
Filipino sa akademikong pangangailangan.
MGA BATAYANG KONSEPTO SA PAG-AARAL NG WIKA
1. Pagbibigay kahulugan sa wikang Filipino

Ang wikang Filipino ay maaaring pag-usapan at talakayin bilang”
 Isang wika
89
- Pambansang lingua franca
- Wikang pambansa
- Wikang opisyal
 Isang midyum
- Larangan ng edukasyon
- Larangan ng komunikasyon
 Isang disiplina o aralin
- Elementarya
- Sekundarya
- Tersyarya
 Pambansang lingua franca, kung ginagamit upang magkaunawaan at makapag-ugnayan
ang mga nag-uusap na may magkaibang katutubong wika na nagmula sa iba’t-ibang
probinsya
 Wikang pambansa, ayon sa Saligang Batas ng 1987, Artikulo XIV Seksyon 6 na
nagsasaad:
“Ang wikang pambansa ng Pilipinas ay Filipino. Samantalang nililinang, ito ay dapat
payabungin at pagyamanin pa sa salig na umiiral na wika sa Pilipinas at sa iba pang mga
wika. Alinsunod sa mga tadhana ng batas at sang-ayon sa nararapat na maaaring ipasya
ng kongreso, dapat magsagawa ng mga hakbangin ang pamahalaan upang ibunsod at
puspusang itaguyod ang paggamit ng Filipino bilang midyum na opisyal ng komunikasyon
at bilang wika ng pagtuturo sa sistemang pang-edukasyon.”
 Wikang opisyal, ayon sa Seksyon 7:
“Ukol sa mga layunin ng komunikasyon at pagtuturo, ang mga wikang opisyal ng
Pilipinas ay Filipino, at hangga’t walang itinatadhana ang batas, Ingles.”
 Isang midyum, sa Sekyon 7, tiniyak ang mga wikang panturo. Bilang pagtugon sa batas,
naglunsad ang Department of Education, Culture and Sports (dating Ministri ng
Edukasyon, Kultura at Isports) ng palisi sa edukasyong bilinggwal na nakasaad sa DECS
Order No. 52, s. 1987 (dating Kautusang Pangkagawaran Blg. 25, s. 1974).
 Layunin ng kautusan ang pagtatamo ng kompetens sa Filipino at Ingles sa lebel pambansa
sa pamamagitan ng pagtuturo ng dalawang wika at paggamit ng mga ito bilang midyum
ng pagtuturo sa lahat ng antas ng edukasyon. Pangarap ng kinauukulan na magkaroon ng
kasanayan and buong sambayanang Pilipino sa wikang Filipino at kasanayan sa wikang
Ingles upang matugunan ang pangangailangan ng bansa pati na rin ang
pangangailangang global.
 Bilang disiplina, hindi lamang wikang panturo, kundi mga tiyak na sabdyek / aralin mula
antas elementary hanggang kolehiyo
2. Ginagamit ng tao ang wika sa kanyang pag-iisip, sa kanyang pakikipag-ugnayan at

pakikipag-usap sa ibang tao, at maging sa pakikipag-usap sa sarili. Samakatuwid, wika
ang behikulo n gating ekspresyon at komunikasyon na epektibong magagamit.
3. Sa panahong maging ganap na ang pagkatuto ng tao ng kanyang wikang kinagisnan, nasa
kanya na hindi lamang ang kakayahang bumuo ng anumang pangungusap na ibinabagay
niya sa kahit ano pa mang sitwasyon kundi pati umunawa ng kahit ano ring pangungusap
na maririnig niya sa unang pagkakataon sa kanyang wika.
4. Kaugnay ng nabanggit na kaisipan sa Blg. 2, ang pag-aaral ng isang wika tulad ng Filipino
ay binubuo ng dalawang kakayahan:
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 Kakayahang makabuo ng mga pahayag o pangungusap na may wastong
kayariang pambalarila; tinatawag itong kakayahang panlinggwistika o
linguistic competence
 Kakayahang maunawaan at magamit ang mga pangungusap na may wastong
pambalarilang kayarian sa angkop na panlipunang kapaligiran ayon sa
hinihingi ng sitwasyon; tinatawag itong kakayahang komunikatibo o
communicative competence
5. Ang isang ispiker ng wika ay nag-aangkin ng kakayahang panlinggwistika o linguistic
competence dahil nasa kanyang subconscious ang kabuuan ng pamamaraan ng pagbuo
ng salita, pangungusap, at kombinasyon ng mga ito. Samakatuwid ang mga patern at mga
tuntunin sa pagbuo ng mga pangungusap ang grammar ng isang wika.
6. Kaugnay ng kaisipan sa Blg. 5, mahalagang maunawaan na lahat ng wika ay may
grammar at nahahati sa sumusunod: ponolohiya, morpolohiya, sintaks, semantika.
6.1Ponolohiya – patern o kumbinasyon ng mga tunog sa loob ng isang wika
 Mga Ponemang Segmental—ito ang mga tunog na ginagamitan ng mga katumbas na
letra o titik upang mabasa o mabigkas
 Katinig—ipinakikita ang mga ponemang ito batay sa paraan ng artikulasyon
(pamamaraan ng pagpapalabas ng hangin) at punto ng artikulasyon (bahagi ng
bibig na ginagamit para makalusot ang hangin)
 Patinig—may limang pangunahing patinig ang Filipino (a, e, i, o, u); ang mga
tunog /e/ at /i/, gayundin ng /o/ at /u/ -- ay mga tunog na maaaring magkapalitan na
hindi nababago ang kahulugan ng salit. Hal. babae – babai; noon – nuon
 Diptonggo—pinagsamang tunog ng isang patinig (a, e, i, o, u) at isang malapatinig
(w, y) Hal. bruha, droga, globo
 Mga Ponemang Suprasegmental—karaniwang hindi tinutumbasan ng mga letra sa
pagsulat kundi mga simbolo laman upang matukoy ang paraan ng pagbigkas
 Diin
 Tono, intonasyon, punto
 Hinto / antala
 Alfabetong Filipino—may 28 letra; tulad din ng tawag sa ingles ang tawag sa bawat
letra, maliban sa letrang ñ na bigkas- Kastila
 Silanikasyon—paghahati ng mga pantig sa wikang Filipino; mga halimbawang patern ng
silabikasyon sa wikang ito:
PKK - eks – tra
KPKK - is – kawt
KKPK - trak
KKPKK- mag – drayb
KPKKK- a – nawns – ment
6.2 Morpolohiya—may kinalaman sa pagbuo ng salita

 Mga paraan ng pagbuo ng salita
a. Paggamit ng salitang ugat - sariwa
b. Paglalapi - napaka-sariwa
c. Pag-uulit - maganda-ganda
d. Pagtatambal - silid-aklatan
 Mga pagbabagong morpoponemiko
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a. Asimilasyon pang + bansa = pambansa
b. Pagpapalit ano + ano = anu-ano
c. Paglilipat y + in + akap = yinakap = niyakap
d. Pagkakaltas bili + han = bilihan = bilhan
e. Pagdaragdag paalala + han = paalalahan;
paalalahan + an = paalalahanan
f. Pag-aangkop hintay + ka = teka
 Bahagi pa rin ng mga paraan ng pagbuo, pati ng pagpapalawak, ang mga bahagi ng
pananalita ng wikang Filipino.Ginagamit sa iba’t ibang pagpapahayag ang mga
sumusunod na saklaw ng pambalarilang kayarian (grammatical structures):
 Mga Salitang Pangnilalaman
a. Mga Nominal b. Pandiwa c. Panuring
- Pangngalan - Pokus - Pang-uri
- Panghalip - Aspekto - Pang-abay
 Mga Salitang Pangkayarian (Functional Words)
a. Mga Pang-ugnay
- Pangatnig
- Pang-angkop
- Pang-ukol
b. Mga Pananda
- Pantukoy
- Pangawing
6.3 Sintaks – pagbuo at pagpapahaba ng mga pangungusap
 Batayang pangungusap at mga bahagi nito:
 Panaguri
 Paksa
Sa Filipino, normal o karaniwan ang pagsasabi muna ng panaguri, kasunod ang paksa
tulad nito:
Kumakanta si Martin Nievera.
(Panaguri + Paksa)
sa halip na:
Si Martin Nievera ay kumnakanta.
(paksa + ay + panaguri)
 Magagamit na panaguri ng pangungusap ang iba’t ibang bahagi ng pananalita, kabilang
ang nominal, pang-uri, at pandiwa, at pang-abay, tulad ng mga sumusunod na halimbawa:
Pangungusap = Panaguri + Paksa
 Mga Nominal
 Pangngalan - Doktor + ang kapitbahay ko.
 Panghalip - Sila + ang barkada ko.
 Panghalip Pamatlig- Iyon + ang alaga niyang aso.
 Pariralang Nominal- Ang dalagang iyan + ang nililiyag ko.
Pangungusap = Panaguri + Paksa
 Pang-uri
 Payak - Duwag + si Berto.
 Maylapi - Mataba + si Berto.
 Inuulit - Maligayang-maligaya + si Berto.
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 Tambalan - Balat-sibuyas + si Berto.
 Pariralang Pang-uri- May makinis na balat + si Berto.
 Pandiwa
 Walang komplemento- Naglalaba +ang nanay.
 May komplemento- Naglilinis ng mesa sa kusina + ang nanay.
(aktor,layon, taga-tanggap, ganapan, atbp)
 Pang-abay
 Pamanahon - Kamakalawa pa inilibing + ang napatay na sundalo.
 Pamaraan - Malikot matulog + ang sanggol
 Panlunan - Sa Baguio nagbakasyon + ang mag-anak.
 Magagamit na paksa (simuno, topic, pinag-uusapan, sentro, pokus ng usapan) sa
pangungusap ang mga pariralang nomina. Inihuhudyat ng nauunang pananda o marker
ang (para sa pangngalang pambalana), si / sina (para sa mga tangi o personal na
pangalan) ang paksa ng pangungusap sa Filipino.
Ginagamit ang ang sa anumang bahagi ng pananalita na ginawang nominal, maging
ito ay pangngalan, pang-uri, pandiwa, o pang-abay.
Pangungusap = Panaguri + paksa
a. Pariralang Pangngalan = Nagwawalis + ang Metro Aide.
b. Pariralang Pang-uri = Nagwagi + ang pinakamataas sa lahat.
c. Pariralang Pandiwa = Isabay mo + ang mga nahuli.
d. Pariralang Pang-abay = Binati ko + ang nanalo kahapon.
 Sa mga pangungusap na verbal (kung saan ang pandiwa ang panaguri), nagiging pokus ng
pangungusap ang paksa pagkat nagkakaroon ng semantic na relasyon ang pandiwa sa
paksa. Halimbawa:
Batayang Pangungusap (BP)
Naglinis (ng mesa) ang nanay (sa kusina).
Sa BP na ito, nakapokus sa actor / tagaganap (ang nanay) ang pangungusap at mga
komplemento naman “ng mesa” (layon) “sa kusina” (ganapan).
Sa pagbabago ng panlapi, pansining maipopokus ang iba’t ibang komplemento tulad ng
sumusunod:
 Pokus sa layon: Nilinis ng nanay ang mesa sa kusina.
 Pokus sa ganapan: Pinaglilinisan ng nanay ng mesa ang kusina.
 Pokus sa sanhi: Ikinapagod ng nana yang paglilinis ng mesa sa kusina.
 Pokus sa instrumento: Ipinanlinis ng nanay ng mesa sa kusina ang tubig sa timba.
 Pokus sa direksyon: Puntahan mo ang kusina (na pinaglilinisan ng mesa ng nanay)
 Bukod pa sa batayang pangungusap, na binubuo ng kompletong panaguri at paksa,
mayroon pang ibang uri ng pangungusap sa wikang Filipino:
 Pangungusap na Hango sa Batayang Pangungusap
 Nasa anyong tanong
BP: Kumain na ang mga panauhin.
Mga tanong ng hango sa BP
Masasagot ng Oo o Hindi
Kumain na ba ang mga panauhin?
Kumain na ang mga panauhin di ba?
Talaga bang kumain na ang mga panauhin?
Ano, kumain na ang mga panauhin?
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Humihingi ng impormasyon
Sino ang kumain na?
Kailan kumain ang mga panauhin?
Paano kumain ang mga panauhin?
Saan pupunta ang mga panauhin?
Ano ang ginawa ng mga panauhin?
Ilang panauhin ang umalis na?
Masasagot ng mayroon o wala
May umalis na bang mga panauhin?
Wala pa bang umalis na mga panauhin?
Humihingi ng alternatibo
Umalis na ba o hindi ang mga panauhin?
Alin ang gusto mo: iyan o ito?
Ano ang uunahin ko: ito ba o iyan?
 Mga pangungusap na tiniyak ang panaguri
Batayang Pangungusap Hangong Pangungusap

(BP) (HP)
Bakla ang nakita niya. Ang bakla ang nakita niya.
(Sino ang nakita niya?) (Tinitiyak kung sino ang nakita.)
 Mga konstruksyong binaliktad o inverted

a. Inverted—ito ang tinutukoy na di-karaniwang ayos sa Filipino na malimit gamitin sa
mga nasusulat na literatura at formal na rehistro.
Pangungusap = Paksa + ay (‘y) + Panaguri
BP: Nagmeryenda na si Nanang.
HP: Si Nanang ay nagmeryenda na.
b. Iba pang konstruksyong binaliktad o inverted
BP: Umalis na kahapon ang mga balikbayan.
HP: Kahapon, umalis na ang mga balikbayan (hindi ngayon).
 Mga Pangungusap na naghahayag ng negasyon
BP: Umakyat ang mga bata.
HP: Hindi / Di-dapat umakyat ang mga bata.
Ayaw kong umakyat ang mga bata.
Huwag sanang umakyat ang mga bata.
 Mga Pangungusap na Walang Tiyak na Paksa
 Penominal - tumutukoy sa kalagayang pangkalikasan
(Binubuo ng panaguring pandiwa na may kasamang pang-abay)
Umuulan! Lilindol daw.
 Temporal - nagsasaad ng kalagayan o panahong panandalian
(Binubuo ng pang-uri na may kasamang pang-abay)
Mainit! Kay init ngayon.
 Eksistensyal - nagsasaad ng pagka-mayroon
May mga mag-aaral na sa awditoryum.
Alas diyes na.
Lunes ngayon.
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Tag-araw.
Bagong Taon na naman.
 Ka-pandiwa - nagsasaad ng katatapos na kilos
Kaaalis lang niya.
 Pambating panlipunan- magagalang na pananalita ng pakikipagkapwa-tao
Kumusta ka?
Salamat.
 Panawag - panawag na pangkamag-anak
Hoy! Pssst! Tena! Manang!
 Pandamdam - nagpapahayag ng matinding damdamin
Aray ko! Sus! Aru! Ow, talaga!
 Modal - nangangahulugan ng “gusto” / “nais” / “ibig”
Gusto kong matulog.
6.4 Semantika – may kinalaman sa interpretasyon ng mga kahulugan ng mga salita at

pangungusap
Nabanggit na sa simula na binubuo ang grammar ng wika ng pronolohiya, morpolohiya,
sintaks at panghuli, semantika. Tumutukoy ang naunang tatlo sa pag-aaral ng anyo (form) at
patern ng wika, tumutukoy naman ang semantika sa pag-aaral ng kahulugan mismo sa wika.
 Paano ang pagbibigay o nairerepresenta sa isipan ng tao ang kahulugan?
 Denotasyon at konotasyon
Halimbawa: PASKO
 Denotasyon: ika-25 ng Disyembre para sa mga kristyano, araw ng
kapanganakan ni Kristo
 Konotasyon: panahon ng pagbibigay ng mga regalo, pagpunta ng
mga inaanak sa ninong at ninang, karoling ng mga bata,
pagkain ng bibingka at puto-bumbong
 Sinonim, antonim, polisemi at homofon
 Sinonim - mga salitang magkapareho ng kahulugan
Halimbawa: payak-simple
magbili-magtinda
magkatulad-magkapareho
 Antonim - mga salitang magkasalungat ang kahulugan
Halimbawa: mataas-mababa
Maliwanag-madilim
 Polisemi - mga salitang may dalawa o mahigit pang kahulugan na magka-
ugnay
Halimbawa:
Mataas ang marka ng anak ko sa Ingles.
Nag-iwan ng marka ang kanyang kagat sa braso ng bata.
 Homofon - salitang magkapareho ng tunog o anyo subalit magkaiba ang
kahulugan. Nagdudulot ng pagkalito o di kalinawan ang
homofon sa pangungusap.
Halimbawa: bangka
(1) Maliit na sasakyang pandagat na yari sa kahoy
(2) Taong tagabigay ng baraha sa isang klase ng sugal
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Pangungusap: Hindi pa dumarating ang bangka.
Mahirap alamin ang konteksto.
Sino / Ano ang tinutukoy?
Ang sasakyang pandagat o isang manunugal.
 Parapreys - mga magkakaparehong kahulugan ng mga pangungusap
‘Kumanta ang koro ng mga lumang kanta’
‘Mga lumang kanta ang kinanta ng koro’
‘Naglaro ang mga bata ng basketbol’
‘Nagbasketbol ang mga bata’
7. Matapos na matalakay ang mga batayang kaalaman sa ilalim ng una, kakayahang

panlinggwistika, dumako naman tayo sa ikalawa—ang kakayahang pangkomunikatibo sa
pag-aaral ng wika.
8. Hindi lamang naaayon sa kaalamang makagamit ng mga pangungusap na may wastong
balarila kundi may kakayahan pa ring ipakita at gamitin ang alinmang gawi ng pakikipag-
usap (speech behaviour or speech act) na angkop at naaayon sa hinihingi ng sitwasyon
ang kakayahang komunikatibo (communicative competence).
9. Kung kahulugang komunikatibo ang susuriin sa isang pahayag, tiyak ba iuugnay ito sa
tungkulin ng komunikasyon at ang kaugnay na gawi ng pagsasalita tulad ng ipinakikita ng
sumusunod na tsart ni Gordon Wells.
Tungkulin ng Komunikasyon Gawi ng Pagsasalita

(Functions of Communication) (Speech or Communication Acts)
A. Pagkontrol sa kilos o gawi Pakikiusap, pag-utos, pagmumungkahi,

ng iba pagpupunyagi, pagtanggi, pagbibigay babala
(Controlling function)
B. Pagbabahagi ng damdamin Pakikiramay, pagpuri, pagsang-ayon, pahayag,

(Sharing feelings) paglibak, paninisi, pagsalungat
K. Pagbibigay o pagkuha ng Pag-uulat, pagpapaliwanag, pagtukoy,

impormasyon pagtatanong, pagsagot
(Getting factual information)
D. Pagpapanatili sa Pagbati, pagpapakilala, pagbibiro,

pakikipagkapuwa at pagpapasalamat, paghingi ng paumanhin
pagkakaroon ng interaksyon sa
kapuwa
(Ritualizing function)
E. Pangangarap at paglikha Pagkukuwento, pagsasadula, pagsasatao,

(Imagining / Creating function) paghula
 Paano natin maipakikita na nagagamit natin ang wikang Filipino nang may lalong mataas na
antas ng kasanayan at kahusayan? Naririto ang mga halimbawa ng mga inaasahang
kasanayan (Belvez, et.al., 1990):
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A. Naisasagawa ang iba’t ibang uri ng pagpapahayag o gawi ng pagsasalita kaugnay ng

pagtugon sa iba’t ibang tungkulin ng komunikasyong kinakaharap sa pang-araw-araw na
sitwasyon.
1. Nagagamit ang angkop na pahayag sa pagdalo sa isang pagtitipon
2. Nakakasali sa isang makabuluhang gawain ukol sa pagtatanong ng direksyon, tao o
bagay.
3. Malinaw na naipapahayag ang iba’t ibang kaisipan ayon sa lugar o sitwasyong
kinaroroonan
4. Nasasabi nang malinaw at may paggalang ang pagpapagawa ng isang bagay o gawain
5. Nasasabi nang mabisa ang mga iniisip at niloloob
6. Nakapaghahatid at nakapaghaharap nang mabisa ng iba’t ibang impormasyon
7. Naipapahayag at natutukoy ang mga saloobing moral.
8. Naisasagawa ang wastong pakikipagkapwa
9. Nakalilikha nang pasalita ng ilang tugma, kuwento, at patalastas
B. Naisasagawa nang mabisa ang iba’t ibang gawaing komunikasyon sa pag-aaral.

1. Nakakapakinig at nakalalahok sa isang talakayan ng panayam na napakinggan
2. Nakapagsasagawa at nakasasagot sa isang interbyu
3. Naibubuod ang balitang nabasa o napakinggan
4. Nalalagom ang kuwento, editoryal o patalastas na narinig
5. Nakapagbabalangkas at nakapag-uulat
6. Nakapagbibigay ng isang panuto at paglalarawan
7. Nakakasali nang mabisa sa isahang pagbigkas
8. Nakapag-uusap tungkol sa mga tsart, grap, mapa, at larawang-guhit
9. Natutukoy ang pangunahing paksa ng mga narinig na paglalahad
10.Nakapagbibigay-katwiran, kuru-kuro o opinyon tungkol sa mga balita o pangyayaring
narinig o nabasa
11.Nakapagsasagawa ng isang biglaang pagpapahayag (extemporaneous speech)
12.Nagsasabi nang makabuluhan sa isang pagpupulong
13.Nakapagbibigay ng isang gawaing padikta (Gagamiting paksa rito ang iba’t ibang lawak
ng pag-aaral sa kurikulum)
C. Nakakapakinig at nakasasali sa iba’t ibang talakayan kaugnay ng ibang lawak ng pag-aaral

sa kurikulum
1. Naririnig nang may pang-unawa at natatalakay nang mabisa ang mga paksa tungkol sa
kasaysayan, pamahalaan, at konstitusyon
2. Nakapagpapahayag ng kaisipan at gawaing kaugnay ng musika, sining, kagandahang-
asal at gawaing pantahanan.
10.Sa pagsasalita at pagsulat ang wastong paggamit ng mga salitang karaniwan ay lubhang
kailangan. Kailangang sumusunod ito sa mga alituntuning panggramatika. Nakatutulong
sa maayos, malinaw at mabisang pagpapahayag kung wasto ang gamit ng mga salitang
Filipino.
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FILIPINO: Pagbasa at Pagsulat Tungo sa Pananaliksik

 Nababasa nang may wastong pag-unawa ang mga teksto sa iba’t ibang
disiplina.
 Nagagamit nang mahusay ang Filipino sa pagbuo ng isang sulating
pananaliksik.
MGA BATAYANG KONSEPTO
1. Pagpapakahulugan sa pagbasa
 Pagkilala at pagkuha ng mga ideya at kaisipan sa mga simbolong nakalimbag
upang mabigkas nang pasalita ang mga ito. Pag-unawa ito sa wika ng awtor o
manunulat ng mga nakasulat na simbolo (Semorlan, et.al., 1999).
 Sinasabing unang hakbang sa pagtatamo ng kaalaman. Tumutukoy sa kognitibong
proseso ng pag-unawa sa mensahe ng wikang nakasulat. Isang proseso ng
pagkuhang muli at pag-unawa sa mensahe ng ilang anyo ng nakaimbak na mga
impormasyon o mga ideya (Alejo, et.al., 2005)
 Mahalagang salik sa pagbasa ang papel ng dating kaalaman o teorya ng iskema.
Inumpisahan ni Bartlett (1932) at nilinang nina Anderson (1977) at Rumelhart
(1981) ang teoryang ito na nagsasaad na nakaiimpluwensiya nang malaki sa pag-
unawa kung ano ang mga alam na o hindi alam ng mambabasa.
2. Mga uri ng iskema:
 Content o nilalaman (tumutukoy sa mga sistema ng tunay na katotohanan, balyus
at kombensiyong kultural)
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 Formal (tinatawag ding tekstwal na iskema, na may kaugnayan sa kaalamang
retorikal na istruktura ng teksto at mga genre ng panitikan tulad ng mga nobela,
maikling kwento, dula, resipe, patalastas, talambuhay, liham, jornal, atbp.)
 Linggwistika (tinatawag ding iskema ng wika, na tumutukoy sa istruktura ng wika,
bokabularyo, impleksyong gramatikal at mga gamit pang-ugnay (cohesive
devices)).
3. Pagpapakahulugan sa pagsulat
 Paggawa o pagbuo ng mga titik, simbolo at mga salita. Isang paraan upang ang
mga mahahalagang bagay na hindi matandaan ay muling mapagbalikan sa isipan
(Lorenzo, et.al., 2011)
 Isang mabagal at kompleks na proseso at itinuturing na isang sining na
nangangailangan ng malalim na pag-unawa at pag-iisip Badayos, 2000)
4. Makatutulong sa lalong pagkakamit ng mabisang pagpapahayag at pagsulat ng apat na
anyo ng pagpapahayag:
a. Paglalahad (nagbibigay impormasyon at nagpapaliwanag)
b. Paglalarawan (nagpapalutang ng mga katangian)
c. Pagsasalaysay (nagkukuwento)
d. Pangangatuwiran (nanghihikayat na isaalang-alang ang pananaw ng manunulat)
5. Tinatawag din ng ilan ang lapat na anyo ng pagpapahayag bilang genre ng wika.
Samantalang, tinatawag na genre ng nakasulat na teksto ang maikling kuwento,
sanaysay, mga alamat, talumpati, talambuhay, mga tula, atbp.
6. Ang genre ng nakasulat na teksto ay may dalawang anyo sa paggamit ng salita:
 Anyong tuluyan
- Sanaysay - talambuhay -editorial
- Anekdota - ulat -dula
- Balita - alamat - pabula
- Salaysayin - talumpati - mito - atbp.
 Anyong patula
- Tulang pandamdamin / liriko: elehiya, oda, kantahin, soneto
- Tulang pasalaysay: epiko, awit, kurido
- Tulang pandulaan
7. Napakahalaga para sa kasaysayan sa pagbasa at pagsulat ang patuloy na pagpapayaman,
pagdaragdag ng bokabularyo / talasalitaan ng mga mag-aaral. Naririto ang ilang paraan sa
pagpapalawak ng bokabularyo:
 Kaanyuan / kayarian / pagbuo ng mga salita
 Pagkakabit ng iba’t ibang uri ng panlapi sa salitang-ugat upang mabigyan ng iba’t-
ibang kahulugan ang mga ito
Halimbawa:
Pag-uunlapi = umisip
Paggigitlapi = tumulong
Paghuhulapi = linisin
Pag-uunlapi + paggigitlapi = ikinuha
Pag-uunlapi + paghuhulapi = pagsabihan
Paggigitlapi + paghuhulapi = tinabasan
Pag-uunlapi, paggigitlapi at paghuhulapi = pinagsumikapan
 Pag-uulit ng salita
99
Parsyal  kani-kanila
Ganap  tuwang-tuwa
 Tambalang salita  bahay-kubo
 Salitang balbal  oks, tsekot
 Salitang kolokyal  syota, datung
 Panghihiram ng mga salita  axis, Xerox
 Paghahambing ng mga magkakatulad at magkakaibang salita
Halimbawa:
Malapad at maluwang makipot at maluwag
 Paggamit ng tayutay  parang anghel
 Paggamit ng idyomatikong pahayag  kamay na bakal
 Ugnayan ng mga salita
 Paggamit ng context clue
 Paggamit ng diksyunaryo
8. Mga pamamaraan sa pagpapaunlad ng pag-unawa sa pagbasa ng mga tekstong
akademiko:
 Pagbasang pahapyaw (skimming)—isang paraang ginagamit ng mambabasa
upang makuha ang nilalaman ng teksto o materyal sa mabilisang paraan. Hindi nito
pinagtutuunan ang detalye, kundi ang kabuuang paksa o pangunahing kaisipan ng
isang artikulo o seleksyon para makabuo ng buod o lagom ng binabasa. Higit na
mahaba ang oras para sa skimming kaysa sa scanning.
 Pagbasang pasuri (scanning)—ito naman ang palaktaw-laktaw na pagbabasa na
isinasagawa ng mambabasa upang mabilis na matukoy o matagpuan ang isang
tiyak na impormasyon tulad ng pangalan, lugar, bilang o petsa. Hindi rin masinsinan
ang pagbabasa ng teksto. Sa sandaling makita ang impormasyong hinahanap, hindi
na ipagpapatuloy ang pagbasa.
 Pagbuo ng prediksyon o hinuha—bumubuo ng palagay o implikasyon ang isang
bumabasa batay sa mga pahiwatig o implikasyong ibinibigay ng manunulat at
tagapagsalita; hindi tuwirang sinasabi ng may-akda ang nais niyang sabihin kayat
kailangang matuklasan ng mambabasa ang nakatagong kahulugan ng mga salita sa
teksto.
 Paglalahat o paglalagom—naisasagawang maisaayos ang mga impormasyong
nakuha sa teksto sa pamamagitan ng pagbubuod, pagbabalangkas at pagtatala.
 Pagbuo ng kongklusyon—nakabubuo ng kongklusyon sa pamamagitan ng
mahahalagang detalyeng makukuha sa teksto; pagkatapos, gagamitin ang mga
detalyeng nabanggit upang maiugnay sa mga karanasang bunga ng obserbasyon o
dili kaya’y nabasa ng mambabasa.
 Pagsuri at pagkilala ng mga ideyang katotohanan at opinyon
 Kahulugan ng katotohanan (fact)
a. Ang nagawang bagay
b. Kasalukuyang ginagawa, binub uo, ginagampanan
c. Aktwal na umiiral, subhektibo o obhektibo man ang konsiderasyon
 Kahulugan ng opinyon (Silapan at Fabros III, 1999)
a. Pagpili, paghiling, o malayang pagpili
100
b. Kuru-kuro, pala-palagay na batay sap unto de bista ng isang tao;
maaaring mali ito sa pamamaraan ng iba, subalit isang katotohanan sa
nagpapahayag nito
c. Isang paniniwala na mas malakas pa sa impresyon
d. Mas mahina sa positibong kaalaman, na batay sa obserbasyon at
eksperimento
e. Isang paghuhusga
 Pagkilala sa hulwaran o istilong ginamit ng awtor sa pagsulat—kasanayan ito sa
pagsusuri kung anong hulwaran o istilo ang ginamit ng awtor upang mabuo at
maipahayag ang mga kaalaman o ideya sa mga babasahing teksto; maaari rin
namang alamin ang layunin, saloobin at panauhan (point of view) ng manunulat
tungkol sa kanyang isinulat. Nagbigay sina Montgomery at Moreau (2003) nasa
Alejo, et.al., (2005:107) ng pitong anyo ng tekstong ekspositori. Tingnan ang
talahanayan sa ibaba.
Anyo Paglalarawan Karaniwang

Aplikasyon
Tinipong katibayan sa paksa. Saklwa ang lahat ng
Paglalarawan Paggamit ng pang-uri at pang- pang-akademikong
abay. gawain, sining, musika,
P.E.
Pagtatala Pag-iisa-isa ng mga halimbawa na Agham
may kaugnayan sa paksa. Matematika
Pagsusunod-sunod Pagpapahayag ng kaayusan ng Agham
mga hakbang, proseso o Matematika
pamamaraan
Pagpapaliwanag kung bakit
Sanhi / Bunga nangyari ang isang bagay. May Kasaysayan
naunang pangyayari at may
sumunod na pangyayari
Pagbibigay ng problemang
maaaring malutas nang mahigit
Problema / sa isang solusyon. Kailangang Agham
Solusyon ipahayag ang problema at
magmungkahi ng plano kung
paano ito malulutas.
Pagpapakita ng pagkakatulad o
Paghahambing at pagkakaiba ng dalawa o mahigit
Pagkokontrast pang sangkap o bahagi. Agham Panlipunan
Kagalingan at kahinaan, sang- Heograpiya
ayon at di sang-ayon, sinang-
ayunan at sinalungat na pananaw
 Pagsusulat ng akda o seleksyon sa pamamagitan ng pagbabasa—layunin nito

na maisulat ang naging epekto ng binasa sa sariling damdamin, kuru-kuro, kaisipan at
ugali ng mambabasa.
Samakatuwid, lahat ng uri ng paksa ay sinasaklaw nito at lahat ng uri ng tao ay
maaaring tagabasa nito.
101
Naririto ang mga halimbawang uri ng sulatin:
1. Personal na uri – impormal na anyo
2. Mapanuri o kritikal – pormal na anyo
Maaari rin namang ganito ang sulatin:
1. Pinaikling pagsulat ng katha na tinatawag na presi na ang ibig sabihin ay mahigpit na
pinanatili ang mga pangunahing kaisipan, ayos ng pagkakasulat, pananaw ng sumulat
at himig ng orihinal (Silapan at Fabros III, 1999: 117).
2. Hawig o parapreys—isang pagpapaliwanag ng isang akda o babasahin na tangkang
ibigay ang kahulugan upang maunawaan sa higit na madaling paraan; karaniwang
itong ginagawa sa mga tula o kasabihan sapagkat hindi lantad ang mensahe.
 Analisis at balidasyon ng kaalaman—isang paraang lumilinang sa kasanayan sa pag-
unawa ng mga mag-aaral upang analisahin/tayahin/ebalweytin ang mga ebidensiya ng
pangyayari; mula rito makabubuo ng pangangatuwirang pasaklaw o pangangatuwirang
pabuod
 Pagtukoy sa damdamin, tono, layunin at pananaw ng teksto—naririto ang dapat
tandaan sa pagtukoy ng damdamin, tono, layunin at pananaw:
 Ang himig (mood) ng isang teksto, ang damdaming nadarama ng bumabasa
(halimbawa: pagkatakot, pagkainis, pagkalungkot, pagtataka, o pag-aalinlangan)
 Tono (tone) ng isang teksto, ang saloobin ng awtor tungkol sa paksang inilalahad
(halimbawa: mapagbiro, malungkot o nang-uuyam)
 Layunin o pananaw ng pagkakasulat, karaniwang nasisinag sa tono o dili kaya’y sa
himig
 Uri ng estilo
 Pormal o di pormal
 Obhetibo o subhetibo
 Positibo o negatibo
 Pagbibigay interpretasyon sa mapa, tsart, grap, at talahanayan—naririto ang mga
patnubay upang mabasa ang mga ito nang mabisa:
 Basahing mabuti ang legend na karaniwang makikita sa mapa
 Basahin ang mga impormasyon sa gilid at ibaba ng grap
 Basahin ang pamagat at subseksyon ng teksto
 Pag-uuri ng mga ideya / detalye
Ang pangunahing ideya—ito ang pinakamahalagang diwa tungkol sa pinag-uusapan sa
isang talata maging ito ay nasa anyong paglalahad, paglalarawan, pagsasalaysay o
pangangatuwiran
 Nagagawang malinaw ang isang kumplikado o masalimuot na paksa sa
pamamagitan ng mga pangungusap na tiyakang sumusuporta sa pangunahing
ideya
 Tinatawag na mga pangunahing detalye ang mga pangungusap na sumusuporta
upang mabuo ang pangunahing diwa ng talata
 Tinatawag namang mga maliliit na kaugnay na detalye ang mga pangungusap na
nagpapaliwanag sa mga pangunahing detalye.
102
Paksa o Pangunahing Ideya

Halimbawa--- Bahay
Pangunahing Detalye
duplex, bungalow chalet, bahay-kubo
Kaugnay na Maliit na Detalye
pintura, bintana pinto, kurtina
 Pagkilala sa pamaksang pangungusap

- Ang pamaksang pangungusap ay pangungusap na kumakatawan sa sentral na ideya sa
loob ng isang talata.
 Pangungusap itong kumokontrol sa diwa ng talata na nakatutulong sa kalinawan at
kaisahan ng ideya
 May 2 bahagi ang paksang pangungusap—simuno at panaguri; sa iba’y tinatawag
itong topic at comment.
Halimbawa:
Sa kasalukuyan, pinag-iisipan ang pagkakaroon ng isang

pambansang ID (topic) na magiging pangunahing pananggalang
laban sa terorismo (comment). Tutol ang iba sapagkat labag daw ito
sa makataong karapatan (comment). Subalit, para sa Muslim
minority, ang pambansang ID (topic) ang siyang magbibigay
proteksyon nila (comment) sa mga ilegal na paghuli / pag-aresto,
panggigipit at karahasan.
 May dalawang uri ng pamaksang pangungusap: lantad at di-lantad. Matatagpuan ang
lantad na pamaksang pangungusap sa—
Unahan - una’t hulihan
Gitna - hulihan ng talata
lalo na kung ang mga talata ay naglalahad at nangangatuwiran.
 Bakit nasa unahang posisyon ang pamaksang pangungusap?

--kung ang pangkalahatang ideya ay pinalawak ng mga argumento o ng mga
tiyak na halimbawa o ilustrasyon
 Bakit nasa gitna? --kung
naghahambing o nagbibigay impormasyon
103
 Bakit sa unahan at hulihan?
--kung ibig magbigay-diin sa ideyang naipahayag sa una
--nagbibigay ito ng impresyon ng kabuuan ng ideya
 Bakit sa hulihan? --kung
ang pruweba, ilustrasyon, halimbawa, at mga detalye ay naipakita muna bago ipahayag
ang proposisyon
 Ipinahihiwatig lamang ang pamaksang pangungusap sa uring di-lantad lalo pa’t ito ay
talatang naglalarawan at nagsasalaysay.
9. Pananaliksik / Reserts—mapanuri at kritikal na pag-aaral tungkol sa isang isyu, konsepto,

at problema
10.Mga mapaghahanguan ng paksa

- sarili - internet - dyaryo - magasin -radio
- tv (cable) - mga awtoridad - kaibigan - kakilala
- kaklase -guro
11.Magsisilbing proposal ng sulating pananaliksik ang konseptong papel. Binubuo ito ng apat
na bahagi:
 Rasyunal (rationale)
 Layunin
 Metodolohiya
 Inaasahang output o resulta
12.May dalawang panimulang gawain sa pananaliksik

 Paghahanap ng materyales
 Paggawa ng pansamantalang bibliograpi
13.Mula sa paghahanap ng datos, susunod ang pagdedesisyon sa format at uri ng balangkas

na gagawin para mabuo ang pansamantalang balangkas ng napili mong paksa
14.Magiging batayan ng maayos na dokumentasyon ang anyo o klase ng tala tulad ng:
- direktong sipi - buod ng tala - presi
- sipi ng sipi - hawig (paraphrase) - salin / sariling salin
15.Sa kasalukuyang konteksto ng pananaliksik, mahalaga ang interbyu bilang bagong bukal
ng impormasyon kayat dapat na batid ng mananaliksik ang mga hakbang sa mabisang
gamit nito.
16.Dalawang bagay naman ang may bigat sa pananaliksik:

 Proseso ng pagbuo ng mga bagong insights o kabatiran
 Panghihikayat upang tanggapin ng iba na totoo at wasto ang bagong ideyang
natuklasan
104
17.Upang magkaroon ng kabuluhan ang anuman ideya o kinalabasan ng pananaliksik
kailangang maisulat ito sa isang maayos at mabisang paraan na binibigyang pansin ang
mga sumusunod:
 Iba’t ibang prinsipyo sa pagsulat ng burador
 Ang wastong dokumentasyon ng pananaliksik
 Presentasyon ng papel sa maayos na estilo at format
FILIPINO: Masining na Pagpapahayag

Nagagamit ang angkop na repertwa ng wika sa pagpapahayag ng kaalaman,
karanasan at saloobin.
MGA BATAYANG KONSEPTO
1. Sa lahat ng uri ng gawain, kailangan ng tao ang makipagtalastasan sa kanyang kapwa.

Isinasagawa ito sa dalawang paraan—pagpapahayag na pasalita at pagpapahayag na
pasulat.
2. Ang retorika ay may mahalagang papel sa masining at mabisang pagpapahayag (Bisa
1992:2)
 Anumang may sining ay maganda; maganda kung ang mga salitang gagamitin ay
magsasaalang-alang sa himig o tono, sa ritmo, sa talinghaga, sa diksyon.
 Anumang mabisa ay nagbibigay ng mabuti o magandang resulta o bunga; mabisa kung
magiging paraan ang paggamit ng wika para makapaghatid ng maliwanag na
105
impormasyon, makapagpahayag ng makabuluhang ideya, at makapagkintal ng mga
impresyon sa isipan ng mambabasa o tagapakinig.
3. Samakatuwid sa paggamit ng dalawang salitang nabanggit sa kaisipan blg. 2 kaugnay ng
wika, ang masining at mabisang pagpapahayag ay maayos, maganda, malinaw, tama at
epektibong pagpapahayag ng ano mang naiisip, nadarama sa paraang maaaring pasalita
o pasulat.
4. Dalawang mahahalagang bagay ang hindi maaaring paghiwalayin sa pag-aaral ng
masining at mabisang pagpapahayag:
 Retorika (ayon sa klasikong depinisyon (Badayos, 2001:4)
a. Agham ng pagpapahinuhod (Socrates, 350 BC)
b. Kakayahan sa pagwawari o paglilirip sa bawat pagkakataon ng anumang
paraan ng paghimok (Aristotle)
c. Ang sining ng argumentatibong komposisyon (Richard Whatley)
 Retorika (ayon sa kontemporaryong depinisyon)—ang pinakamabisang pagpili /
paggamit ng mga salita upang makabuo ng isang makabuluhan at epektibong
mensahe
 Grammar / balarila—ang wastong gamit / pagkakaayos ng mga salita upang
makabuo ng mga pangungusap na gramatikal
5. Kung gayon sa mga kaalamang pambalarila (tulad ng wastong gamit, tamang mga
panuring, pandiwa, atbp.) nakasalalay ang kawastuhan at kalinawan ng ating pagsasalita
at pagsulat. Kahit na maganda ang pahayag kung hindi wasto ang mga gamit at ugnayan
ng mga salita, hindi lamang makakabawas iyon sa kalinawan ng pahayag kundi gayundin
sa pagiging kaakit-akit nito. Samakatuwid, kasama ng retorika ang balarila para makamit
ang mabisang pagpapahayag.
6. Paano ba ginagamit ang retorika sa proseso ng mabisang pagpapahayag?
 Paggamit ng mga Alusyon at Talinghaga
Alusyon—mga karunungang bayan na minana pa natin sa ating mga ninuno
Nagdaragdag ito ng kasiningan sa pagpapahayag tulad ng mga sumusunod:
a. Salawikain—matalinghaga ang salawikain at karaniwang kapupulutan ng aral hinggil sa
buhay at pamumuhay. Ito ay mga taludtod na may sukat at tugma. Itinuturing na hiyas
n gating wika ang mga salawikain sapagkat tulad ng hiyas, ito ay nakapagpapaganda
ng pagpapahayag.
Halimbawa:
Aanhin ko ang bahay na bato kung ang nakatira ay kwago.
(Ito ay tungkol sa maayos na pakikitungo sa kapwa tao o sa mga kapitbahay.)
b. Kasabihan—mga bukambibig na hinango mula sa karanasan ng buhay na nagsisilbing
patnubay sa mga dapat ugaliin ng tao. Naglalaman ng mga kaisipang nagpapahayag
ng mga katotohanan na sadyang may pagkakaugnayan ang buhay sa kaasalan ng tao.
Halimbawa:
Pili nang pili, nauwi sa bungi.
(Sa kapipili o sobrang pagkapihikan maaaring matapat sa pangit o may kapansanan)
Mahahalagang pahayag din na kinuha o hinugot sa mga akda ng kilalang tao o lider ng
bansa.
Mga halimbawa:
106
Ang katapatan ko sa aking partido ay magwawakas sa pagsisimula ng katapatan ko sa
aking bayan. –M.L. Quezon
Ang kabataan ang pag-asa ng bayan. –Jose P. Rizal
c. Kawikaan—iba ang kawikaan sa salawikain. Ang kawikaan ay hindi nagtataglay ng
talinghaga kaya tiyak ang kahulugan. Karaniwan nang binubuo ito ng taludtod o mga
taludtod na maaaring may sukat at tugma at maaari ring wala.
Mga halimbawa:
Nasa Diyos ang awa, nasa tao ang gawa.
Huwag ipagpabukas ang kaya mong gawin ngayon.
 Paggamit ng mga salitang ginagamit na idyoma / sawikain
Mga lipon ng salita na ang dalang kahulugan ay iba kaysa sa kahulugang literal ng
mga salitang bumubuo nito. nakatutulong sa mabisa, makulay at makahulugang
pagpapahayag ang paggamit ng idyoma.
Pinakapuso ng lahat ng salita ang idyoma (Santiago, 1994). Kapag inalis ang
idyoma ng isang wika, masisira ang komunikasyon ng mga taong gumagamit nito.
Yumayaman at yumayabong ang isang pahayag kung ginagamitan ng idyoma na minana pa
natin sa ating mga ninuno.
Gayunpaman kung susuriin ang kahulugan ng bawat salita, tila mali at lihis ito sa
mga tuntuning pambalarila.
Ayon kay David Minsberg (nasa Tanauan, et.al., 2003:4) maaaring malaman mang
kahulugan ng bawat idyoma sa pamamagitan ng:
a. Pag-unawa sa kaugnayan nito sa ibang bagay
b. Pagsuri sa kaugnayan nito sa ibang salita sa loob ng pangungusap
c. Paggamit nito nang malimit hanggang sa ito’y maging bahagi na ng sariling bokabularyo
Mga halimbawa:
Naghugas ng kamay
Buhay alamang
Buwaya sa katihan
 Paggamit ng tayutay / patalinghagang anyo ng pagpapahayag

Iniuugnay ang kaalamang retorika sa patalinghagang pagpapahayag o sa ibang salita’y
tayutay.
Tayutay—isang pahayag na sadyang masining at kaakit-akit. Naghahayag ito ng makulay
at mabisang pagpapakahulugan.
Pangunahing layunin ng retorika na makapagpahayag nang maganda, masining, at maayos.
Ang mga sumusunod ay mga uri ng patalinghagang pagpapahayag o tayutay:
a. Pagtutulad (simile)—paggamit ng tuwirang pagkukumpara ng dalawang bagay na
magkaiba ng uri.
Halimbawa: Ang tren ay parang alupihan.
b. Pagwawangis (metaphor)—paggamit ng mga pahayag na nagpapahiwatig ng
pagkukumpara ng dalawang bagay na magkaiba ng uri. Hindi na ito ginagamitan ng mga
pariralang tulad ng, kawangis ng, gaya ng, animo’y, atbp.
Halimbawa: Tinik siya sa lalamunan ni Angelo.
c. Pagbibigay-katauhan (personification)—pagsasalin ng mga katangian ng tao sa isang
bagay. Naipapahayag ito sa pamamagitan ng paggamit ng pandiwa.
Halimbawa: Sumasayaw ang mga alon sa karagatan.
107
d. Pagmamalabis (hyperbole)—isang pahayag na eksaherado o labis sa katotohanan.
Halimbawa: Nagliliyab ang mga mata ng galit nag alit na lalaki.
e. Pagtawag (apostrophe)—isang pabulalas na pagkausap sa isang tao (karaniwang patay o
wala sa tiyak na pook) o isang bagay o bahagi ng kalikasan na binibigyan ng katangiang
pantao. Halimbawa: Pag-ibig! Masdan ang ginawa mo.
f. Pagpapalit-tawag (metonymy)—paggamit ng isang salitang panumbas o nagpapahiwatig
ng kahulugan ng di-tinukoy na salita; ang pagpapalit ng katawagan o ngalan sa bagay na
tinukoy.
Halimbawa: Malalim na pilat ang naiwan sa kanyang puso.
g. Pagpapalit-saklaw (synecdoche)—pagbanggit sa bahagi bilang pantukoy sa kabuuan;
maaari rin namang nag-iisang tao ang kumakatawan sa isang pangkat.
Halimbawa: Isang kayumanggi ang pinarangalan sa larangan ng
boksing.
h. Paghihimig (onomatopoeia)—paggamit ng mga salitang ang tunog ay gumagagad sa
inilalarawan; naipapahiwatig dito ang kahulugan sa pamamagitan ng tunog o himig ng
mga salita
Halimbawa: Kumalabog sa matigas na lupa ang bumagsak na kargamento mula sa
trak.
i. Pagsalungat / oksimoron/ epigram (oxymoron)—paggamit ng dalawang salitang
magkasalungat o pahayag na nagsasalungatan
Halimbawa: tumatawa’y umiiyak
may lungkot at tuwa
mabuting kaaway
j. Paralelismo (parallelism)—paggamit ng inihahanay na kaisipan sa magkakahawig na
istruktura, tulad ng:
sama-samang nabubuhay
sama-samang namamatay
k. Paglumanay (euphemism)—paggamit ng mga salitang nagpapaganda ng pangit na
pahayag; pagpapahayag na gumagamit ng mga malumanay at magagandang pananalita
upang tukuyin ang isang pangyayari na maaaring kung sasabihin nang tiyakan ay
masakit o pangit sa pandinig.
Halimbawa:
Ang babaeng naglalaro ng apoy (nagtataksil) ay humantong sa isang
makabagbag damdaming tagpo sa harap ng kapitbahay.
7. Paano naman ginagamit ang balarila sa proseso ng mabisang pagpapahayag?

Saklaw ng balarila o grammar ang mga sumusunod: (1) tamang gamit ng mga
salita; (2) tamang pag-aaral ng anyo at uri ng mga salita; (3) tamang pagkakaugnay ng mga
salita sa isang pahayag upang makabuo ng malinaw na kaisipan o diwa.
 Paggamit ng mga tamang salita
A. ang ng at nang
ng
a. ginagamit bilang pantukoy
(Maluwang ang looban ng simbahan)
108
b. ginagamit bilang pang-ukol na ang katumbas ay tamang pagkakaugnay ng
mga salita sa isang pahayag upang makabuo ng malinaw na kaisipan o diwa
(Pinalo niya ng kahoy ang magnanakaw.)
c. ginagamit bilang pang-ukol na ang katumbas ay sa
(Ang mga iskawt ay nagpunta ng Baguio)
d. ginagamit bilang pang-ukol na nagpapakilala ng pangngalang paari
(Tumanggap ng plake ang kanyang anak)
e. ginagamit bilang tagatanggap ng kilos
(Ayaw siyang layuan ng agam-agam.)
f. ginagamit na pananda sa tuwirang layon ng pandiwang palipat
(Gumagawa siya ng manika.)
g. ginagamit na pananda ng aktor o tagaganap ng pandiwa sa tinig na balintiyak
(Tinulungan ng kapatid ang kanyang ina sa pagluluto.)
h. ginagamit kapag nagsasaad ng pagmamay-ari ng isang bagay o katangian
(Nabali ang mga paa ng mesa.)
nang
a. ginagamit bilang pang-abay
(Itinali nang mahigpit ang bihag.)
b. ginagamit bilang salitang nangangahulugan din ng “para” o “upang”
(Sumulat ka nang sumulat ng mga kuwento nang manalo ka sa
patimpalak.)
c. ginagamit bilang salitang panggitna sa mga salitang inuulit
(Iyak nang iyak ang dalagang malungkot.)
d. ginagamit na pangatnig sa mga hugnayang pangungusap at ito rin ang
panimula ng katulong na sugnay
(Maghugas ka ng pinggan nang makakain na kayo.)
B. ang din at rin, daw at raw
rin at raw
Ginagamit kung ang sinusundang salita ay nagtatapos sa patinig at sa malapatinig
na w at y.
(siya raw / rin
Ikaw raw / rin
Tinalakay raw / rin)
din at daw
Ginagamit kung ang salitang sinusundan ay nagtatapos sa katinig maliban sa /w/ ay
/y/.
(takot din / daw
Malakas din / daw)
C. ang sina at sila
a. sina—ginagamit kapag ito ay sinusundan ng mga pangngalan na
tinutukoy sa pangungusap
(Naglilinis sina Gel at Lisette ng bahay.)
b. sila—ginagamit bilang panghalip na panao
(Umalis na sila kangina pang umaga.)
D. pinto, pintuan
109
a. pinto—bahagi ng daanan na isinasara at ibinubukas
(Isinara niya ang pinto upang hindi makapasok ang magnanakaw.)
b. pintuan—ang kinalalagyan ng pinto (Hindi
pa napipinturahan ang pinto sa pintuan.)
E. pahirin, pahiran
a. pahirin—alisin sa pamamagitan ng pamunas o sa pamamagitan ng kamay
(Pahirin mo ang sipon sa kanyang ilong.)
b. pahiran—lagyan ng isang bagay sa pamamagitan ng pamunas o sa
pamamagitan ng kamay
(Pahiran mo ng langis ang natutuyo mong balat.)
F. may at mayroon
may—ginagamit ang may kung ang sumusunod o kasunos na salita ay:
a. pangngalan (May tao sa tanghalan.)
b. pandiwa (May pumatay sa mga ipis na nasa cabinet.)
c. pang-uri (May mataas na sapatos ang guro niya.)
d. pantukoy (May mga panoorin sa patyo ng simbahan.)
e. pang-ukol na sa (May sa daga ang ank mong iyan.)
mayroon—ginagamit ang mayroon kung:
a. sinusundan ng panghalip (Mayroon kayong libreng gamot sa
baranggay.)
b. sinusundan ng isang kataga (Mayroon yatang pagsusulit ngayon.)
c. bilang panagot sa tanong (May kapatid ka pa ba? Mayroon.)
 Pag-aaral ng anyo at uri ng mga salita

Nabanggit na, na may dalawang uri ng pagpapahayag: pasalita at pasulat. Bakit
tayo nagsusulat? Mahalaga ang katanungang ito sapagkat kasangkot na sa iba’t ibang
layunin ng pagsulat ang aitng mambabasa. Kapag nababanggit ang mambabasa,
isinasaalang-alang na rin ang uri ng wikang gagamitin, pati na ang tono at istilo ng
pagpapahayag.
Ang mga salita ay may kaantasan din. Isinasaalang-alang ng mga aral sa wika ang
kaantasang ito. Sa gayong ang mga salitang bibitawan o gagamitin ay bumabagay sa
kanyang katayuan, sa hinihingi ng panahon at pook at sa okasyong dinadaluhan.
Sa ganang kabagayang ito ng mga salita, masasabing may pormal at di-pormal na
mga salita.
Salitang pormal—mga salitang istandard dahil ito’y kinikilala, tinatanggap at
ginagamit ng karamihang nakapag-aaral sa wika.
Nasa ilalim ng uring ito ang:
a. Pambansa—mga salitang ginagamit sa mga aklat at babasahing may
sirkulasyon sa buong kapuluan at lahat ng paaralan
b. Pampanitikan—mga salitang matayog, malalim, mabigat, makulay at sadyang
mataas ang uri. Ito ang mga salitang ginagamit ng mga manunulat at dalubwika.
Salitang hindi pormal o impormal—mga salitang karaniwan at palasak na
ginagamit sa mga pang-araw-araw na pakikipag-usap at pakikipagsulatan sa mga
kakilala at kaibigan. Kasama dito ang:
a. Lalawiganin—mga salitang kilala at saklaw lamang ng pook na pinaggagamitan
nito; tatak ito ng mga maka-rehiyonal na ugali ng tao.
110
b. Balbal—tinatawag din slang sa Ingles. Tinatawag din salitang-kanto, salitang-
lansangan, salita ng mga bakla.
c. Kolokyal (colloquial)—mga pang-araw-araw na mga salita ngunit may
kagaspangan at pagka-bulgar, bagamat may anyong repinado at malinis ayon sa
kung sino ang nagsasalita.
Halimbawa:
PORMAL KOLOKYAL
saan naroon sanaron
naroon, naroroon naron
nasaan nasan
kaniya kanya
kani-kaniya kanya-kanya
almirol almidon, almirol
aywan ewan
piyesta pista
PORMAL DI-PORMAL
Pambansa Pampanitikan Lalawiganin Balbal
kapatid kapusod tugang (Bikol) utol

baliw nasisiraang-bait buang (Bisaya) buwang
- ang tono ng mga salitang gagamitin ay maaaring pauyam, malisyoso, seryoso,

nakikiusap, o maaaring neutral
 Tamang pagkakaugnay ng mga salita sa isang pahayag upang makabuo ng
malinaw na kaisipan o diwa.
Kailangan ang kaisahan sa pangungusap para maging epektibo ito. Narito ang ilang
patnubay upang magawa ang kaisahan sa pangungusap (Tumangan, et.al., 1997: 21-22):
a. Huwag pagsamahin sa pangungusap ang hindi magkakaugnay na kaisipan.
b. Ang pagtataglay ng maraming kaisipan sa pangungusap ay labag sa kaisahan ng
pangungusap dahil lumalabo ang pangunahing isipang ipinahahayag.
c. Gawing malinaw sa pangungusap kung alin ang pangunahing sugnay at ang panulong
na sugnay.
d. Huwag ilayo ang salitang panuring sa tinuturingan ng salita.
e. Ilapit ang panghalip sa pamanggit sa pangngalang kinakatawan nito.
f. Sa Filipino, nauuna ang panaguri kaysa sa simuno sa karaniwang ayos ng
pangungusap.
Sa kabilang banda, nagiging malinaw ang mga pangungusap ng talata kapag may
wastong paglilipat-diwa. May mga salita at pariralang ginagamit sa paglilipat-diwa na
nakatutulong upang maunawaan ang tamang pagkakaugnay-ugnay ng mga pangungusap. Sa
bawat kaisipang ililipat, naririto ang angkop na salita o pariralang maaaring gamitin:
a. Kaisipang idinaragdag—at, saka, pati, gayundin
111
b. Kaisipang sumasalungat—ngunit, subalit, datapwat, bagaman, kahiman, sa kabilang
dako
c. Kaisipang naghahambing—katulad, kawangis ng, animo’y, anaki’y
d. Kaisipang nagbubuod—sa katagang sabi, sa madaling sabi, kaya nga
e. Kaisipang nagsasabi ng bunga o kinalabasan—sa wakas, sa dakong huli, kung gayon,
sa ganoon
f. Paglipas ng panahon—noon, habang, di-naglaon, samantala, sa di-kawasa, hanggang
8. Mga uri ng pagpapahayag / diskurso

Maraming paraan ng pagpapahayag na maisasagawa sa paraang pasalita o pasulat na
makatutulong upang makaakit at maging mabisa ang ating pagpapahayag.
a. Paglalahad—hangarin nito na maipaliwanag nang obhetibo o walang pagkampi na may
sapat na detalye na pawang pampalawak ng kaalaman sa paksang binibigyang linaw
nang lubos na maunawaan ng may interes (Arrogante, 1994: 117)
b. Paglalarawan—hangarin nito na sa pamamagitan ng mga angkop na salita, maipakita
ang kaanyuan at kabuuan ng tao, bagay, sitwasyon, insidente o senaryo.
c. Pagsasalaysay—hangarin nito na mag-ulat ng mga pangyayari sa isang maayos na
pagkakahanay (Tumangan, et.al., 1986:3)
d. Pangangatwiran—hangarin nito na hikayatin ang iba pa na tanggapin ang katotohanan
o kawastuhan ng isang paninindigan o dili kaya’y baguhin ang kanilang pag-iisip o
impluwensyahan ang kanilang pag-uugali at pagkilos sa pamamagitan ng mga
makatwirang pahayag 9Semorlan, et.al., 1999: 155)
MATHEMATICS: Fundamentals of Mathematics
The Number System
IRRATIONAL
REAL NON-
COMPLEX RATIONAL INTEGERS
IMAGINARY
INTEGER
COUNTIN ZER NEGATIV

112 G O E
Counting Numbers—numbers that we use in counting; also called natural numbers. Using the
roster method, N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5..}
Whole Numbers—union of the number zero and the set of counting numbers. Again, using the
roster method, W = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5…}
Integers—the union of the set of counting numbers, their negatives, and zero. Using the roster
method In = {-2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5…}
Operations on integers
I. Addition
 Like signs—add the absolute values, and prefix the negative sign if the addends are
negative
 Unlike signs—get the absolute values of the numbers and subtract the smaller absolute
value from the other and prefix the negative sign if the negative addend has the larger
absolute value
e.g. -4 + (-6) = -10
-2 + 7 = 7 – 2 = 5
3 + (-9) = (-9 – 3 ) = -6
II. Subtraction—if the minuend and subtrahend are both positive and the minuend is greater
than the subtrahend, proceed to subtract forthwith. Otherwise, change the sign of the supposed
subtrahend and proceed as in addition.
e.g. 8 – 3 = 5
4 – 4 = 4 + (-5) = -1
III. Multiplication (Division)—to multiply (or divide) two integers with
 Like signs—get the product (or quotient) of their absolute values
 Unlike signs—get the negative of the product (or quotient) of their absolute values
e.g. -5 x -4 = 20
-3 x (2) = -6
12 / (-3) = -4
Divisibility Rules
2: Number ends with 0, 2, 4, 6, or 8, meaning the number is even e.g. 512
3: Sum of the digits (digital root) is divisible by 3 e.g. 216
4: Last two digits form a number that is divisible by 4 e.g. 1012
5: Last digit is 0 or 5 e.g. 340
6: Divisible by 2 and 3 e.g. 192
7: Difference obtained after subtracting twice the last digit from the number formed by the
remaining digits is divisible by 7 e.g. 364
8: Last three digits form a number that is divisible by 8 e.g. 1024
9: Root is divisible by 9 e.g. 423
10: Last digit is 0 e.g. 3540
11: Difference between the sum of the 1 , 3 , 5 ,…digits, and the sum of the 2nd, 4th, 6th,…
st rd th
digits is divisible by 11 e.g. 90816

12: Divisible by both 3 and 4 e.g. 4128
113
13: The sum of four times the last digit and the number formed by the remaining digits is
divisible by 13
e.g. 182 is divisible by 13 since 4 times 2 is 8, and 18+8 = 26 which is divisible by
13
Note: Divisibility rules for two or more relatively prime numbers (GCF is 1) may be combined to
serve as a divisibility rule for their product.
e.g. The rules for 3, 4, and 13 may be combined to serve as the rule for their
product—156 since 3, 4, and 13 are relatively prime.
Prime and Composite Numbers

Prime—counting number that has exactly two factors
e.g. 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19,…
Composite—counting number that has more than two factors
e.g. 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15,…
*Note that 1 is neither prime nor composite and that 2 is the only even prime.
Prime Factorization
- refers both the process as well as to the result of the process of expressing a counting number
as the product of its prime factors
- if the counting number is already prime, its prime factorization is the number itself
e.g. 126: 2 x 32 x 7
Methods of getting the prime factorization of numbers

Repeated division by primes
e.g. 2 126
3 63
Thus, the prime factorization 3 21
2
for 126 is 2 x 3 x 7 7
Factor Tree 126

e.g. Again using 126: 2 63
9 7
Thus, the prime factorization for 126 3 3
is 2 x 32 x 7
Greatest Common Factor (GCF)—largest whole number devisor of the given numbers. The
GCF ot two numbers, say a and b, is denoted by (a, b).
e.g. The GCF of 8 and 28 is 4
Methods of Finding the GCF
Intersection of Sets Method—for each of the given numbers, list their factors from least to
greatest and pick out the greatest factor that is common to all lists.
e.g. Find (8, 28)
8: {1, 2, 4, 8}
28: {1, 2, 4, 7, 14, 28}, The GCF is thus 4.
Prime Factorization—write the prime factorization for each of the given numbers so that the
common, and only common, prime factors are in the same column. The GCF is the product of the
lowest powers occurring in columns common to all prime factorizations.
114
e.g. Find (12, 15, 90) 12: 22 x 3
15: 3 x 5
2
90: 2 x 3 x 5
3 = 3 (GCF)
Euclidean Algorithm (may be used if we are looking for the GCF of only two numbers). The
procedure may be best understood through an illustration. e.g. For 24 and 28
1. Divide the larger number by the other. 28 ÷ 24 = 1, with a remainder of 4.
2. If there is a remainder, divide the last divisor by 24 ÷ 4 = 6, with no remainder
by this remainder. Repeat this step until no
remainder is left.
3. The GCF is the last divisor. The GCF is thus 4.
Least Common Multiple (LCM) of two or more counting numbers—the smallest non-zero
number that is a multiple of the given numbers. The LCM of two number, say a and b, is denoted
by [a, b].
e. g. The LCM of 5, 6 and 8 is 120 because it is the smallest non-zero number that is a multiple
of
5, 6, and 8.
Methods of finding the LCM
Intersection of Sets Method—for each of the given numbers, list their multiples from least to
greatest, and pick out the smallest non-zero multiple that is common to all lists.
e.g. Find [12, 15, 30]
12: {0, 12, 24, 36, 48, 60, 72, 84, 96, 108, 120, …}
15: {0, 15, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90, 105, 120, 135, …}
30: {0, 30, 60, 90, 120, 150, …}
Prime Factorization—write the prime factorization for each of the given numbers so that
common, and only common, prime factors are in the same column. The LCM is the product of the
highest powers occurring in a column of any prime factorizations
e. g. Again, for 12, 15 and 30, we have
12: 22 x 3
15: 3 x 5
30: 2 x 3 x 5
2
2 x 3 x 5 = 60 (LCM)
Euclidean Algorithm—the LCM of two numbers may be obtained by dividing their product by
their GCF. In symbols,
e.g. Find the LCM of 12 and 15
a xb
[a , b]=
[12, 15] = (12 x 15) (a , b) 15) =
/ (12,
180 / 3 = 60
Repeated Division—the task is to divide the two numbers by a common prime factor and
dividing the resulting quotients also by a common prime factor. This step is repeated until the
resulting quotients are already relatively prime (GCF=1). The LCM is product of the prime
divisors and the relatively prime quotients. This may better understood through an illustration
e.g. 12 and 30 2 12 30
3 6 15
2 5
115
The LCM is therefore 60.
Fractions
Meanings
a. Part of a whole or group
b. Indicated division
c. Ratio
Kinds of Fractions
As to relation between the numerator and the denominator
a. Proper—the numerator is less than the denominator e.g. ¾
b. Improper—the numerator is equal to or greater than the denominator e.g. 5/3
As to relation of the denominators of two or more fractions
a. Similar—the denominators are equal e.g. 2/5 and 4/5
b. Dissimilar—the denominators are not equal e.g. 3/7 and 4/9
Other classes
a. Equivalent—fractions having the same value e.g. 3/7 and 9/21
b. Mixed—composed of a whole number and a proper fraction e.g. 5 ¼
Rules involving Zero
a. Zero numerator and non-zero denominator – the value is zero
b. Zero denominator—no value, undefined
c. Zero value—the numerator is zero
Operations on Fractions
1. Multiplication—multiply numerator and denominator to get the numerator and
denominator respectively of the product
3 1 3
e.g. X =
5 4 20
2. Division—multiply the supposed dividend by the reciprocal of the supposed divisor.
4 3 4 7 28
e.g. ÷ = x =
5 7 5 3 15
3. Addition (Subtraction)
a. Similar Fractions – add (subtract) the numerators and copy the common denominator
3 2 5
e.g. + =
11 11 11
b. Dissimilar Fractions—use a common denominator (preferably the least) to make the
addends (minuend and subtrahend) similar and do as in the preceding rule
1 2 7 10 17
e.g. + = + =
5 7 35 35 35
Simplifying Fractions
A fraction is in simplest form if the numerator and the denominator are relatively prime
(their GCF is 1). Thus, to simplify fractions, express both the numerator and the denominator as
products of a number and their GCF. The fraction is then decomposed into two fractions one of
which has the GCF both as its numerator and its denominator. This fraction reduces to 1. The
other fraction thus is the desired simplest form.
e.g. Simplify
116
16 4 x 4 4 4 4
= = x =
28 4 x 7 4 7 7
Ordering Fractions
Two fractions are equivalent if their cross products are equal. Otherwise, that fraction the
numerator of which was used to get the greater of the two cross products is the larger fraction.
3 15
e.g. =
4 20
Since the two cross products 3(20) and 4(15) are both 60 and therefore equal, the two fractions
are equivalent.
On the other hand, for the two fractions below, the left cross product is 7(8) or 56 while
the right cross-product is 66. Thus, the fraction on the right:
7 3
<
22 8
Decimals
The place value chart
thousandths
thousandths
thousandths
hundredths
thousands
thousands
thousands
hundreds
Hundred
Hundred
tenths
ones
tens
Ten
Ten
1000 1000 1000 100 10 1 . 0.1 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.000
00 0 1 01 01
Operations on decimals
Addition (Subtraction) Addition of decimals is facilitated by writing them in a column so that
their decimal points are aligned. Thus aligned, digits with the same place values would be in the
same column and the addends (or the minuend and the subtrahend) are added (or subtracted)
as if they were whole numbers, the decimal point in the sum (difference) in the same position as
the addend (minuend and subtrahend).
Multiplication Multiply the numbers as if they were whole and so place the decimal point in the
result as to have as many decimal places in it as there are in the factors combined.
e.g. To multiply 21.4 x 0.32, we write
214 x 32 = 6848
Since there are a total of 3 decimal places in the factors, we place the decimal point
between 6 and 8 to have also 3 decimal places in the result. Thus, 21.4 x 0.32 = 6.848
Division
To divide a
a. Decimal by a whole number, do as in dividing whole numbers but writing the decimal point
directly above that of the dividend
b. Number by a decimal, multiply both dividend and divisor by that power of ten such that
divisor becomes the least whole number, and then proceed as in (a) above.
Conversion
117
1. Fractions to Decimals
Divide the numerator by the denominator
e.g. 5/8 = 0.625
2. Decimals to Percents
Multiply by 100%. The same result may be had by moving the decimal point two
place to the right and prefixing the % sign.
e.g. 0.625 = 0.625 x 100%
= 62.5%
3. Percents to Decimals
Divide by 100%. The same result may be had by removing the % sign and moving
the decimal point two places to the left.
e.g. 62.5% = 62.5% ÷ 100% = .625
4. Decimals to Fractions
a. Terminating Decimals
Multiply the decimal by a fraction the numerator and denominator of which are both
equal to such power of ten with as many zeroes as there are decimal places in the
given decimal, and then simplify.
e.g. 0.625 = 0.625 x 1000/1000 = 625/1000 = 5/8
b. Repeating Decimals
The procedure is outlined below together with an example to illustrate each step.
To convert x=0.1 66
1. Multiply the number by such power of 10 100 x=16. 66

as would move one repeating portion
across the decimal point.
2. Multiply the number by such power of ten 10 x=1. 66
as would move the repeating portion next
to the decimal point.
3. Subtract the result of step 2 from that of 90 x=15
step 1.
4. Simplify 15 1
x= =
90 6
Ratio and Proportion
Ratio—comparison of two numbers a and b, where b ≠ 0, and expressed as “a to b”, or “a:b”, or
“a/b”
Proportion—a statement of equality between two ratios
Given two equal ratios, one comparing a to b and another comparing c to d, the proportion
may be expressed thus:
a : b :: c : d, or alternatively, a/b = c/d
In either of the above forms, a nd d are referred to as extremes, while b and c are referred
to as the means.
Note: If a/b = c/d, its alternation (a/c = b/d) and inversion (b/a = d/c) are both true
provided a, b, c, d, ≠ 0.
Finding the missing term of a proportion—as ratios may be treated as fractions, and
proportions as equations relating two equivalent fractions, then a missing term of a proportion
may be found by equating the cross products and solving for the unknown. Stated differently, the
118
product of the means equals the products of the extremes. In symbols, given the proportion a : b
:: c : d, ad=bc.
e.g. Find k in 3 : 5 :: k : 30 Solution: ad=bc
3(30)=5k
k= 18
Word Problems Involving
Direct Proportion—the ratios of two quantities being compared is constant
e.g. Five bananas weigh as much as 3 star apples. At this rate, how many star apples will
weigh as much as 30 bananas? The ratio of the weight of bananas to that of apples is 5 :
3. We thus have b1 : a 1 = b 2 : a 2
5 : 3 = 30 : a2
5a2 = 3(30)
a2 = 18
Inverse Proportion—the product of two quantities being compared is constant
e.g. If 10 of a certain car model running for 3 hours use up 150 liters of gas, how many of the
same car model running for 6 hours will use up the same amount of gas?
a=rxt
r x t 1 = r2 x t 2
1
10 x 3 = r2 x 6
5 = r2
Partitive Proportion—if a quantity q is to be partitioned into p 1, p2, p3,…pn, so that the partitions
are in the ratio a1:a2:a3:…:an, then the size of the kth partition may be computed as
follows:
e.g. If 24 hours is to be partitioned into 3 parts so that the parts are in the ratio 1 : 2 : 5, how
many hours would the third part be?
5
p3¿ 1+ 2+ 5 x 24
5
¿ x 24=15
8
Per Cent—literally meaning “per hundred,” it is one way of writing fractions in which the
denominator which is required to be 100 is written as “%” and read as “per cent”
e.g. ¾ = 75/100 = 75%
Percentage, Base and Rate—in the statement 15 is 30% of 50, three quantities are involved—
Percentage (P), Rate (R) and Base (B).
Percentage is that which bear to the base in the same ratio as the rate. The statement “15 is
30% of 50” is telling us that 15 (the percentage) bears to 50 (the base) in the same ratio
as 30% (the rate) in symbols, 15 = 30% x 50.
The basic formula P = R x B, has two other useful forms:
R = P/B and B = P/R
ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA
A. Properties of Real Numbers
1. Closure Property—for any real numbers a nd b, a + b and a x b are also real numbers
2. Commutative Property—for any real numbers a and b, a + b = b + a and a x b = b x a
119
3. Associative Property—for any real numbers a, b, and c
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c) and (a x b) x c = a x (b x c)
4. Existence of Identity Elements—for any real number a, there exist real numbers 0 and
1, such that a + 0 = a and a x 1 = a.
5. Existence of Inverses—for any real number a, there exists a –a such that a + -a = 0,
and a 1/a such that a x 1/a = 1.
6. Distributive Property—for any real numbers a, b, and c, a(b + c) = ab + ac
B. Properties of Equality
1. Reflexive—if a is a real number, a = a
2. Symmetric—if a and b are real numbers and a = b, then b = a
3. Transitive—if a, b and c are real numbers and a = b and b = c, then a = c.
C. Some Basic Terms
1. Variable—any symbol that is used to represent an element of a set e.g. x. y, Ө
2. Domain—the set of all elements represented by a particular variable
3. Constant—a symbol with only one element in its domain e.g. 3, -2, ∏
4. Algebraic Expression—a constant, a variable or any combination of constants and
variables involving indicated operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,
raising to a power, or extraction of a root) on them.
x− y
e.g. -4 25x2 -1, 3x3 – 2xy + y2,
4
5. Polynomial—an algebraic expression consisting only of non-negative integer powers of
variables, and with no variable in a denominator. Among the examples of the algebraic
expression above, only the last is not a polynomial
6. A Term of a polynomial—a constant or a constant multiplied by non-negative integer
powers of variables. A polynomial with only 1 term is monomial, polynomial with 2 is a
binomial and a polynomial with 3 is a trinomial.
e.g. -24x2 y3 z4 is a monomial
2x2 -3y + xy is a trinomial
7. Numerical Coefficient—that constant that is multiplied by the non-negative powers of
variables in a term.
8. Literal Coefficient—the non-negative powers of variables in a term e.g. in -2x 3y2, the
numerical coefficient is -2, while the literal coefficient is x 3y2
9. Similar terms—terms with the same literal coefficient. If the terms are not similar, they
are said to be dissimilar.
10.Degree of a term—sum of the exponents of all variable factors of a term
11.Degree of a polynomial—degree of the term of the polynomial with the highest degree
D. Evaluating Algebraic Expressions

Evaluating algebraic expressions refers to the process of finding the value of the
expression upon substitution of the given values for the respective variables.
e.g. Evaluate x2y3 + 4 when x= 2 and y=-1
(2)2(-1)3-- 2(-1)2 + 4
4(-1) –2(1) + 4
-2
Equation—statement expressing in symbols the relationship of equality between two
quantities
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Linear Equations in one variable—an equation that can be written in the form ax + b = 0,
where a and b are constants and a ≠ 0
e.g. 3x -4 = 0, 4 – 2x = 3x +5
Addition and Subtraction Property of Eq. (APE, SPE)
If a, b and c are real numbers and a = b, then
a + c = b + c,
a–c=b–c
Multiplication and Division Property of Eq. (MPE, DPE)
If a, b and c are real numbers and a = b, then
a x c = b x c,
a/c = b/c, provided c is not equal to zero
Solution of an equation—refers to an element of the domain of the variable that makes the
equation true
Solving Linear Equations—refers to the process or finding, through the use of properties of
equality, all the solutions of the equation
Some Pointers in solving linear equations
1. Simplify each side of the equation by
a. Removing grouping symbols using the distributive law
b. Removing fractions by multiplying both sides of the equation by the LCD of all
fractions
2. Use the APE/SPE to have all variables only on one side of the equation and the
constants on the other
3. Use the MPE/DPE to make the numerical coefficient of the variable equal to 1.
Solving Word Problems Involving Linear Equations

Some Pointers
1. Read the problem carefully.
2. Determine what is to be found.
3. Choose a variable to represent an unknown, usually that which needs to be found
4. Translate word phrases to algebraic expressions
5. Formulate the equation
6. Solve the equation
7. Solve the problem
Example 1. Three times the sum of a number and five is 21. What is the number?
3 ( x + 5) = 21
3x + 15 = 21
x=2
Example 2. Arman is twice as old as Andrea. Two years ago, Arman was three times as old as
Andrea. Find their ages now.
m = 2n
m-2 = 3(n-2)
2n – 2 = 3n -6
4=n
Inequalities
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Inequality—a statement that says one quantity is less than (<) or greater than (>) another
(strict inequality). In some instances, however, one quantity may be less than or
equal to (≤) or greater than or equal to (≥) to another.
e.g. 3 < 5x -2, 4x -5 ≥ x + 15
Compound Inequality—a compound statement that says one quantity is less than (or greater
than) another but is greater than (or less than) a third.
e.g. -4 < 2x-3 ≤ 9
Properties of Inequality
1. Trichotomy—If a and b are real numbers, then a < b, a = b, or a >b
2. Transitive—If a < b and b < c, then a < c
If a > b and b > c, then a > c
3. Addition Property—If a, b, and c are real numbers and a < b, then a + c < b + c. If a, b
and c are real numbers and a > b, then a + c > b + c
Solution of a Linear Inequality—an element of the domain of the variable which makes the
inequality true
Solving a Linear Inquality—the process of finding, through the use of the properties of
inequality, all the solutions of the inequality
Note: Solving a linear inequality is similar to solving linear equations except that instead
of using the properties of equality, we use the properties of inequality.
e.g. -4 ≤ 2x -3 ≤ 9
-4 + 3 ≤ 2x – 3 + 3 ≤ 9 + 3
-1 ≤ 2x 12
-1/2 ≤ x ≤ 6
Word Problems Involving Linear Inequalities—the steps in solving word problems involving
linear inequalities are the same as those in solving word problems involving linear equations
except that, again instead of using the properties of equality, we use the properties of inequality
e.g. Ani’s grades in the last four tests were 85, 89, 90 and 93. What must be her grade
in the fifth and last test to get an average of at least 90?
Solution:
85+89+90+ 93+ g5
90 ≤
5
357 +g 5
90 ≤
5
450 ≤ 357+ g5
93 ≤ g5
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Contemporary Mathematics
1. Plane Geometry
1.1 Show a working knowledge of basic terms and concepts in Plane
Geometry
1.1.1 Lines and curves, perpendicular and parallel lines
1.1.2 Angles, angle properties
1.1.3 Special triangles and quadrilaterals
1.2 Solve problems involving the basic terms and concepts in Plane
Geometry
2. Statistics and Probability
2.1 Show mastery and knowledge of basic terms and concepts in statistics
and probability
2.1.1 Counting techniques
2.1.2 Probability of an event
2.1.3 Measure of central tendency
2.1.4 Measure of variability
2.2 Solve, evaluate, and manipulate symbolic and numerical problems in
elementary algebra by applying fundamental rules, principles and
processes.
Introduction:
This part focuses on the concepts identified in the LET competencies for Gen ED
Mathematics. It provides a review of the definitions, formulas, operations, postulates, and
theorems in Geometry and Statistics. However, in an effort to effectively guide students to a
deeper understanding of the concepts involved, it begins with the foundations ang gives a wider,
more comprehensive discussion than those specifically identified by the competencies.
GEOMETRY
BASIC DEFINITIONS
Undefined Terms: the basic geometric concepts for which no definitions are given. These are
the points, lines and planes.
Collinear points: points that lie on the same line.
Coplanar points: points that lie on the same plane.
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Space: the set of all points.
Line Segment: a part of a line consisting of two endpoints and all the points between them.
Ray: a part of a line having one endpoint and extending infinitely in one direction.
Opposite rays: rays with a common endpoint but extending in opposite directions.
Congruent segments: two segments having the same measure or length.
Angle: formed by two non-collinear rays with a common endpoint. The two rays are the sides of
the angle. The common endpoint of the two rays is the vertex of the angle.
POSTULATES
Space contains at least 4 noncoplanar points.
Every plane contains at least three noncollinear points.
Every line contains at least two points.
Two points determine a line.
Three noncollinear points determine a plane.
If two points are in a plane, then the line containing the points are in the same plane.
If two lines intersect, then their intersection is a point.
If two planes intersect, then their intersection is a line.
POLYGONS
Polygon: a closed plane figure formed by fitting together segments end to end with each
segment intersecting exactly two others.
Diagonal of a polygon: a line segment that connects two non-consecutive vertices.
Convex polygon: no diagonal is in the exterior of the polygon.
Concave polygon: at least one diagonal is in the exterior of the polygon.
Equilateral polygon: all the sides have equal lengths.
Equiangular polygon: all the angles have equal measure.
Regular polygon: it is both equilateral and equiangular.
Interior angles of a polygon: the angles formed by the sides of a polygon
Exterior angles of a polygon: the angles formed in the exterior of the polygon when its sides
are extended.
THEOREMS
Angle-Sum Theorem for Triangles: The sum of the measures of the three angles of any
triangle is 180˚.
Angle-Sum Theorem for Quadrilaterals: The sum of the measures of the four angles of any
quadrilateral is 360˚.
Angle-Sum Theorem for Polygons: The sum(s) of the measures of the interior angles of any
polygon with n sides is given by s = (n – 2)180˚.
Exterior Angle Theorem for Polygons: The sum of the measures of the exterior angles of a
convex polygon (one at each vertex) is 180˚.
TRIANGLES:
Classifying Triangles According to Sides
a. Scalene: No two of its sides are congruent.
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b. Isosceles: At least two of its sides are congruent. The two congruent sides are the legs.
The third side is called the base. The angle opposite the base is the vertex. The angles
adjacent to the base are the base angles.
c. Equilateral: All of its sides are congruent.
Classifying Triangles According to Angles
a. Acute: all of its angles are acute
b. Right: has one right angle. The hypotenuse is the longest side. The legs are the other two
sides.
c. Obtuse: One of its angles is obtuse.
d. Equiangular: all of its angles are congruent.
Secondary Parts of a Triangle:
Altitude of a triangle: a segment from a vertex perpendicular to the line that contains the
opposite side.
Median of a triangle: a segment from one vertex to the midpoint of the opposite side.
Concurrent lines: Three or more lines that meet at the same point.
QUADRILATERALS – a quadrilateral is a four-sided polygon.

Kinds of Quadrilaterals
A quadrilateral is a parallelogram if and only if one of the following is satisfied:
1. Both pairs of opposite sides are parallel.
2. Both pairs of opposite sides are congruent.
3. Both pairs of opposite angles are congruent.
4. Consecutive angles are supplementary.
5. Diagonals bisect each other.
6. Each diagonal divides the quadrilateral into two congruent triangles.
A quadrilateral is a rectangle if and only if it is a parallelogram and one of the following is
satisfied:
1. It has four right angles.
2. Its diagonals are congruent.
A quadrilateral is a rhombus if and only if it is a parallelogram and one of the following is
satisfied:
1. Its sides are all congruent.
2. Its diagonals are perpendicular.
3. Its diagonals bisect the angles of the quadrilateral.
A quadrilateral is a square if it both a rhombus and a rectangle.
A quadrilateral is a trapezoid if it has a pair of parallel opposite sides. The parallel sides are the
bases and the non-parallel sides are its legs. If the legs are congruent, the trapezoid is said to
be an isosceles trapezoid.
A trapezoid is isosceles if it satisfies one of the following:
1. Its legs are congruent.
2. Each pair of base angle is congruent.
3. Diagonals are congruent.
CIRCLES
Circle: the set of all points in a plane at a given distance (radius) from a given point (center) in
the plane.
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Radius: the line segment from the center to any point of the circle.
Chord: a line segment whose endpoints lie on the circle.
Diameter: a chord containing the center.
Secant: a line that intersects the circle in two points.
Tangent: a line lying on the same plane as the circle that intersects the circle in exactly one
point.
Point of Tangency: The point where the tangent touches the circle.
Congruent circles: two or more circles having the same radius.
Concentric circles: two or more coplanar circles sharing the same center.
RELATIONS INVOLVING SEGMENTS AND ANGLES

Segment-Addition Postulate:
Point Y is between X and Z if and only if X, Y, and Z are collinear and XY + YZ = XZ.
Midpoint of the segment: A point that bisects a segment, or divides a segment into two
congruent segments.
Bisector of the line segment: A ray, line or line segment that contains the midpoint.
Angle bisector: A ray that contains the vertex and divides the angle into two congruent parts.
PERPENDICULAR LINES AND BISECTOR OF A LINE

Perpendicular lines: two lines that intersect at right angles.
Perpendicular bisector or a segment: the line which is perpendicular to the segment at its
midpoint.
Theorem: The shortest segment from a point to the line is the perpendicular segment.
ANGLE PAIRS
Adjacent angles: two angles with a common vertex, a common side, and no common interior
points.
Supplementary angles: two angles whose measures have a sum of 180˚.
Complementary angles: two angles whose measures have a sum of 90˚.
Vertical angles: Two angles are vertical if and only if their sides form two pairs of opposite rays
and their angles are nonadjacent formed by two intersecting lines.
Linear pair: two angles which are adjacent and supplementary.
Theorems:
Supplements of congruent angles are congruent.
Complements of congruent angles are congruent.
Vertical angles are congruent.
ANGLES AND SIDES OF A TRIANGLE

Exterior angle of a triangle: an angle which forms a linear pair with one of the triangle’s
interior angles.
Remote interior angles: two interior angles of the triangle not adjacent to the exterior angle.
Theorems:
The measure of an exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the measures of the two
remote interior angles.
The sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle is greater than the length of the third side.
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In a triangle, if one side is longer than the other side, the angle opposite the longer side is the
larger angle.
In a triangle, if one angle is larger than the other angle, the side opposite the larger angle is the
longer side.
PARALLEL LINES AND TRANSVERSALS

Intersecting lines: coplanar lines having a point in common.
Perpendicular lines: lines that intersect at right angles.
Paralell lines: coplanar lines that do not intersect
Skew lines: noncoplanar lines that do not intersect
Transversal line: a line intersecting two or more coplanar lines at different points
Interior angles: <3, <4, <5, <6

1 2 Exterior angles: <1, <2, <7, <8
3 4 Corresponding angles:
<1 and <5, <2 and <6, <3 and <7, <4 and <8
5 6 Alternate interior angles: <3 and <6, <4 and <5
7 8 Alternate exterior angles: <1 and <8, <2 and <7
Same-side interior angles: <3 and <5, <4 and <6
Postulates:
If parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then:
1. The alternate interior angles are congruent.
2. The corresponding angles are congruent.
3. The alternate exterior angles are congruent.
4. The same-side interior angles are supplementary.
COUNTING TECHNIQUES
Experiment: any activity that can be done repeatedly (e.g. tossing a coin, rolling a die)
Sample space: the set of all possible outcomes in an experiment.
Example: In a rolling die, the sample space is S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
Sample point: an element of the sample space.
Example: In a rolling die, there are six sample points.
Counting Sample Points
1. Fundamental Principle of Counting (FPC)
If a choice consists of k steps, of which the steps can be performed in n 1 ways, for each of these
the second can be performed in n2 ways, for each of these the third can be performed in n 3
ways . . . , and for each these the kth can be made in n k ways, then the whole choice can be
made in n1n2n3…nk ways.
Example: In how many ways can two dice fall? Ans.: 6 • 6 = 36 ways
2. Permutation
Permutation is an arrangement of objects wherein the order is important.
a. Linear Permutation
If n objects are to be arranged r objects at a time, then n!
the number of distinct arrangements is given by the nPr= , wheren ≥ r
(n−r ) !
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formula -------------------------------------------------
Example: In how many can the first, second and third winners may be chosen in a beauty
pageant with 10 contestants?
10 !
10P3 = = 10 • 9 • 8 = 720 ways
( 10−3 ) !
b. Circular Permutation
If n objects are to be arranged in a circular manner, then the number of distinct arrangements
is (n-1)! Answer: (7-1)! = 6!
c. Permutation with Repetitions
The nuber of distinct permutations of n things of which p are of one kind, q are of a second
kind,… r of the kth kind is
n!
P= where p+ q+ …+r=n
p!q!…r !
Example: How many different permutations are there in the word COMMITTEE if all letters are
to be taken? Answer:
9!
P= =45360
2 ! 2! 2 !
3. Combination
Combination is the arrangement of objects regardless of order. In other words, the order of
arranging the objects is not important. If n objects are to be arranged r at a time, the number of
distinct combinations is given by the formula:
n!
nCr ¿ , where n≥ r
r ! ( n−r ) !
Example: In how many ways can a committee of 4 be chosen from 6 persons?
6!
Answer: 6C4 ¿ =15 ways
4 ! ( 6−4 ) !
PROBABILITY
Probability: the likelihood of the occurrence of an event.
If E is any event, then the probability of an event denoted by P(E) has a value between 0
and 1, inclusive. In symbol,
0 ≤ P(E) ≤ 1
If P(E) = 1, then E is sure to happen
If P(E) = 0, then E is impossible to happen.
Moreover, the probability that E will not happen is P(E’),
then P(E) + P(E’) = 1.
1. Theoretical Probability
Theoretically, the probability of an event E, denoted by P(E), is defined as
n (E )
P(E)= where n(E) = number favourable outcomes
n(S)
n (S) = number of possible outcomes
2. Experimental Probability
The probability of an event may also be obtained experimentally. Suppose we want to find
out the probability of obtaining a tail in a toss of coin. We can perform an experiment by
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tossing the coin 50 times and record the number of occurrences of tail. Suppose that tail
occurred 24 times, then the probability of getting a tail based on this experiment is
P (tail) = 24/50
STATISTICS
Statistics is the branch of mathematics used to summarize quantities of data and help
investigators draw sound conclusions. Its two main branches are descriptive statistics and
inferential statistics.
A sample is a specified set of measurements or data, which is drawn from a much larger body of
measurements or data called the population.
Kinds of sampling
1. Random sampling techniques are used to ensure that every member of the population
has an equal chance of being included in the sample. A random sample is said to be
representative of the entire population. The two methods of random sampling are lottery
method and the use of the table of random sampling.
2. Systematic sampling is a technique which selects every nth element of the population
for the sample, with the starting point determined at random from the first n elements.
3. Stratified random sampling is a technique of selecting simple random samples from
mutually exclusive groupings or strata of the population.
Graphical Representations of Data

Histogram—a graphical picture of a frequency distribution consisting of a series of
vertical columns or rectangles, each drawn with a base equal to the class interval and a height
corresponding to the class frequency. The bars of a histogram are joined together, that is, there
are no spaces between bars.
Bar Chart—uses rectangles and bars to represent discrete classes of data. The length of
each bar corresponds to the frequency or percentage of the given class or category. The
categories are in turn placed in either horizontal or vertical.
Frequency Polygon—a special type of line graph, where each class frequency is plotted
directly above the midpoint or class mark of its class interval and lines are then drawn to connect
the points.
Pie Chart—an effective way of presenting categorized (qualitative) distributions, where a
circle is divided into sectors—pie-shaped pieces—which are proportional in size to the
corresponding frequencies or percentages.
Pictogram—known as picture graph where picture symbols are used to represent values.
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

A measure of central tendency is a single, central value that summarizes a set of numerical data.
The measures of central tendency are the mean, median and mode.
MEASURES OF VARIABILITY
A measure of variation or variability describes how large the differences between the individuals
are on a trait. The common measures of variability are range and standard deviation.
Measure
s of Definition How to find Advantages Disadvantages
Central
Tendenc
y
The sum of data Ungrouped data: A single, unique Not appropriate
Mean divided by the
number of data x=
∑x value that is
representative of
for skewed
distribution as it
n all the scores. is affected by
Grouped data: Stable from group extreme scores
129
x=
∑ xf to group.
May be used in
or outliers.
n further
computations.
The middles Ungrouped data: the More stable from Not necessarily
Median number of the middle for the group to group representative of
( N2+1) th score
set when the than the mode. all scores.
data are Unstable from
arranged in Appropriate for group to group.
numerical order Grouped data: skewed Cannot be used
( )
n distribution. in further
−cf
Mdn = L + 2 i analyses
f
The number that Ungrouped data: Easy to obtain. Not necessarily
Mode occurs most The most frequent representative of
frequently in the score all scores
data Grouped data: Cannot be used
The class mark of the in further
class interval with the analyses
highest frequency
Measures Definition How to find Advantages Disadvantages

of
Variation
Range The Ungrouped data: R = HS Easy to Unstable.
difference – LS compute. Not
between the Grouped Data: Gives a unique representative
highest score R = Upper Limit of the value. of the set of
and the Highest Class Interval – Easy to data.
lowest score Lower Limit of the understand. Not used in
Lowest Class Interval further
computations.
Standard The square Ungrouped data: Most stable Affected by
deviation root of the S= √ ∑ ¿ ¿ ¿ Gives unique extreme scores
variance of Grouped data: value
the set of Most More difficult to
S= √ ∑ f ¿ ¿ ¿
data representative compute and
Used in further understand
computations
130
Natural Science
1. Use scientific knowledge to explain natural phenomena and protect man’s
environment
2. Use scientific inquiry to investigate materials, events and phenomena in the
natural world (designing experiments, collecting, organizing, analyzing and
interpreting data, making conclusions, and communicating results)
3. Identify scientific traits and attitudes exhibited in various situations
4. Analyze the impact of technology on non-living and living things
5. Analyze advantages and disadvantages of different solutions to particular
problems.
INTRODUCTION:
Scientific knowledge and skills are essential for socio-economic and cultural development.
While the required knowledge may or may not be generated wholly, we must have the capacity
to make use of it.
Today, the amount of scientific and technological knowledge has transformed societies.
With the advent of information and communication technology, information can be relayed to
other parts of the world in just a matter of seconds. The inventions in telecommunications and
transportations have drawn the world smaller and smaller. Moreover, technology has enabled
humans to do things which were thought to be impossible before like exploring the universe,
stem cloning, in-vitro fertilization, etc… The recent breakthroughs in genetic mapping have
made it possible to identify the useful and bad genes that will result to the breeding of a better
species. Life has been increasingly influenced by science and technology in our pursuit of a
more comfortable lifestyle. BUT the transformations have not been entirely beneficial.
To better understand the innumerable transformations in science and its applications
would require at one extreme, scientists and technologists of high calibre and at the other, a
scientifically and technologically literate population. Science can be a vehicle to inculcate
values on the proper use of technology that bring both advantages and disadvantages.
The scientifically literate person understands and appreciates the joint enterprises of
science and technology, their interrelationships, and their impacts on society and the
environment. Some of the factors involved in the interrelationships among science, technology,
society and the environment are:
A. Science and Technology
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There is a distinction between science and technology, although they often overlap and
depend on each other. Science deals with generating and ordering conceptual knowledge.
Technology deals with design and development, and the application of scientific knowledge,
often in response to social and human needs. Technology does not just provide tools for
science, however; it also may provide motivation and direction for theory and research. For
example, the theory of the conservation of energy was developed technological problem of
increasing the efficiency of commercial steam engines. The mapping of the locations of the
entire set of genes in human DNA has been motivated by the technology of genetic
engineering, which both makes such mapping possible and provides a reason for doing so.
The invention of the microscope led to new discoveries about cells.
B. Scientists and Technologists are Human

Scientists see patterns in phenomena as making the world understandable; technologists
see them as making the world manipulable. Scientists seek to show that theories fit the
data; technologists (engineers) seek to demonstrate that designs work. Scientists cannot
provide answers to all questions; engineers cannot design solutions for all problems.
Outside of their specialized fields, scientists and technologists may not exhibit strong
development of all or even most of the dimensions of scientific literacy. Vocations in science
and technology are open to most people.
Example: By researching the biographies of famous scientists, students can begin to
appreciate the human elements of science and technology.
C. Impact of Science and Technology

Scientific and technological developments have real and direct effects of every person’s life.
Some effects are desirable; others are not. Some of the desirable effects may have
undesirable side effects. In essence, there seems to be a trade-off principle working in which
gains are accompanied by losses.
Example: As our society continues to increase its demands on energy consumption and
consumer goods, we are likely to attain a higher standard of living while allowing further
deterioration of the environment to occur. The different areas of technology represent areas
of technological activity in wider world.
D. Science, Technology, and the Environment

Science and technology can be used to monitor environmental quality. society has the
ability and responsibility to educate and to regulate environmental quality and the wise
usage of natural resources, to ensure quality of life for this and the succeeding generations.
Example: Everyone should share in the responsibility of conserving energy.
E. Public Understanding Gap

A considerable gap exists between scientific and technological knowledge, and public
understanding of it. Constant effort is required by scientists, technologists, and educators to
minimize this gap.
Examples: Some people mistakenly believe that irradiation causes food to become
radioactive. Buttermilk is often mistakenly regarded as having a high caloric content.
Folklore has it that the best time to plant potatoes is during full moon. Many believe that
technology is simply applied science.
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F. Variable Positions
Scientific thought and knowledge can be used to support different positions. It is normal for
scientists and technologists to disagree among themselves, even though they may invoke
the same scientific theories and data.
Examples: The debate about the possibility of cold fusion illustrated variable positions
among scientists.
There is a debate about whether or not controlled burning techniques should be used in
national parks.
G. Limitations of Science and Technology

Science and technology cannot guarantee a solution to any specific problem. In fact, the
ultimate solution of any problem is usually impossible, and a partial or temporary solution is
all that is ever possible. Solutions to problem can not necessarily be legislated, bought, or
guaranteed by the allocation of resources. Some things are not amenable to the approaches
of science and technology.
Example: The solutions that technology now proposes for nuclear waste storage often have
significant limitations and are, at best, only short-term solutions until better ones can be
found.
H. Social Influence on Science and Technology

The selection of problems investigated by scientific and technological research is influenced
by the needs, interests, and financial support of society.
Example: The race to put a person on the moon illustrates how priorities can determine the
extent to which the study of particular scientific and technological problems are sanctioned
and thus allowed to be investigated.
I. Technology Controlled by Society

Although science requires freedom to inquire, applications of scientific knowledge and
technological products and practices are ultimately determined by society. Scientists and
technologists have a responsibility to inform the public the possible consequences of such
applications. A need to search for consequences of scientific and technological innovations
exists.
Examples: Einstein’s famous letter to President Roosevelt, warning about the possibility of
developing nuclear weapons, and his pacifist views, illustrate the responsibility that
scientists must have as members of society. Governments must make decision regarding
the support and funding of important scientific research.
J. Science, Technology, and Other Realms

Although there are distinctive characteristics of the knowledge and processes that
characterize science and technology, there are many connections to, and overlaps with,
other realms of human knowledge and understanding.
Example: The Uncertainty Principle in science, the Hawthorne Effect in social psychology all
express similar types of ideas within the realm of their own disciplines.
WHAT IS THE NATURE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY?
SCIENCE is a systematized body of knowledge based on nature and the facts of life. The
contents or the facts of this knowledge are gathered through keen observation and relentless
133
experimentations. The ideas generated are also products of further investigations. Science
involves the human attempt to generate testable concepts, generalizations and theories which
explain natural phenomena and have predictable capabilities. Scientists share certain basic
beliefs and attitudes about what they do and how they view their work. This is the nature of
science and what can be learned about it.
 The World is Understandable

Science presumes that the things and events in the universe occur in regular patterns that
are understandable through careful, systematic study. For instance, the same principles of
motion and gravitation that explain the motion of falling objects on the surface of the earth
also explain the motion of the moon and the planets.
 Scientific Knowledge Is Durable

Although scientists reject the notion of attaining absolute truth and accept some
uncertainty as part of nature, most scientific knowledge is durable. For example, in
formulating the theory of relativity, Albert Einstein did not discard the Newtonian laws of
motion but rather showed that they are only approximations of limited application within a
more general concept. Moreover, the growing ability of scientists to make accurate
predictions about natural phenomena provides convincing evidence that we really are
progressing our understanding of how the world works. Continuity and stability are as
characteristic of science as change is.
 Science Cannot Provide Complete Answers to All Questions

There are many matters that cannot usefully be examined in a scientific way. There are,
for instance, beliefs that—by their very nature—cannot be proved or disproved (such as the
existence of supernatural powers and beings, or the true purposes of life). In other cases, a
scientific approach that may be valid is likely to be rejected as irrelevant by people who hold
on to certain beliefs (such as miracles, fortune-telling, astrology, and superstition). Nor do
scientists have the means to settle issues concerning good and evil, although they can
sometimes contribute to the discussion of such issues by identifying the likely consequences
of particular actions, which may be helpful in weighing alternatives.
TECHNOLOGY is the application of scientific theories, laws, concepts, and principles. It is

described as the means by which humans control or modify their environment which can be
traced to Paleolithic cultures when humans shaped tools out of stone. Technology provides the
eyes and ears of science. The electronic computer, for example, has led to substantial progress
in the study of weather systems, demographic patterns, gene structure, and other complex
systems that would not have been possible.
 All Technologies Involve Control

All systems, from the simplest to the most complex, require control to keep them
operating properly. For example, a baking oven is a fairly simple system that compares the
information from temperature sensor to a control setting and turns the heating element up or
down to keep the temperature within a small range. Moreover, almost all but the simplest
household appliances used today include microprocessors to control their performance.
 Technologies Always Have Side Effects

In addition to its intended benefits, every design is likely to have unintended side effects
in its production and application. The effects of ordinary technologies may be individually
small but collectively significant. Refrigerators, for example, have had a predictably
favourable impact on diet and on food distribution systems. Because there are so many
refrigerators, however, the tiny leakage of a gas used in their cooling systems may have
substantial adverse effects on the earth’s atmosphere.
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Humankind has been using the technological enterprise to change our world to
accommodate our needs—new metal alloys; devices for agriculture, transportation, health
and communication; and technological advances such as seedless grapes, powdered milk,
biodegradable soap, plastics, and Styrofoam.
The images of science sit easily with the images of modernization—electronic devices,
robotics, nuclear energy, in-vitro fertilization, jet planes, space explorations, genetic
engineering—on one end, the recognition of environmental pollution, resource depletion and
urbanization—on the other side.
 All Technological Systems Can Fail

Most modern technological systems, from transistor radios to airliners, have been
engineered and produced to be remarkably reliable. Failure is rare enough to be surprising.
Yet the larger and more complex a system is, the more ways there are in which it can go
wrong—and the more widespread the possible effects of failure.
Examples of such “fail-safe” designs are bombs that cannot explode when the fuse
malfunctions or automobile windows that shatter into rounded, connected chunks rather than
into sharp, flying fragments. All of the means of preventing or minimizing failure are likely to
increase cost. But no matter what precautions are taken or resources invested, risk of
technological failure can never be reduced to zero.
WHAT ARE THE BASIC CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY?
A scientifically literate person has working knowledge of the basic concepts and principles
of the natural sciences. Scientific knowledge is holistic, i.e., it is gathered by various branches of
science contributing to an over-all conceptual scheme which is internally consistent.
 Life Science (Biology)—deals with living things and their parts and actions. Smaller
branches of life science includes:
o Zoology- the study of animals
o Botany—the study of plants
 Earth Science—deals with the study of the Earth and its rocks, oceans, volcanoes,
earthquakes, atmosphere, and other features. This includes astronomy, that explore
beyond the Earth. This study objects such as stars, planets, moons.
 Physical Science—deals with the study of matter. This includes:
o Chemistry—explore what substances are made of and how they change and
combine.
o Physics—explore the study of relationship between matter and energy.
The scientific enterprise comprises at least two factors: processes and products. The
products of science include the facts, concepts, theories, laws, and applications that occur as a
result of doing science—that is, scientific content.
Scientific Facts: Below are some notions considered to be facts:

1. The earth rotates on its axis once every 24 hours.
2. Seventy-six percent of all animal species are insects.
3. Green plants obtain chlorophyll in the cells of their leaves.
4. Water molecules are made up of hydrogen and oxygen atoms.
5. A freely falling object accelerates toward the earth at the rate of 9.8 m/s2.
6. The temperature at which pure water freezes is 0 deg Celsius or 32 deg Fahrenheit.
Scientific Concepts: These are ideas that combine several factors or observations. A concept is
an “observed regularity in events or objects” (Novak, 1984).
1. Green plants need light in order to grow—relates the two observations of light to the
amount of growth of green plants.
2. The human body uses food for energy and growth.
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3. Some chemicals fizz when they come into contact with other chemicals.
4. It takes more force to slide a book on sandpaper than on smooth paper.
5. Running water cuts gullies in soft rock.
6. Heavy marble roll farther than light marbles when both are given the same push.
Scientific Theories: Theories are developed to explain concepts or other observed regularities.
These are proven hypothesis (tentative answers to questions).
Here are some examples of theories:
1. The Kinetic Molecular Theory: Molecules are in motion, and the rate of motion varies with
temperature.
2. Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity: The faster an object goes, the greater its mass
becomes.
3. Theory of Evolution: Species adapt to their environments, and those that are most fit to
survive.
4. Theory of Plate Tectonics: The outer shell of the earth consists of several moving plates on
which the oceans and continents lie.
5. Cellular Theory of Life: Living things are made of cells.
Scientific Laws: are statements generally accepted to be true, universal, and absolute. They
can be expressed in terms of a single mathematical equation. They don’t really need any
complex external proofs; they are accepted at face value based upon the fact that they have
always been observed to be true.
Some examples of Scientific Laws:
1. Newton’s Laws of Motion: Inertia, Acceleration, and Interaction
2. The Law of Universal Gravitation: All objects attract all other objects with a force that
depends on their masses and the distance between them.
3. The Law of Conservation of Matter and Energy: The sum of matter and energy in the
universe is constant.
4. The Law of Segregation: During reproduction, the two factors that control each trait
separate (segregate), with one factor from each pair passed to the offspring.
CONCEPTS IN PHYSICAL SCIENCE

A. Energy
 Energy has always been defined as the ability to do work. Energy makes change; it does
things for us. In strict scientific terms energy is classified into two main forms: kinetic and
potential energy.
 Kinetic energy is defined as the energy of a moving object. Speeding cars, a waterfall, a
rock falling from a cliff or the ticking of a clock are examples of objects that have kinetic
energy. The various forms include electrical energy, mechanical energy, thermal energy,
radiant energy.
o Electrical energy is the movement of electrical charges. All matter is made of tiny
particles called atoms. These are made up of even smaller particles: electrons,
protons, and neutrons. When a force is applied, some of the electrone move.
Electrical charges moving through a wire is called electricity. Lightning is another
example of electrical energy.
o Mechanical energy is the movement of objects and substances from one place to
another when a force is applied according to Newton’s Laws of Motion.
o Thermal energy is the internal energy in substances—the vibration and movement
of the atoms and molecules within substances. This pertains to the kinetic energy of
the molecules within an object. It is technically incorrect to refer to heat as thermal
energy. Objects possess thermal energy; heat is the transfer of energy from one
object to another. It is an evidence of energy.
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o Radiant energy is electromagnetic energy that travels in transverse waves. Light is
one type or radiant energy and is another evidence of energy.
 Potential energy is defined as the energy in matter due to its position or the arrangement
of its parts. The various forms of potential energy include gravitational potential energy,
stored mechanical (elastic potential) energy, chemical potential energy, and nuclear
energy.
 Chemical Energy is energy stored in the bonds of atoms and molecules. It is the
energy that holds these particles together. The energy stored in gasoline is released
by burning. A motorboat uses this released energy to turn its propeller. There are
many examples of chemical potential energy being converted to kinetic energy to
do work. Energy in food is used by our bodies to move. A lighted fire cracker
explodes with a loud sound when chemical energy is released.
o Gravitational Energy is the energy of position of place. A rock resting at the top of a
hill contains gravitational potential energy. Water in a reservoir behind a dam, is an
example of gravitational potential energy. When something is lifted or suspended in
air, work is done on the object against the pull of gravity. This work is converted
gravitational potential energy.
o Stored Mechanical Energy is energy in stretched rubber bands, in compressed
springs, trampolines, and even our skin. They have the potential to do work or resist
being stretched out of shape.
o Nuclear Energy is energy stored in the nucleus of an atom and can be released
when the nuclei are combined or split apart. Nuclear power plants split the nuclei of
hydrogen atoms in a process called fusion.
One of the reasons energy is hard to conceptualize is that it is constantly changing from
one form to another. When this happens it is called an energy transformation.
 The law of conservation of energy says that energy is neither created nor destroyed. When
we use energy, it doesn’t disappear. We change it from one form of energy into another.
 A car engine burns gasoline, converting the chemical energy in gasoline into mechanical
energy. Solar cells change radiant energy into electrical energy. Energy changes form, but
the total amount of energy in the universe stays the same.
Converting one form of energy into another form always involves a loss
of usable energy. The total amount of energy available for transformation is almost always
decreasing.
 The human body is like a machine, and the fuel is food. Food gives the energy to move,
breathe, and think. But the body is not very efficient at converting food into useful work.
The rest of the energy is lost as heat.
 Almost all of the energy stored in the molecules of gasoline used during an automobile trip
goes, by way of friction and exhaust, into producing a slightly warmer car, road, and air.
 When energy is transformed into heat energy that diffuses all over, further
transformations is less likely to occur. Energy follows a one-way path. It enters the living
system in the form of electromagnetic waves—light and leaves as heat.
Energy sources are classified into two groups—renewable and non-renewable. Renewable
energy sources include biomass, geothermal energy, hydropower, solar energy, and wind
energy. They can be replenished in a short time. Non-renewable energy supplies are limited.
Petroleum, for example, was formed millions of years ago from the remains of ancient sea
plants and animals.
 Sound, motion, thermal energy, and light are not easily classified as kinetic and potential
energy. They are evidences of energy.
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o Light is an electromagnetic radiation and has no mass, hence, it has neither kinetic
nor potential energy.
o Sound is produced when a force causes an object or substance to vibrate—the
energy is transferred through the substance in a wave.
 The human ear can hear only those sounds caused by objects vibrating
between 20 decibels (vibs/sec) and about 16,000 decibels.
 Ultrasonic waves are sound waves that vibrate very fast with frequencies too
high to be detected by the human ear. They have greater penetrating power
than audible sound waves and can be used to see in utero foetuses and the
functioning of human hearts.
o Heat consists of moving molecules in air or in an object, and mechanical energy is
the combination of kinetic and potential energy of a moving object. A pendulum has
mechanical energy; it continually converts kinetic energy into gravitational potential
energy and back into kinetic energy as it swings back and forth.
ENERGY
EVIDENCES FORMS SOURCES
MOTION POTENTIAL KINETIC RENEWABL NON-RENEWABLE

E
HEAT Chemical Thermal biomass Coal

Energy Energy geothermal Petroleum
hydropower natural gas
solar propane uranium
LIGHT Gravitational Mechanical energy
Potential Energy wind
energy
SOUND Nuclear Energy Radiant Energy
Stored Electrical
Mechanical Energy
Energy
B. Structure of Matter
Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. They differ greatly in shape,
density, flexibility, texture, toughness, and color; in their ability to give off, absorb, bend, or
reflect light; in what form they take at different temperatures; in their responses to each
other; and in hundreds of other ways.
 Homogenous system is characterized by one-phase system whose characteristics are
uniform throughout. These are observed either as a pure substance or in solutions. An
example of a homogenous substance would be pure water, which contains only compound
H20 or pure table salt that contains only the compound NaCl. Two or more gases will
always mix to form just one phase.
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 Elements are the simplest form of matter since they cannot be decomposed further even
through chemical means. Elements are further classified into metal, non-metal, and
metalloid. Some characteristics of metal: luster, malleability and ductility, high tensile
strength, good conductors of heat and electricity. Non-metals are characterized as are
poor conductors (thus, making them good insulators) of heat and electricity, neither
malleable nor ductile, brittle. (if in the solid phase)
 Compounds are pure substances that are composed of two or more elements, which are
chemically combined in a different ration by mass. There are two ways of grouping
compounds—as organinc or inorganic; and as acid, base or neutral. Basically, carbon-
containing compounds are organic. Sugar, acetone, acetic acid, methane, ethylene,
alcohol are organic compounds. However, carbides, carbonates, bicarbonates, cyanides,
carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide are exemptions.
 Inorganic compounds are those compounds that do not contain carbon. Salt, lye and
water are some examples.
 Acids are usually distinguished from bases through the use of indicators. Indicators are
either weak organic acids or bases that change color over a range of pH values. Litmus is
a common indicator. Acid turns the color of blue litmus to red while base turns red to blue.
Bases turn red litmus paper to blue. Acids when dissolved in water yield hydrogen ions
(H+) while bases yield hydroxide ions (OH-). Unlike acids and bases, neutral compounds
do not change the color of indicators.
 Solution is the only homogeneous mixture, made up of two or more pure substance that
are physically combined. Alloys are solid solutions which are combinations of metals. Salt
and water forms a liquid solution while air is a mixture of gases. Solutions contain a
solvent (the material that does the dissolving of another material) and a solute (the
material that is dissolved). Water is called the “universal solvent” because it dissolves
many substances. The warmer the solvent, the more solute that can be dissolved.
 Heterogeneous system is characterized by the presence of two or more distinct phases,
which have different properties.
o Colloids and suspensions are heterogeneous. Of the three types of mixtures, only
colloids exhibit Tyndall effect. Tyndall effect is the scattering of light.
o Suspensions are mixtures of a solid, liquid and/or gas materials. Examples of
suspensions are soil particles in water, halo-halo, oil in water.
The components of mixtures can be separated by ordinary physical processes. The choice
of separation technique is dependent on the type of mixture and the characteristics of its
components.
 Filtration is a separation technique that is being used in separating insoluble material
from the liquid by allowing the mixture to pass through a filter paper. Other methods of
separating insoluble solids from a liquid include: decantation, centrifugation, and
sedimentation.
 Two immisible liquids can be separated by using a separatory funnel. Whereas, a
mixture that is composed of a metal and non-metal can be easily separated by using a
magnet.
 A mixture that is made up of two solids can be separated either by using a sieve or by
dissolution. On the other hand, soluble solids from a liquid can be separated through
evaporation or distillation.
Mixtures of substances in the waters, land, and air may result to some major
environmental problems:
 Water Pollution—contamination of water by foreign matter such as microorganisms,
chemicals, industrial or other wastes or sewage.
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 Euthrophication—a natural or artificial process on which a body of water contains high
concentrations of chemical elements required for like making the producers bloom
directly nourishing most bacteria than aquatic organisms like fishes. This results to red
tides.
 Green House Effect—a process in which sunlight is not capable of excaping the earth’s
atmosphere due to suspended particles in air resulting to global warming.
Force and Motion

 Forces are interaction between bodies. They can either be contact or non-contact force.
 Contact forces result when two bodies directly touch each other as in walking, running,
playing, writing and pushing objects where friction is observed.
o Friction is a force that opposes the natural motion of an object. It is often described
as the resistance an object meets when its surface rubs against another surface. It
acts in a direction opposite the natural motion of the moving object.
o There are 3 types of frictional forces depending on the type of motion that occurs
between two surfaces. Static friction—if there is no relative motion between two
surfaces. Kinetic friction is the types of friction that opposes sliding motion; is
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weaker than static friction. The friction force that exists in rolling motion is called
rolling friction. This is the weakest frictional force that opposes motion.
C. Non-contact forces are forces that occur when the fields around objects interact with
another field located around another body. The bodies themselves are not directly
touching each other, but only their fields interact with one another.
 Gravitational force is observed when earth is attracted to the sun, earth also pulls the
sun. an object falling freely in the air is acted upon by a force of gravity that cause it to
accelerate. (g=9.8 m/s2).
o Gravity is the force behind rainfall, the power of rivers, the pulse of tides; it pulls
the planets and stars toward their centers to form spheres, holds planets in orbit,
and gathers cosmic dust together to start the process of star formation.
o Gravitational forces involve a gravitational field that affects space around any mass.
The strength of the field around an object is proportional to its mass and diminishes
with distance from its center. (F=G m1m2/r2) where G=6.67 x 10-11 Nm/kg2.
 Electrostatic force is the interaction between the electric field of one charged body with
another charged body
o On an atomic scale, electric forces between oppositely charged protons and
electrons hold atoms and molecules together
o An electrically insulating material such as glass or rubber does not ordinarily allow
any passage of charges through it. An electrically conducting material such as
copper will offer very little resistance to the motion of charges. (Most electrical
wires are a combination of extremes: a very good conductor covered by a very good
insulator.)
 Magnetic force is the attraction between magnetic fields pulling of pushing each other—
like poles attract each other, unlike poles, repel each other.
o Magnetic forces are very closely related to electric forces—hence the term
“electromagnetic force.” Both are thought of as acting by means of fields: an
electric charge has an electric field in the space around it that affects other charges,
and a magnet has a magnetic field around it that affects other magnets.
o Moving electric charges produce magnetic fields. For example, electric currents
circulating in the earth’s core give the earth an extensive magnetic field, which we
detect from the orientation of our compass needles.
The interplay of electric and magnetic forces is also the basis of many technological
designs, such as electric ekectric motors (in which currents produce motion), generators (in
which motion produces currents), and television tubes (in which a beam of moving electric
charges is bent back and forth by periodically changing magnetic field). More generally, a
changing electric field induces a magnetic field, and vice versa.
When an unbalanced force does not act on an object, the object’s motion changes. It
may change its speed ot its direction of motion or both. The greater amount of unbalanced
force, the more rapidly a given given object’s speed or direction of motion changes, the more
massive an object is, the less rapidly its speed or direction changes in response to any given
force.
Sir Isaac Newto developed three laws of motion that explains force and motion:
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 1st Law of Motion—an object at rest remains at rest and an object in motion remains in
motion in a straight line and at constant speed unless acted upon by an external
unbalanced force. (Inertia) ex: This is the reason for seat belts and air bags as safety
devices in cars (Law of Inertia)
 2nd Law of Motion—force is directly proportional to mass and acceleration (F=ma) (Law of
Acceleration)
 3rd Law of Motion—states that for every force there is an equal and opposite force. This is
the familiar “action-reaction” system and it governs the movement of rockets and jet
airplanes (Law of Interaction)
Some complicated motions can be described not in terms forces directly but in terms of
the pattern of motion, such as vibrations and waves. Examples are sound waves, earthquakes, or
surface waves on water.
Wave behaviour can be described in terms of how fast the disturbance propagates (speed,
v), and in terms of the distance between successive peaks of the disturbance (wavelength, m).
Wavelength can greatly influence how a wave interacts with matter—how well it is transformed,
absorbed, reflected or distracted.
Electromagnetic waves include the regions from longest wavelength-radio waves,
microwaves, radiant heat or infrared radiation, visible light (red, orange, yellow, green, blue,
indigo, violet), ultraviolet radiation in sunlight—the wavelengths that produce burning, tanning,
and cancer in the skin of human beings.
Ultrasonic waves are sound waves that vibrate very fast. Their frequencies are too high to
be detected by the human ear. Ultrasonic sound waves have greater penetrating power than
audible sound waves and can be used to see in utero foetuses and the functioning of human
hearts.
Doppler effects are evident in the apparent change in pitch of an automobile horn as it
passes the observer. The change in the wavelength of light from stars and galaxies also
illustrates Doppler. Because the light emitted from most of them shifts toward longer
wavelengths (that is, toward the red end of the spectrum), astronomers conclude that galaxies
are all moving away form one another—and hence that we are in a generally expanding universe
(Doppler shift).
EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE

 Earth is a fairly small planet. The distance of the earth from the sun ensures that energy
reaches the planet at a rate sufficient to sustain life. The earth is mostly rock, with three-
fourths of its surface covered by a relatively thin layer of water and the entire planet
enveloped by a thin blanket of air. Bulges in the water layer are raised on both sides of the
planet by the gravitational pull of the moon and sun, producing high tides about twice a
day along ocean shores. Similar bulges are produced in the blanket of air as well.
 The earth is approximately 1.28 x 104 km in diameter at the equator. The diameter at the
poles is approximately 70 km less than at the equator because of its rapid rotation on its
axis (equatorial bulge).
 The motion of the earth and its position with regard to the sun and the moon has
noticeable effects. The earth’s one-year revolution around the sun, because of the tilt of
the earth’s axis, changes how directly sunlight falls on one part or another of the earth.
 This difference in heating different parts of the earth’s surface produces seasonal
variations in climate. The rotation of the planet on its axis every 24 hours produces the
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planet’s night-and day cycle. The combination of the earth’s motion and the moon’s own
orbit around the earth, once in about 27 1/3, results in the phases of the moon (new
moon, 1st quarter, full moon, last quarter).
 Transfer of heat energy at the interfaces of the atmosphere with the land and oceans
produces layers at different temperatures in both the air and the oceans. These layers rise
or sink or mix, giving rise to winds and ocean currents that carry heat energy between
warm and cool regions. The earth’s rotation curves the flow of wind and ocean currents,
which are further deflected by the shape of the land.
 The water cycle plays an important part in determining climatic patterns—evaporating
from the surface, rising and cooling, condensing into clouds and then into snow or rain,
and falling again to the surface, where it collects in rivers, lakes, and porous layers of rock.
There are also large areas on the earth’s surface covered by thisch ice (such as
Antarctica), which interacts with the atmosphere and oceans in affecting worldwide
variations in climate.
 Fresh water is an essential resource for daily life and industrial processes, obtained from
rivers and lakes and from water that moves below the earth’s surface (groundwater).
Many sources of fresh water cannot be used because they have been polluted. It can be
very expensive to clean up polluted air and water, restore destroyed forests and fishing
grounds, or restore or preserve eroded soils of poorly managed agricultural areas.
 Although the oceans and atmosphere are very large and have a great capacity to absorb
and recycle materials naturally, they do have their limits. They have only a finite capacity
to withstand change without generating major ecological alterations that may also have
adverse effects on human activities. Wind, tides, and solar radiation can also be harnessed
to provided sources of energy.
 Forces within the earth cause continual changes on its surface. The solid crust of the earth
—including both the continents and ocean basins—consists of separate sections that
overlie a hot, almost molten layer.
 The theory of plate tectonics is a unifying theory of the continental drift and seafloor
spreading theories. The current position of continents on the globe is though to be the
result of the break-up and subsequent movement of plates making up the super continent,
Pangea, about 250 million years ago. Pangea is formed from the collision of continents
that formed from the original crust of the earth and started moving around 2 ½ billion
years ago.
 The surface of the earth undergoes continuous cycles of building structures and tearing
them down. Weathering is process of wearing structures down while erosion refers to
moving the weathered materials. Canyons, gullies, and valleys are the result of
weathering and erosion by rivers and streams.
 Human activities have changed the earth’s land surface, oceans and atmosphere. For
instance, reducing the amount of forest cover on th earth’s surface has led to a dramatic
increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide, which in turn may be leading to increased
average temperature of the earth’s atmosphere and surface.
 Smoke and other substances from human activity interact chemically with the atmosphere
and produce undesirable effects such as smog, acid rain, and an increase in the damaging
ultraviolet radiation that penetrates the atmosphere.
 Intensive farming has stripped land of vegetation and topsoil, creating virtual deserts in
some parts of the world.
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The Universe
 The earth has existed for only about a third of the history of the universe and is in
comparison a mere speck in space.
 Our sun is a medium-sized star orbiting near the edge of the arm of an ordinary disk-
shaped galaxy of stars, the Milky Way. Our galaxy contains many billion stars, and the
universe contains many billion such galaxies.
 The entire content of the known universe expanded explosively into existence from a
single hot, dense, chaotic mass more than ten billion years ago. Stars coalesced out of
clouds of the lightest elements (hydrogen and helium), heated up from the energy of
falling together, and began releasing nuclear energy from the fusion of light elements into
heavier ones in their extremely hot, dense cores.
 There are also a great many smaller bodies or rock and ice orbiting the sun. Some of those
that the earth encounters in its yearly orbit around the sun glow and disintegrate from
friction as they plunge into the atmosphere—and sometimes impact the ground.
 Other chunks of rock mixed with ice have such long and off-center orbits that they
periodically come very close to the sun, where some of their surface material is boiled off
by the sun’s radiation and pushed into a long illuminated tail that we see as a comet.
 In studying the universe, a variety of tools are used. These tools include radio and x-ray
telescopes that are sensitive to a broad spectrum of information coming to us from space.
Computers can undertake increasingly complicated calculations of gravitational systems
or nuclear reactions, finding patterns in data and deducing the implications of theories.
Space probes send back detailed pictures and other data from distant planets in our own
solar system; and huge “atom smashers” that simulate conditions in the early universe
and probe the inner workings of atoms.
CONCEPTS IN BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE

Living organisms are made of the same components as all other matter, involve the same kind of
transformations of energy, and move using the same kinds of forces.
The Cellular Theory of Life
 Living things are made of cells. Some organisms such as bacterium, an amoeba and a
paramecium, are made of single cells (unicellular organisms); others are multicellular.
 Complex organisms are made of different kinds of cells specialized to carry out specific
functions, all working together to accomplish the total needs of life (Ex: cells specialized
for growing hair, secreting digestive juices, making bones and muscles, and carrying
oxygen).
o A group of similar cells performing similar functions form tissues (ex. are human
tissues are muscle tissue, blood tissue, and bone tissue).
o A group of tissues working together forms an organ. Examples of human organs are
stomach, the biceps muscle, and the heart.
o Several organs working together form a system. All the systems make up the
organism. Examples of human systems include the circulatory system, the digestive
system, and the muscular system. Plant systems include the root system, leaf
system and stem system.
o The cell is the fundamental unit of life, made up of a protoplasm, enclosed by a
plasma membrane, and containing organelles.
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o The plasma membrane provides form and structure for the cell, and permits inward
passage of waste products.
o The nucleus is the control center of the cell and contains the chromosomes, which
are made of genes, which, in turn, are made of DNA. Most directions for cellular
activity are given by the DNA in the nucleus.
o The cytoplasm in the cell includes all the materials outside the nucleus.
 In plant cells, the plasma membrane is surrounded by a cell wall made of cellulose to
provide rigidity for the cells because plants do not have a skeletal structure.
o Plant cells also contain plastids, tiny colored bodies that provide color and are used
for storage or as chemical factories. Chloroplasts are plastids that contain
chlorophyll, which is used in making food. When the green leaves die in autumn, the
chlorophyll fades and other plastids can be seen, resulting in the brightly colored
fall foliage.
 Cells have basic living functions, some of which are: (1) to manufacture proteins and other
materials to help build the cell; (2) to manufacture energy; and (3) to reproduce.
o Gree plants have unique capability of manufacturing their own food in the presence
of light from water, minerals, and carbon dioxide in a process called
photosynbthesis. The products of this reaction are glucose (energy), H 2O, and O2
(Photosynthesis)
o Both oxygen and glucose are used in energy production. All cells, including animal
and plant cells, use oxygen for manufacturing energy and release carbon dioxide as
a waste product. Thus, oxygen is used by both plants and animal cells, and carbon
dioxide is given off by both plants and animal cells.
 Cells reproduce either by mitosis (somatic cells) or meiosis (sex cells)
o Mitosis produce two new cells whose chromosomes are the same in number as the
parent cell (diploid)
o Meiosis produce two new cells with half the number of chromosomes as the parent
cell (haploid).
Structure and Function of Plants
 Plants contain organs called roots, stems, leaves and flowers.
o The roots provide anchorage for the plant and, through tiny root hairs, enable plants
to absorb water and nutritional elements from the soil.
o The stems transport the nutrients to the leaves through specialized cells
o The leaves are the food-manufacturing sites of plants.
 Flowers are the sexual reproductive organs of the plants.
o The petals attract insects and birds to help disperse pollen for cross-fertilization.
o The male reproductive organ is the stamen, which manufactures the pollen.
o The female reproductive organ is the pistil, which has a sticky top called stigma to
capture the pollen, a style to transport the pollen nucleus to the ovary; and the
ovary, which manufactures the ovules.
o When the pollen nuclei join the ovule nuclei, fertilized seeds result.
 Plants move in response to gravity, light, touch, water, temperature and some chemicals.
o Roots pointing downward shows plants respond to gravity (geotropism).
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o Plants also tend to grow toward areas with the most light, causing them to bend;
house plants bend toward the light and forest plants grow tall, reaching for the sun
(phototropism)
o Some plants, (makahiya) have leaves that quickly close when touched
(thigmotropism)
Structure and Function of Animals
 The basic functions of all animals include nutrition, respiration, excretion, circulation,
response, movement, regulation, and reproduction.
o The digestive system takes food in, processes it for use by cells, and eliminates
indigestible materials.
o The respiratory systemis adapted for extracting the required oxygen either from the
air or from water and removing carbon dioxide.
o Excretion is accomplished through kidneys and other excretory organs that extract
liquid waste from body fluids and eliminate it from the organism.
o A complex circulatory system ensures that nutrients, gases, and regulatory
hormones are transported from the specialized systems to each individual cell and
that wastes can be removed from each cell and delivered to the excretory and
respiratory organs.
o Regulatory glands secrete hormones to keep all cells working harmoniously.
o An intricate network of nerves and often a central brain structure coordinate all
systems and permit movement, thought, and interaction with the environment.
o The muscular system allows the organism to move.
o A skeletal system provides rigidity in animals that do not otherwise have the
required structure. Skeletons may be made of bone, cartilage, or water (such as
hydroskeletons in certain worms). Some aniumals, such as crayfish and lobsters,
have exoskeletons (external skeletons) that are made of chitin.
o Reproduction is accomplished either sexually or asexually through specialized
organs and specialized systems that ensure perpetuation of the species.
E. Reproduction, Life Cycles, and Heredity

 Reproduction occurs in two ways: asexually and sexually.
o In asexual reproduction, organisms are derived from only one parent (bacteria,
algae, molds, fungi, many lower plants, protozoans, sponges, and coelenterates as
well as in a few higher order animals.)
o Sexual reproduction requires the union of a male gamete (reproductive cell) and a
female gamete.
o Chromosomes are made of genes with strands of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). DNA
carries the code of life, which is the code for protein production.
o Chromosomes come in pairs with a gene for each trait on each member of the pair;
thus each trait is determined by two genes that may be dominant or recessive.
o Dominant traits in humans include unattached earlobes, brown eyes, curly hair,
polydactyly (more than 10 fingers or toes), and the ability to curl one’s tongue.
o Recessive traits include attached earlobes, blue or hazel eyes, straight hair, the
normal number of fingers and toes, and the inability to curl one’s tongue.
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 Living organisms move through definite life cycles: they come into being, they grow, they
may metamorphose, they mature, they reproduce, and they die.
Genetics and Evolution

 When gametes are formed, abnormal (or mutant) genes can be formed by erroneous
duplication of the DNA, by physical transformation of the positions of molecules making up
the DNA strands, or by external causes such as radiation, X-rays, or gamma rays.
 The basic principle of evolution is “survival of the fittest.” This means that the individuals
best adapted to the environment generally produce the greatest number of offspring.
o The theory of evolution offers and explanation for the immense diversity of life
found on earth, through the process of natural selection; organisms adapt better to
their environments.
G. Ecology
 Ecology is the study of the interactions of organisms with their environment and with each
other. The environment in which living organisms exist is called the biosphere, and
includes land, water and air.
o The basic unit of ecological study is the ecosystem, a community of living
organisms and their non-living environment, interacting with each other. It is the
environment through which energy flows and minerals recycle.
o A balanced ecosystem has three fundamental characteristics: (1) there is a
relatively constant source of energy (the sun); (2) The sun’e energy is converted to
glucose, which is needed by the living organisms; (3) Organic matter and nutrients
are successfully recycled.
 Energy transmitted through an ecosystemprimarily by means of the food chain. Plants are
the sources of all food in an ecosystem since they manufacture their own food. Some
animals are herbivores, some are omnivores while others are carnivores. (energy follows a
one-way path).
 Recycling of organic matter and nutrients within an ecosystem occurs as plants and
animals excrete waste materials back into their environment and die. Microorganisms
recycle all this material back to the environment (biogeochemical cycles).
 Humans may upset the balance in ecosystems. Air and water pollution result to the death
of some organisms. Increased levels of carbon dioxide may cause localized or global
warming, upsetting the balance of energy. Increased CFC levels reduce the thickness of
the ozone layer, causing increased levels of ultraviolet radiation.
WHAT ARE THE PROCESSES OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY?

A scientifically literate person has acquired and regularly practices the basic and
integrated science process skills. There simply is no fixed set of steps that scientists always
follow, no one path that leads them unerringly for cause and effect relationships in nature. In
other words, they design an experiment so that changes to one item cause something else to
vary in a predictable way.
Steps in the Scientific Method

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 ASKING QUESTION—Identifying the problem
Asking question based on the inference made to identify the problem related to the observation;
an investigation usually begins with an observation of a phenomenon.
To make their observations, scientists use their own senses, instruments (such as microscopes)
that enhance those senses, and instruments that tap characteristics quite different from what
humans can sense (such as magnetic fields). Scientists observe passively (earthquakes, bird
migrations), make collections (rocks, shells), and actively probe the world (as by boring into the
earth’s crust or administering experimental medicines).
 FORMULATING A HYPOTHESIS
A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon. Normally, it is a general statement
about the relationship between the manipulated variable and a responding variable in order to
explain the questions ask.
 IDENTIFYING AND CONTROLLING VARIABLES
A variable is a factor that affects other factors in an experiment. In a scientific investigation, we
need to identify all related variables. This step is to test the consistency in the experiment and to
relate the manipulated variable to the responding variable.
There are three types of variable, namely:
i. Manipulated variable—the factor that is purposely changed in an experiment.
ii. Responding variable—the factor that changes with the manipulated variable
iii. Fixed variables—the factors that are kept constant throughout an experiment.
This is to ensure that other factors do not affect the results of the experiment.
One can control conditions deliberately and precisely to obtain evidence. For example,
controlling the temperature, changing the concentration of chemicals, or choosing which
organisms mate with which others. By varying just one condition at a time, one can hope to
identify its exclusive effects on what happens.
Often, however, control of conditions may be impractical (as in studying stars), or
unethical (as in studying people), or likely to distort the natural phenomena (as in studying wild
animals in captivity). Is such cases, observations have to be made over a wide range of
naturally occurring conditions to infer what the influence of various factors might be.
 DESIGNING AND CONDUCTING THE EXPERIMENT
Always keep in mind that the main purpose of the experiment is to test the hypothesis.
Decide how to carry out the experiment, including determine the material, apparatus,
experiment set ups and the procedures to take. The experiment tests whether your hypothesis is
true or false. It is important for the experiment to be a fair test.
Conduct a fair test by making sure that you change only one factor at a time while
keeping all other conditions the same. Repeat the experiments several times to make sure that
the first results weren’t just an accident.
 ANALYZING AND INTERPRETING DATA
After collecting the data, you will need to analyze the results of the experiment. The results can
be presented in various forms, such as a table, graph or chart.
 MAKING A CONCLUSION
Draw conclusions based on the observations and results. State whether the hypothesis is true or
false.
WHAT ARE THE ATTITUDES AND VALUES EXHIBITED BY A SCIENTIST?
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Science is in many respects the systematic application of some highly regarded human
values—integrity, diligence, fairness, curiosity, openness to new ideas, scepticism, and
imagination. Science particularly strongly fosters three of these attitudes and values—curiosity,
openness to new ideas (the joy of discovery and the satisfaction of intellectual growth
throughout life) and informed scepticism (borne out by the evidence, is logically consistent with
other principles that are not in question, explains more than its rival theories, and has the
potential to lead to new knowledge.
As a social activity, science inevitably reflects social values and viewpoints. The strongly
held traditions of accurate recordkeeping, openness, and replication, blended by the critical
review of one’s work by peers, serve to keep the vast majority of scientists well within the
bounds of ethical professional behaviour.
WHAT ARE DIFFERENT TECHNOLOGICAL SYSTEMS?

 Materials Technology—this involves the use and development of materials to achieve a
desired result…construction, preservation, and recycling of materials.
o The characteristics of natural materials could be changed by processing, such as
the tanning of leather and the firing of clay. Plastics are synthesized and designed
to make automobile and space vehicle parts, food packaging and fabrics, artificial
hip joints and dissolving stitches.
o The disposal of used materials has become a problem. Some used materials, such
as organic wastes, can be returned safely to the environment. But some materials,
such as plastics, are not easily recycled nor do they decompose quickly when
returned to the environment. Radioactive waste so hazardous for such a long time
that how best to dispose of them is not clear.
 Biotechnology—involves agriculture, tissue culture, food production, health and
environment, industrial processes, genetic engineering
o The success of genetic engineering has helped to increase the natural variability
within plant species by using radiation to induce mutations, so that there are more
choices for selective breeding. For example, plants can be given the genetic
program for synthesizing substances that give them resistance to insect predators.
o The widespread use of insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides has greatly increased
useful farm output. However, their effectiveness may diminish as organisms
develop genetically determined resistance to them, thereby requiring increased
amounts of pesticides or the development of new ones.
o An alternative to the chemical control of pests is introducing organisms from other
ecosystems in an effort to reduce the number of pests in the agricultural ecosystem
(such as by using insects that feed on local weeds).
 Process Technology—this include chemical and industrial processes, mechanical
systems, manufacturing, and transportation. Increasing automation requires less direct
labor and fewer skilled crafts, but more engineering, computer programming, quality
control and may eliminate some workers’ jobs even while it creates others. Flexibility and
skill in learning a succession of new job roles have become increasingly important as the
pace of technological change quickens.
 Electronic / Control technology—this involves the design and production of simple
circuits, robotics, and control systems, electronic devices.
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o With the invention of devices to generate and control electric current, information
could be encoded and conveyed over long distances by wires. With radio waves, the
same information could be encoded as changes in wave pattern and distributed in
all directions through the atmosphere without the need of connecting wires. The
efficient control of light waves in lasers has made possible the encoding and
transmitting of information as pulses in light intensity over optical fibers.
o Robots are used to perform the tasks of mass production. Instructions for
processing are used to control the processes electronically, rather than having to be
interpreted and carried out by people.
 Information and Communication Technology—this deals with locating and acquiring,
storing, sorting, receiving communication information in variety of forms, data collection
techniques, storage and data search programs, and generation models.
o Computers can provide control that is as good as, or more precise and raopid than,
human control. The operation of automobile engines, the flight control of aircraft
and spacecraft, and the aiming and firing of weapons can be computerized to take
account of more information and to respond much more rapidly than a human
operator could. However, there are also risks that the information entered may
contain errors and its speed of response may exceed human ability to monitor or
judge the output.
o Information storage also involves issues of privacy and security. Computer-
managed information systems require means for ensuring that information cannot
be changed or lost accidentally.
 Health Technology—is concerned with reducing the exposure of humans to conditions
that threaten health, as well as with increasing the body’s resistance to such conditions
and minimizing the harmful effects that do occur.
o Sanitation measures include containment and disposal of garbage, construction of
sewers and sewage processing plants, purification of water and milk supplies,
quarantine of infectious patients, chemical reduction of insect and microorganism
populations (insecticides and antiseptics), and suppression of the population of rats,
flies, and mosquitoes that carry microorganisms.
o Vaccination has been the most effective means of preventing early death from
disease. It is used to enhance the human body’s natural defences against disease.—
weakened or killed disease microorganisms injected into the blood may arouse the
body’s immune system to create antibodies that subsequently will incapacitate live
microorganisms if they try to invade.
o The detection, diagnosis, and monitoring of disease are improved by different kinds
of technology. A look inside the body has been provided by imaging devices that
use slender probes to supply visible light or (from outside the body) magnetic fields,
infrared radiation, sound waves, x-rays, or nuclear radiation.
Techniques for mapping the location of genes on chromosomes make it possible to
detect disease-related genes in children or in prospective parents.
o The modern treatment of many diseases also is improved by science-based
technologies. Knowledge of chemistry, for example, has improved our
understanding of how drugs and naturally occurring body chemicals work, how to
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synthesize them in large quantities and how to supply the body with the proper
dosage.
o Substances have been identified that are most damaging to certain kinds of cancer
cells. Knowledge of the biological effects of finely controlled beams of light,
ultrasound, x rays, and nuclear radiation (all at much greater intensities than are
used for imaging) has led to technological alternatives to scalpels and cauterization.
o Tissue/organ transplants make it possible to replace some body parts and to
implant devices for electrically pacing the heart, sensing internal conditions, or
slowly dispensing drugs at optimal times.
o Improved medical technologies raise ethical and economic issues. The combined
results of improved technology in public health, medicine, and agriculture have
increased human longevity and population size thus increasing the challenge of
providing all humans with adequate food, shelter, health care, and employment,
and it places ever more strain on the environment.
o The developing technology of diafnosing, monitoring, and treating diseases and
malfunctions increases society’s ability to keep people living when they otherwise
would have been unable to sustain their lives themselves.
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Social Sciences: Politics and Governance with the Philippine Constitution

1. Familiarize with the various forms of government from the barangay to the
present system.
2. Explain the nature and provision of the present constitution to advanatages and
disadvantages over the other in the past in its function as fundamental law of
the state.
I. WHAT IS POLITICAL SCIENCE?

Political Science is the study of the phenomena of the state and government; it is derived
from two Greek words “polis” or “city” which today would mean a sovereign state and “scire”
meaning “science.”
Rodee (1980) defined political science “As a branch of social science, it deals with the
theory, organization, government, and practice of the state.
Political Science also deals with those relations among men and groups, which are subject
to control by state, with relations of states to other states.
Montesquieu (1689-1775) expounded the concept. He posited that all the functions of the
government could be encompassed within the categories of legislation, execution, and the
adjudication of law. He assumed that liberty could be best assured by the distribution of these
functions, referring to legislation, execution, adjudication, by their distribution among separate
branches of the the government namely the legislative, the executive department, and the
judiciary of the courts of law.
Aristotle (324-332 B.C.) a Greek philosopher was credited with the observation that, “man
is by nature a political animal.” By this statement, Aristotle meant that the basic underlying
substance of human existence is politics, that is, the man is predisposed to be involved in
politics. He added that the only way to optimize the potentials and capabilities of an individual
and to achieve the highest form of social existence was through interaction with others in a
state (cited in Rodee, et.al., 1983).
II. WHAT IS POLITICS?

Black’s Law Dictionary (1990) defined politics as the science of government and the art on
practice of administering public affairs.
Accordingly, politics is the process of making government policies. By nature, politics
everywhere involves conflict—that is, some from struggle among people trying to achieve
different goals and satisfying opposing interest. A conflict arises from the very nature of human
life itself.
In its broadest sense, politics includes the decision enforcing processes in any group that
makes and enforces rules on its members. Politics is unavoidable. Man is involved or will be
involved in some kind of politics (Dahl, 1991). Every Filipino comes upon face to face with
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politics in almost every aspect of his life. He encounters politics in the governance of his
country and the political unit he resides in—the barangay or municipality. A citizen encounters
politics in school, in the church, in the business establishments he works, the employees’ union
in which he is a member, or in socio-civic organization he joins, and in a host of other
organizations and a myriad of situations. He may choose to ignore politics, but definitely can
neverescape from its influence.
POLITICAL SCIENCE DEFINED

Political Science is the systematic study of the State and the Government. The word
political is derived from the Greek word ‘polis’ meaning a city or what today is equivalent to a
sovereign state; the word ‘science’ comes from the Latin word ‘scire’ meaning to know.
CORRELATES OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

Political Science shares common interest with other social disciplines namely:
1. History—It is a written record of the past including the present. It describes social
events in time and place. It records the events chronologically. On the other hand, the
function of political science is to analyze political institutions, to describe their workings
and organization and to some extent to forecast their development; while history is to
trace the origin and development of the state and its political institution.
2. Economics—is the scientific study of man’s activity in providing for such human needs
as hunger, shelter, clothing and education. It deals with man’s attempt to earn a living,
with man’s activities in connection with the consumption, production, distribution and
exchange processes of wealth including taxation. It is the science of wealth getting and
wealth using activities of man.
3. Sociology—The study of sociology provides a way of understanding human behaviour.
It is the social science that deals with the study of man in his social interaction with
other human beings in groups. It is also to obtain factual information about our society
and different aspects of social life.
4. Law—It is defined as an ordinance of reason promulgated by a competent authority for
the common good. It includes any edict, decree, prescript, order, ordinance, statute,
resolution, rule, judicial, decision, usage, etc. which is made or recognized and
enforced by the controlling authority. Political Science, on the other hand, is a study of
state with all institutions, of which law forms closely linked together.
5. Psychology—This science deals mainly with the individual without any particular
reference to his social life. It studies its soul and faculties—free will and understanding
and the individual conduct which is the outcome or our mental activity and human
habits.
6. Philosophy and Ethics—while the relation of political science to philosophy is somewhat
remote, the two studies touch up each other in some parts, especially in the realm of
political theory and political philosophy.
7. Geography and Statistics—the study of geography to a certain extent is related to that
of political science. The distinctive functions of geography is to describe and explain
the relations between man and his natural environment; to examine and interpret
adjustments which groups of people have made to the combinations of natural
environment conditions which exist in the regions where they live.
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CONCEPT OF A STATE
A state is a community of persons more or less numerous, permanently occupying a
definite portion of the territory, independent from outside or external control and possessing a
government wherein a great body of inhabitants render habitual obedience (CIR vs. Rueda, 42
SCRA 23).
ORIGIN OF THE STATE

1. Divine Theory—it holds that the state of divine creation and the ruler is obtained by GOD
to govern the people. Reference has been made by advocates of this theory to the laws
which Moses received at Mt. Sinai.
2. Necessity of Force Theory—it maintains that states must have been created through force
by some great warriors who imposed their will upon the weak.
3. Paternalistic Theory—it attributes the origin of states to the enlargement of the family,
which remained under the authority of the father or the mother. By natural stages, the
family grew into a clan, then developed into a tribe which broadened into a nation that
becomes a state.
4. Social Contract Theory—it asserts that the early states must have been formed by
deliberate and voluntary compact among the people to form a society and organize
government for their common good. This theory justifies the right of the people to revolt
against a bad ruler.
FUNCTIONS OF THE STATE

1. Constituent—those which constitute the bond of society and are, therefore, compulsory in
nature.
2. Ministrant—those undertaken only by way of society and are, therefore, options of such as
public works, publication, public charity, health and safety regulations and regulation of
trade and commerce.
CONCEPT OF NATION
A nation is a group of persons occupying a portion of the territory sharing the same
language, culture, tradition, and history.
STATE DISTINGUISHED FROM NATION

A state is more of a judicial or legal concept, while a nation is more of a racial or ethnic
concept. A nation may or may not be independent of external control. A state may consist of one
or more nations while a nation may consist of one or more states.
INHERENT POWERS OF THE STATE
1. Police Power—it is the power of the state to regulate individual’s rights and property for
the general welfare.
2. Eminent Domain or Power of Expropriation—it is the power of the state to take possession
of private property for public purpose and after payment of just compensation.
3. Power of Taxation—the power of the state to enforce proportionate contributions from the
people for support of all government programs and services.
ELEMENTS OF THE STATE

The state has four essential elements, namely:
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1. People 3. Government
2. Territory 4. Sovereignty
MODES OF ACQUIRING TERRITORY

1. Discovery—a discovery of a particular portion of the earth’s surface coupled with
occupation. A discovery without occupation will not make the discoverer the owner
thereof.
2. Prescription—the continued and interrupted occupation of a territory for a long period of
time by one state.
3. Accretion—it is the process where the land area of a state caused by the operation of
either the forces of nature , or artificially through human labor, is increased.
4. Cessation—is a bilateral agreement whereby one state transfers to another state a definite
portion of its territory.
5. Conquest—the acquisition of territory by means of force.
FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
1. Democracy—comes from the Latin terms ‘demos’ and ‘kratos’. It is a form of government
wherein the power or sovereignty is exercised and or resides in the people. It may be
classified as pure or representative democracy.
2. Aristocracy—a form of government wherein the power ios exercised by a limited few or
the so-called elite. It is always regarded as the privileged class.
3. Monarchy—a form of government wherein the power or sovereignty is exercised by one
person only, usually a king or a queen. It could either be absolute or limited monarchy.
4. Parliamentary—a form of government wherein the President serves as nominal or titular
head. It is the Prime Minister that runs the affairs of the State. He is directly accountable
to the people. Under this system, the ministry is legally responsible to legislature and
consequently to the electorate.
5. Presidential—a form of government wherein the President is the chief executive of the
state and independent of the legislature with respect to his tenure acts, and policies.
6. Federal—a form of government where the power of the state is divided into two namely:
national for national affairs and local for local affairs. Each organ is independent in its own
sphere.
7. Military—a form of government established and controlled by military authorities over a
beleaguered state.
8. Revolutionary—a form of government wherein the State is obtained by means of force.
9. De Jure—a form of government that is founded on existing legal or constitutional basis.
10.De Facto—a form of government that is not founded on constitutional law. It exists in fact
but not in law.
11.Civil—a form of government that is run b y elected civilian officials.
THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PHILIPPINE GOVERNMENT

The Philippines as nation has passed through several stages and has been under different
colonial rule in the course of its history. Discussed hereunder is the evolution of the Philippines
together with the different forms of government that had been implemented by the different
colonizers.
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The Pre-Spanish Government
Before the Spaniards came to Philippines, there were settlements composed of villages
called Barangay consisting of 100 families. Every barangay was virtually a State for it possessed
the fourth basic elements of the state. Each barangay was ruled by a Datu. He is the chief
executice, law-giver, chief judge and military head. He was assisted by the Council of Elders
called Maginoos which serve as advisers. In form, the government in a barangay is monarchical
in nature with the datu as the monarch.
Social classes in the barangay are divided into four: the nobility or the maharlika; the
freeman or the timawa; the serfs or the aliping namamahay; and the slaves or the aliping sa
guiguilid.
The early laws were both written and unwritten. The written were promulgated by the
datus. The known written laws are the Maragtas Code written by Datu Sumankwel in 1250 AD
and the Code of Kalantiaw written by Datu Kalantiaw in 1433 AD both in Panay. The unwritten
laws can be seen in the Filipino culture.
The Spanish Government

Spain’s title Philippines was based on the discovery of the Philippines by Magellan in
March 1521 and consummated by the conquest of Miguel Lopez de Legazpi forty-five years later.
Spain kept the Philippines for almost four centuries until 1898 when the Philippines was ceded by
Spain to the United States by virtue of the Treaty of Paris.
The Philippines was governed by the King of Spain through Mexico from 1565 to 1821.
When Mexico gained independence, the Philippines was ruled directly by Spain through the
Council of the Indies from 1821 to 1837. In 1837, legislation for the Philippines was temporarily
performed by the Council of Ministers. From 1863, the Ministry of Ultramar exercised general
powers of supervision over Philippines’ affairs.
The Spanish government in the Philippines was centralized in structure and national in
scope. The barangays were consolidated into pueblos (towns) and headed by a Governador who
represents the Governor-General in the province. Cities governed under special Charters were
created. Each of the cities had an Ayunatmiento or Cabildo (city council). Cebu was the first city
to be established in 1565 in the Philippines. The second was Manila in 1571.
The powers of the government was exercised by the Government-General and ably
assisted by the Board of Authorities and the Council of Administration. The first Spanish
governor-general was Miguel Lopez de Legazpi and the last was Gen. Diego delos Rios.
To strengthen the judicial system, Spain established the Royal Audiencia in 1583 in Cebu
and in Vigan, which exercised appellate jurisdiction over criminal cases coming from the
surrounding areas. In 1886, the Courts of First Instance were established in each province and
the Justice of the Peace Courts were established in the two level. Special courts were also
organized.
The Revolutionary Government

During the Spanish Period, several forms of de facto government were established. Among
them were:
The Katipunan—the Katipunan was a secret society that participated the Philippine Revolution
against the Spanish in August 26, 1896. The Katipunan was organized by Andres Bonifacio. The
Central government of the Katipunan was vested in the Supreme Council (Kataas-taasang
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Sanggunian). A provincial Council was established in each province. A popular council was
established in the town level. The judicial power was exercised by a Judicial Council or
Sangguniang Hukuman. When Bonifacio died, another government was established by Gen.
Emilio F. Aguinaldo who acted as the first president of the Philippines of the Philippines republic
by virtue of the election in the Tejeros Convention on March 22, 1897.
The Biak-na-Bato Republic—on November 1, 1897, with a republic established by Gen. Emilio
Aguinaldo in Biak-na-Bato (now San Miguel de Mayumo, Bulacan). It had a Constitution which
was to take for years only. The republic declared the separation of the Philippines from Spain.
The republic lasted up to December 15, 1897, with the conclusion of the pact of Biak-na-Bato.
The Dictatorial Government—the following outbreak of the Spanish-American War on April 25,
1898, Gen. Aguinaldo established the Dictatorial Government on May 24, 1898. The most
important achievements of the government were the proclamation of the Philippines’
Independence at Kawit, Cavite on June 12, 1898 and the reorganization of the local governments.
The Revolutionary Government—on June 23, 1898, Gen. Aguinaldo established the
Revolutionary Government replacing the dictatorial government. The aim of the new government
was to struggle for the independence of the Philippines, until all nations including Spain will
expressly recognize it and to prepare the country for the establishment of a real republic.
The First Philippine Republic—on September 15, 1898, a revolutionary congress of Filipino
representatives met in Malolos, Bulacan and framed the so-called Malolos Constitution. The
Constitution established a free and independent Philippine Republic which was inaugurated on
January 23, 1899 with Gen. Aguinaldo as President. The Republic was not recognized by the
family of nations. It was nevertheless an organized government because it actually existed from
January 23, 1901. In February, 1899 the United States annexed the Philippines as a result of the
Spanish-American War and in April, 1901, Gen. Aguinaldo was captured.
The American Government

There were three kinds of government implemented by the American during their period:
The Military Government—The American military rule in the Philippines started on April 14,
1898, the day after the capture of Manila. The existence of war gave the President of the United
States the power to establish a Military government. His authority was delegated to the military
governor who exercised, as long as the war lasted, all powers of government executive,
legislative and judicial. The three American Military Governors were: Gen. Wesley Meritt, Gen.
Elwell Otis, and the last was Gen. Arthur McArthur.
The Civil Government—the Spooner Amendment ended the military regime in the Philippines.
On July 4, 1901 a civil government was inaugurated headed by a Civil Governor. In February 6,
1905, the title was changed to Governor-General, who exercised legislative powers. He remained
as the President of the Philippine Commission, the sole lawmaking body of the government from
1901 to 1916, the Philippine Commission acted as the upper house of the legislative branch with
the Philippine Assembly serving as a lower house. With the passage of the Jone Law in 1916,
these two bodies gave way to the Philippine legislature. The Philippines was represented in the
United States by two President Commissioners had seats in the United States House of
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Representatives, receiving the same emoluments and other privileges as the American members
of the body, but without the right to vote.
The first Civil Governor was Judge William H. Taft (1901-1903). He was succeeded by Luke
F. Wright (1904-1906) who was the first American to enjoy the title of Governor-General of the
Philippines. The last Governor-General was Frank Murphy (1933-1935) who was also the first
High Commissioner of the Philippines upon the inauguration of the Commonwealth government
of the Philippines.
The Commonwealth Government—the next stage in the political development of the Filipinos
was the establishment of the Commonwealth government of the Philippines pursuant to an act of
the United States Congress on March 24, 1934, commonly known as the Tydings-McDuffie law.
The law provided for a transitions period of ten years during the Philippine Commonwealth would
operate until July 4, 1946, wherein the independence of the Philippines was inaugurated on
November 15, 1935, following the first national election under 1935 constitution held on
September 12, 1935 with Manuel L Quezon and Sergio Osmeña as President and Vice-President
respectively. The commonwealth government of the Philippines was republican in form uinder
the presidential type. The legislative power was vested in a unicameral Congress composed of
the Senate and the House of the Representatives. The Judicial power was vested in the Supreme
Court and inferior courts provided by law. The government of the Commonwealth was
autonomous in nature. The Filipinos had almost complete control over the domestic affairs, the
United States retaining control only over matters involving foreign affairs.
During World War II, the Commonwealth government functioned in exile in Washington
from May 13 1942 to October 3, 1944. It was re-established in Manila on February 27, 1945 when
Gen. Douglas MacArthur turned over to President Osmeña the full powers and responsibilities of
the Commonwealth government under the 1935 Constitution.
The Japanese Government

The Japanese Military Administration was established in Manila on January 3, 1942, one
day after its occupation. The Japanese High Command immediately terminated the sovereignty
of the United States over the Philippines.
A civil government known as the Phlippine Executive Commission was established with
Jorge B. Vargas as its chairman. The Commission exercised both the executive and the legislative
powers. However, laws enacted were subjected to the approval of the Commander-in-Chief of the
Japanese forces. The Judiciary continued in the same manner as it was independence which it
had traditionally enjoyed.
On October 14, 1943, the so-called Japanese sponsored Republic of the Philippines was
inaugurated with Jose P. Laurel as president. Like the Commission, the ultimate source of its
authority was the Japanese military authority and government. On August 17, 1945, President
Laurel dissolved the republic.
The Third Philippine Republic

When the Philippines was finally liberated from the hands of the Japanese, the Third
Philippine Republic was inaugurated on July 4, 1946 with Manuel A. Roxas as president and
Elpidio Quirino as Vice President. Roxas died on April 1, 1948, paving the way for the Quirino
presidency which lasted until 1953. Quirino was followed by Ramon Magsaysay, who was not
able to finish his term when he died in a plane crash on March 17, 1957. Carlos Garcia succeeded
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Magsaysay. Garcia was followed by Diosdado Macapagal who served the country for only one
term. Macapagal was defeated by Ferdinand Marcos in the presidential election of 1965.
The Marcos Years. Marcos took his oath of office on December 30, 1965. He was reelected
in 1969, due to his outstanding performance as chief executive. However, before the end of his
second term (1969-1973), Marcos made serious efforts to amend the 1935 Constitution which
was in effect at that time. A Constitutional Convention was created which drafted the 1973
Constitution. But even before the framing of this charter was finished, Marcos issued
Proclamation No. 1081which placed the entire archipelago under Martial Law. By virtue of this
declaration, the Congress was abolished, the opposition leaders and those who were critical of
the Marcos administration were either imprisoned or they disappeared. Marcos assumed
executive, legislative, and even judicial powers of the government. He virtually controlled all the
aspects of Philippine politics through his Presidential Decrees and through the Batasang
Pambansa.
The Aquino Presidency. On February 7, 1986, Marcos called for a snap presidential
election, which marked by rampant cheating presumably on both the administration candidates
led by Marcos for President and Arturo Tolentino for Vice President and the opposition candidates
led by Corazon Aquino (the wife of slain opposition leader Benigno Aquino Jr.) for President and
Salvador Laurel for Vice President.
This event led to the so-called EDSA People Power Revolution from February 22-25, 1986,
that paved the way for the downfall of the 20 years of Marcos Presidency.
The Aquino Administration. Corazon Aquino was inducted as the first lady President of the
Philippines on February 25, 1986 in Club Filipino, San Juan, Metro Manila. Aquino issued
Proclamation No. 3 on March 25, 1986 promulgating the Freedom Constitution. Thereafter, on
June 2, 1986, she appointed a Constitutional Commission composed of fifty members which
drafted the 1987 Constitution.
On February 2, 1987, the Filipino people voted to ratify the charter, thereby legalizing the
restoration of democratic government and institutions in the country. This was followed by the
election of the members of the bicameral legislative body in May 1987 and the election of local
executives.
On May 11, 1992 the first post-Marcos presidential election was held and Fidel Ramos, the
former Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces and the anointed of Corazon Aquino was elected
president.
The Fidel Ramos Presidency. Ramos was the former military officer to become the
president of the Philippines. He used his knowledge of the Philippine Military to re-establish a
tradition of civilian control over the armed forces. He also built on the process of restoring
democracy to the Philippines by addressing the nation’s most difficult economic reform program
based on privatization and deregulation, opening banking to foreign investment and transferring
government assets to private ownership. He moved quickly to resolve the country’s serious
electric power shortage, which had been a detriment to economic growth, by investing in the
domestic power-generating infrastructure. His government improved tax-collection policies and
practices and this combined with the growing economy to generate higher taxes revenues for
the government. In 1994-1995 the country had its first consecutive government budget
surpluses. Despite of economic reform program, however, unemployment remained a serious
problem because population growth continued to outpace the creation of new jobs.
In the early 1990s, meanwhile, secessionist Muslim groups renewed their guerrilla war in
Mindanao. Negotiations between Ramos government and the MNLF formally began in 1993 and
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resulted in a lasting peace agreement, signed in September 1996. Other rebel groups, including
the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) and Abu Sayyaf, continued guerrilla activities.
The Joseph E. Estrada Presidency. In 1998 elections, Ramos and the ruling coalition Lakas-
NUCD, gave their support to Jose de Venecia. Joseph Estrada, vice president under Ramos and a
populist politician, entered the race as a candidate of his own party, the Partido ng Masang
Pilipino (Party of the Filipino Masses) which entered a coalition with two leading opposition
parties. Estrada campaigned on promises to work toward improving the lives of poor Filipinos. He
won the election with the widest margin ever in Philippine politics.
A major focus of the Estrada administration was “food security” which involved
agricultural modernization and major infrastructure development projects. Despite its rhetoric,
however, the government did not make much progress in implementing its “pro-poor” platform.
The opposition became more outspoken in its criticism of Estrada, and his administration became
embroiled in allegations of cronyism and corruption. The corruption allegations led to Estrada’s
impeachment by the House of Representatives November 2000. His trial in the Senate was
suspended in mid-January 2001, however, after the prosecution team resigned to protest the
suppression of evidence. Thousands of Filipinos then took to the streets of Manila to demand
Estrada’s resignation, however, Estrada retained strong support among the urban poor.
The Gloria M. Arroyo Presidency. Vice President Macapagal-Arroyo formed a strong
opposition alliance, the United Opposition, within the government. The massive demonstrations,
resignation of the most of the president’s cabinet and loss of support among top military officials
led to Estrada’s ouster on January 20, after the Supreme Court declared the presidency vacant.
Macapagal-Arroyo was immediately sworn as president.
Early in her presidency, Macapagal-Arroyo declared a suspension of offensive military
operations against the MILF and pursued a policy of reconciliation with the group. In August
2001, the two sides signed a cease-fire agreement and peace negotiations with Malaysia acting
as intermediary. The government meanwhile continued its military crackdown on the
secessionist Abu Sayyaf, which was linked to terrorist activities such as bombings and
kidnapping. In 2001 legislative elections, Macapagal-Arroyo won a popular mandate to govern
the country when candidates she had endorsed won control of the Senate. The previous Republic
of the Philippines can be summarized as follows:
1. The First Republic—established on January 23, 1899 under the Malolos Constitution.
2. The Second Republic—established on October 14, 1943 under the Japanese-Sponsored
Constitution
3. The Third Republic—established on July 4, 1946 under the Constitution
4. The Fourth Republic—proclaimed on July 30, 1981, through the inaugural speech of the
late Constitution, amended on April 7, 1981, through a plebiscite
5. The Fifth Republic—February 2, 1987 unbder the 1987 Constitution
BRIEF HISTORY OF PHILIPPINE CONSTITUTION

1. Malolos Constitution
On November 29, 1898, the Malolos Constitution was approved by the members of the
Congress and then forwarded to President Aguinaldo for his approval. On January 3, 1899,
President Aguinaldo’s message was to the congress.
On January 21, 1899 President Aguinaldo finally proclaimed the Malolos Constitution as the
fundamental law of the land.
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2. 1935 Constitution
The drafting of the Constitution lasted six months from July 30, 1934 to February 8, 1935.
Some delegates, however, had signed the document beginning February 9. Altogether, there
were 200 signers.
The Tydings-McDuffie Law required that the Constitution, after its approval by the
President of the United States, be submitted to the Filipino people for their ratification or
rejection. May 14, 1945, the Plebiscite on the Constitution was held.
The electorate overwhelming ratified the Constitution. The ballots cast in favour of of it
totalled 1,213,046 and those against only 44,963.
3. 1973 Constitution
The 1973 Constitution shortly after the start of Martial Law, the delegates to the
Constitutional Convention reassemble and resume work. They worked more quickly and
finished the new constitution on November 29, 1972, signing it on the following day.
On December 1, 1972, copies of the signed Constitution were given to President Marcos,
who in turn submitted it to the people for ratification. In the plebiscite of January 10-15, 1973,
the hastily arranged citizen assemblies, composed of voters were reported to have ratified
the constitution by a 95% positive majority, in an open and group voting by raising their
hands. At noon of January 17, 1973, President Marcos signed the Constitution and put into
immediate effect.
4. The 1987 Constitution
April 23, 1986 President Corazon C. Aquino issued Proclamation No. 9, the law governing
the Constitutional Commission of 1986. The law provided for the organization of a
Constitutional Commission and detailed of its operation and established procedure of the
submission of the proposed constitution and electorate in plebiscite.
October 12, 1986. The Constitutional Commission approved the proposed new constitution
after 133 days of work with 44 voting in favour, while two voted against it.
On October 15, 1986, the Constitutional Commission held its final session to sign 109-page
draft Constitution. On the same day, the draft in its original form in English and Filipino was
presented to the President.
February 2, 1987. The electorate in a plebiscite held fort the purpose ratified the draft of
constitution.
STATE DISTINGUISHED FROM GOVERNMENT

Many political science writers regard these two terms as identical. It is the considered view
that the acts of the government (within the prescribed limits of the delegation of powers) are the
acts of the state. Legally, however, under the contract of agency, the government is the agent
through which the will of the state is carried out. The state cannot exist without the government
but it is possible to have a government without a state.
CONCEPT OF CONSTITUTION
Meaning of Constitution
According to Judge Cooley, a constitution is a body of rules and maxims in accordance with
which the power of sovereignty is habitually exercised.
Purpose or Function of Constitution
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1. To prescribe the permanent framework of the system of government assigned to the
different departments their respective powers and duties, and established certain fixed
first principles on which the government is founded and
2. To promote public welfare, this involved the safety, prosperity, health, and happiness of
the people.
Kinds of Constitution
1. Written or rigid—is one, the provisions of which have been reduced to writing and
embodied in one or more instruments at a particular time. Example: Philippine and US
Constitutions.
2. Unwritten or flexible—is one which has not been committed to writing at any specific time
but is the collective product and accumulation of customary rules, judicial decisions, dicta
of statements and legislative enactments of fundamental character written but scattered
in various records without having any compact form in writing.
Requisites of a Good Written Constitution
1. Broad—because it must outline an organization of the government for the whole State
2. Brief—because its nature requires the only its great outlines should be marked. Its
important objects designated and the ingredients which compose those objects be
reduced.
3. Definite
Two Steps Amending or Revising a Constitution
1. Proposal—may be made by
a. Congress b. Constitutional Convention c. People’s initiative
2. Ratification—this means the submission of the draft constitution to the electorate. A
proposal made by the people’s initiative requires at least 12% of the entire electorate and
3% must come from every legislative district.
PREAMBLE—Meaning
The term preamble comes from the Latin word ‘preambulare’ which means ‘to walk
before’. Strictly speaking, preamble is not an integral part of the Constitution. Its true office is to
expound on the scope and nature, the extent and application of the powers actually conferred by
the Constitution. (Watson, Const. Vol I p.92).
ARTICLE I National Territory

The Philippine Territorial Jurisdiction comprises:
1. Terrestrial—jurisdiction over bodies of land
2. Fluvial—jurisdiction over maritime and interior waters
3. Aerial—jurisdiction over atmosphere
The United Nations International Convention in Geneva defined the five kinds of water in relation
to the territorial jurisdiction of an archipelago state:
1. Internal Water—the water around connecting and those that are in between the islands
regardless of their breadth and dimensions.
2. Territorial Sea—is a belt of water outside of the archipelagicbaselines and adjacent to the
archipelagic waters. The archipelagic state has a right to establish the breadth of its
territorial seas, not exceeding 12 nautical miles measured from the baselines. The
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archipelagic state has sovereignty over the territorial sea, the air space above it, and the
bed and subsoil of such area.
3. Contiguous Zone—beyond the territorial sea, may extend to not more than 245 nautical
miles from the archipelagic baselines. The state may exercise, in the contiguous zone, the
control necessary to prevent and punish infringements of its customs, fiscal, immigration
or sanitary laws and regulations within the territory or territorial sea.
4. Exclusive Economic Zone—which beyond and adjacent to the territorial sea, may not
extend more than 200 nautical miles from the archipelagic baselines. The archipelagic
State has sovereign rights in the EEZ to explore, manage, and exploit all the natural
resources living and non-living in the waters, the seas, and the subsoil.
5. Continental Shelf—is the seabed and subsoil of the submarine areas that extend beyond
its territorial sea throughout the natural prolongation of its territory to the outer.
Seabed—is the land holding the sea beyond the seashore

Subsoil—is the soil below the surface soil including mineral and natural resources.
Insular shelves—are relatively shallow beds of sea bottom bordering land mass, the
outer edges of which sink considerably until the great ocean depths are reached.
THE NEW LAW ON THE SEA

The Convention on the Law of the Sea (under the sponsorship of the United Nations)
signed in Jamaica on December 10, 1982 fixes a 12 mile territorial sea limit and establishes an
economic zone from the baselines. It adopts and recognizes the archipelagic principle but set
forth limitations thereon consisting of respect for right of the ships of other states to pass
through the territorial sea as well as archipelagic waters and respect for rights of innocent
passage and passage through archipelagic sea lanes subject to the promulgation by local
authorities by pertinent rules and regulations.
ARTICLE II Declaration of Principles and Policies

Section 1. The Philippines is a democratic and republican state. Sovereignty resides in the people
and all government authority emanates from them.
A republican government is a democratic government by representatives chosen by the
people at large. The essence therefore, of a republican state is indirect rule. The people have
established the government to govern them. Its officers from the highest to the lowest are
servants of the people and not their masters. They can only exercise powers delegated to them
by the people who remain as the ultimate source of political power and authority.
Section 2. The Philippines renounces war as an instrument of national policy, adopts the
generally accepted principles of international law of the land and adheres to the policy of peace,
equality, justice, freedom, cooperation, and amity with all nations.
Renunciation of war as an instrument of national policy is the first aspect of the
declaration. Its accordance with the principle in the United Nations Charter binding all members
to ‘refrain in the international relations or use of force against territorial integrity or political
independence of any state’. The declaration refers only to the declaration of the Philippines of
aggressive war, not in defense of her national honor and integrity.
Section 3. Civil authority is, at all times, supreme over the military. The Armed Force of the
Philippines is the protector of the people and the State. Its goal is to secure the sovereignty of
the State and in the integrity of the national territory.
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The idea of the supremacy of the civilian authority, the highest of such authority being the
president, over the military has always been recognized in our jurisdiction by implication from
express provision of the 1935 Constitution and by practice.
Section 6. The separation of State shall be inviolable.
The principle of the separation of Church and the State being inviolable is implied from the
constitutional prohibitions that ‘no law shall be made respecting anestablishment of religion’ and
that ‘no public money or property shall be appropriated, applied, paid or employed, directly or
indirectly, for use, benefit, or support of any sect, church domination, sectarian institution or
system of religion.
ARTICLE III Bill of Rights

Bill of Rights—defined as a declaration and enumeration of a person’s rights and privileges,
which the Constitution designed to protect against violations by the government or by an
individual or group of individuals.
Classes of Rights
1. Natural Right—possessed by every citizen conferred upon him by God as a human being.
Example: right to life, right to live
2. Constitutional Right—rights conferred and protected by the Constitution part of the
fundamental law cannot be modified or taken away by the law making body.
3. Statutory Right—it is provided by laws promulgated by the law making body. It can be
abolished by the same body.
Classes of Constitutional Rights

1. Civil Right—right which reinforces to private individual for the purposes of security,
happiness and enjoyment.
2. Political Right—right of the citizen to participate directly or indirectly in the establishment
of administration of the government.
3. Social and Economic Right—it is intended to insure the well being and economic security
of the individual.
4. Right of the Accused—intended to protect persons accused of any crime. They of law nor
shall any person be denied the equal protection of the law.
DUE PROCESS
Concept of due process of law which hears before it condemns and proceeds upon inquiry
before rendering judgement. Under the constitution, a person may be deprived by the state of
his life, liberty or property provided due process of law is observed.
Kinds of Due Process of Law

1. Procedural process of law
2. Substantive due processes of law are the (civil) rights intended for the protection of a
person accused of any crime. Example: right against self-incrimination, right to have a
legal counsel
Section 1. No person shall be deprived of life, liberty or property without due process.
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Section 2. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers and effects
against unreasonable searches and seizures of whatever nature and for any purposes shall be
issued except upon probable cause to be determined personally by the judge after examination
under oath or affirmation of the complaint and the witness he may produced, and particularly
describing the place to be searched and the persons or things to be seized.
Search Warrant—is an order in writing in the name of the people of the Philippines, signed by a
judge, directed to the police officer, commanding him to search for personal property and to
bring it before the court.
Warrant of Arrest—is an order in writing, issued in the name of the people of the Philippines,
signed by a judge, directed to the police officer, commanding him to arrest a person, that he
may be bound to answer for the offense committed.
Requisites for a Valid Search Warrant of Arrest

1. Probable cause
2. To be determined personally by a judge
3. After examination under oath or affirmation of the complaint and his witness
4. Particularly describing the place to be searched and the persons or things to be seized
Rules in the Court of Arrest

1. When in the presence of an arresting officer, the person to be arrested has committed, is
actually committing or is about to commit an offense.
2. When an offense has in fact just been committed and he has personal knowledge of facts
including that the person to be arrested has committed it and
3. When the person to be arrested is a prisoner who has escaped from a penal establishment
or place where he is serving final judgement or temporarily confined while his case is
pending or has escaped while being transferred from one confinement to another.
Section 3
1. Right to privacy of communication
2. Any evidence obtained in violation of this or the preceding section shall be inadmissible for
any purpose in any proceeding.
Right to privacy is concisely defined as the right to be left alone. It has also been defined, as the
right of a person to be free from unwarranted interference by the public in matters which the
public is not necessarily concerned.
Section 9. Private property shall not be taken for public use without just compensation.
Eminent domain—is power of the state to take private property for public purpose upon payment
of just compensation to its owner.
Just compensation—is the fair marked value of the property at the time of the taking.
Rights of the Accused in Criminal Cases

1. The adequate legal assistance.
2. To be informed of his right to remain silent
3. Right against the use of torture, violence, or any other means which violates the free will.
4. To be heard himself and counsel
5. To bail and against the excessive bail.
6. To be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation against him
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7. To have speedy, impartial, and public trial
8. To meet the witness face to face
9. Right against self-incrimination
10.Right against double jeopardy
Section 21. No expost facto law or bill of attainder shall be enacted.

An expost facto law is one which operating retrospectively makes an act done before the
passage of the law and punish such act as aggravates a crime or makes it greater than it was
committed, changes the punishment and inflicts greater punishment and alters the legal rules of
evidence and receives less testimony than the law required at the time of commission of the
offenses, in order to convict the offender.
A bill of attainder is a legislative act, which inflicts punishment without a judicial trial.
ARTICLE IV- CITIZENSHIP

Section 1. The following are citizens of the Philippines:
1. Those who are citizens of the country at the time of the adoption of this Constitution
2. Those whose fathers and mothers are citizens of the Philippines
3. Those born before January 17, 1873 of Filipino mothers, who elect Philippine citizenship
upon reaching the age of maturity; and
4. Those who are naturalized in accordance with the law.
Meaning of Citizenship
Citizenship is a term denoting membership of a citizen in political society, which
membership implies, reciprocally, a duty of allegiance on the part of the member and duty of
protection on the part of the state.
General Ways of Acquiring Citizenship

1. Involuntary method—by birth because of blood relationship or place of birth, and
2. Voluntary method—by naturalization, except in case of collective naturalization of
inhabitants of a territory which takes place when it is ceded by one to another as a result
of conquest or treaty.
Citizenship by Birth
There are two principles or rules that govern citizenship by birth, namely:
1. Jus Sanguinis—relationship by blood is the basis of the acquisition of citizenship under this
rule. The child follows the citizenship of both of the parents or one of them. This is the
predominating principle in the Philippines
2. Jus Soli or Jus Loci—place of birth as the basis for acquiring citizenship under this rule.
Ways of Acquiring Citizenship through Naturalization

1. By the judgement of the Court—the foreigner who wants to become a Filipino citizen must
first apply for naturalization with the proper Regional Trial Court. He must have all the
qualifications as provided by law and must comply with all the procedures and conditions
prescribed.
2. By direct act of Congress—in this case, our law making body simply enacts an act directly
conferring citizenship on a foreigner.
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ARTICLE V- SUFFRAGE
Section 1. Suffrage may be exercised by all citizens of the Philippines not otherwise disqualified
by law who are at least eighteen years of age, and who shall have resided in the Philippines for
at least one year and in the place wherein they proposed to vote for at least six months
immediately preceeding the election. No literacy, property or other substantive requirement shall
be imposed on the exercise of suffrage.
Meaning of Suffrage
Suffrage is the right and obligation to vote of qualified citizens in the election of certain
national and local officers of the government and in the decision of public questions submitted to
the people.
Nature of Suffrage
1. A mere privilege- suffrage is not a natural right of citizens, but merely privilege given or
withheld by the law making power subject to constitutional limitations.
2. A political right—in the sense of the right conferred by the constitution, suffrage is
classified as a political right, enabling every citizen to participate in the process of
government to assure that it derives its powers from the consent of the governed. The
principle is that of one man, one vote (supra).
Scope of Suffrage
1. Election—it is a means by which the people choose their officials for definite and fixed
periods and to whom they entrust, for the time as their representatives, the exercise of
powers of government.
2. Plebiscite—it is the name given to a vote of the people expressing their choice for or
against a proposed law or enactment submitted to them.
3. Referendum—it is the submission of a law or part thereof passed by the national or local
legislative body to the voting citizens of a country for their ratification or rejection.
4. Initiative—it is the process whereby the people directly propose and enact laws.
5. Recall—it is the method by which a public officer may be removed from office during his
tenure or before the expiration of his term by a vote of the people after registration of a
petition signed by a required percentage of the qualified voters.
Qualifications of Voters
He must be
1. A citizen (male or female) of the Philippines
2. Not otherwise disqualified by law
3. At least eighteen (18) years of age; and
4. Have resided in the Philippines for at least six (6) months preceeding the election
Section __ - The Congress shall provide a system for securing the secretary and sanctity of the
ballot as well as a system for absentee voting by qualified Filipinos abroad.
The Congress shall also design a procedure for the disabled and the illiterates to vote
without the assistance of other persons. Until then, they shall be allowed to vote under the
existing laws and such rules as the Commission on Elections may promulgate to protect the
secrecy of the ballot.
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ARTICLE VI- LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT

Legislative Power—the authority under the Constitution to make laws or to alter laws
Laws—refer to statutes, which are written enactments of the legislative governing the relations
of the people among themselves and between them and the government and its agencies.
Classification of Powers of Congress

1. General Legislative Power—power to enact laws intended as rules of conduct to govern
the relations among individuals and the state.
2. Specific Power—power which the Constitution expressly directs or authorizes Congress
to exercise like the power to choose who shall become the President in case two or more
candidates have an equal and highest number of votes, to confirm certain appointments
by the President to promote social justice, to declare the existence of a state of war, to
impose taxes, to impeach, to act as constituent assembly.
3. Implied Power—that which is essential or necessary to the effective exercise of the
powers expressly granted like the power to conduct inquiry and investigation in aid of
legislation, to punish for contempt, to determine the rules of its proceedings.
4. Inherent Power—power which is possessed and can be exercised by every government
because it exists as an attribute of sovereignty.
The Senate
Composition and Election—it is composed of 24 senators who are elected at large by qualified
voters as may be provided by law.
Term of Office—six (6) years
Qualifications of a Senator
1. A natural born citizen of the Philippines
2. At least 35 years of age on the date of the election day
3. Able to read and write
4. A registered voter
5. A resident of the Philippines for not less than two (2) years immediately proceeding the
election day
Maximum terms—a senator is disqualified to serve for more than two consecutive terms but
can still run for reelection after a break or interval
Registered Voter—one who has all the qualifications for a voter and none of the
disqualifications provided by law and who has registered himself in the list of voters.
Residence—the place where one has his true permanent home and to which whenever absent,
he has the intention of returning.
The House of Representatives

Composition and election / selection—composed of not more than 250 members popularly known
as Congressmen elected from legislative or congressional districts and through party-list system
Term of Office—three (3) years
Qualifications of a Representative
1. A natural born citizen of the Philippines
2. At least 25 years of age on the election day
3. Able to read an d write
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4. Except for party-list representative, a registered voter
5. A resident thereof, for a period of not less than one (1) year preceding the election day
Compositions/Election/Selection and Classification of Members

1. The Constitution limits to 250 the maximum numbers the House of Representatives may
have
2. The House of Representatives shall be elected from legislative districts and through party-
list system of registered national and sectoral parties or organizations. The party-list
representative shall constitute 20% of the number of representatives in the Lower House
including those under the party list.
3. The members of the House of Representatives may be classified into district, party-list and
sectoral representatives
Kinds of Election for Members of Congress

1. Regular Election 2. Special Election
Compensation—PhP160,000 to PhP180,000 annually. Any increase in their salary takes effect
only after the expiration of full term of the members approving such increase
Steps in the Passage of a Bill
1. First reading
2. Referral to appropriate committee
3. Second reading
4. Debates
5. Printing and distribution
6. Third reading
7. Referral to the other House
8. Submission to join bicameral committee
9. Submission to the President
ARTICLE VII- EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT

Section 1. The executive power shall be vested in the President of the Philippines
Executive Power—defined as the power to administer
Section 2. No person may be elected as President unless he is natural born citizen of the
Philippines
Qualifications of the President and Vice President
1. Natural born citizen of the Philippines
2. Registered voter
3. Able to read and write
4. At least 40 years of age
5. Resident of the Philippines for at least 10 years
Section 3. There shall be Vice-president who shall have the same qualifications and term of office
and be elected in the same manner as the President.
Reasons for Prohibition against RE-election of President

1. A President seeking a second term is vulnerable to constant political pressure from those
whose support he must preserve and has to devote his time and energy to consolidate this
political support
169
2. A President who seeks a second term is under terrific handicap in the performance of his
function.
3. A President seeking re-election will even use public funds for the purpose even to the
extent of making the government bankrupt.
4. The prohibition also widens the basic leadership.
5. The ban will put an end or at least hamper the establishment of political dynasties.
6. The six year term will give the President a reasonable time within which to implement his
plans and programs of government.
7. A term, no matter how long, is short for a good President.
Powers of the President

1. Appointing power
2. Power to revoke any appointments
3. Power of control over all executive departments, etc.
4. Military power
5. Power to grant reprieve, commutations’ and pardons
6. Power to contact and guarantee foreign loan
7. Power to enter into treaties or international agreement
8. Budgetary power
9. Power to address the Congress
ARTICLE VIII- JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT

Section 1. The judicial power shall be vested in one Supreme Court and in such lower courts as
may be established by law.
Meaning of Judicial Power—is the power to apply the law to contests and disputes concerning
legally recognized rights or duties between the state and private person or between individual
litigants in case properly brought before the judicial tribunal.
Scope of Judicial Power

1. Adjucatory power—it includes the duties:
a. To settle actual controversies involving rights which are legally demandable and
enforceable
b. To determine whether there has been a grave abuse of discretion amounting to lack
or recess jurisdiction on the part of any branch or instrumentality of the
government.
2. Power of Judicial Review
a. To pass upon the validity or constitutionality of the laws of the state and acts upon
the other departments of the government
b. To interpret them
3. To render binding judgement
4. Incidental powers—it likewise includes the incidental powers necessary to the effective
discharge of the judicial functions
170
Section 4. The SUPREME COURT shall be composed of the Chief Justice and 14 Associate Justices.
It may sit en banc or in its discretion, in divisions of three, five, seven members. Any vacancy
shall be filled within 90 days from the occurrence thereof.
Qualifications for Members of the Supreme Court and any lower collegiate court
1. He must be a natural born citizen of the Philippines, a naturalized citizen may not be
appointed.
2. He must be at least forty (40) years of age.
3. He must have, for fifteen (15) years or more, been a judge of a lower court or engaged in
the practice of law in the Philippines
4. He must be a person of proven competence, integrity, probity, and independence.
ARTICLE IX- CONSTITUTIONAL COMMISSION

Independent Constitutional Bodies
The Three Constitutional Commissions are:
1. Commission on Civil Service
2. Commission on Audit
3. Commission on Election
Common Features:
1. They are multi-headed bodies
2. They are categorized as independent by the constitution
3. Their powers and functions are defined in the constitution
4. The commissioners are required to be natural-born citizens of the Philippines
5. Their term of office is staggered with two years interval
6. The Commissioner appointed is intelligible for appointment for a period beyond the
maximum tenure of seven (7) years
7. Appointment of any vacancy is only for the unexpired portion of the term of the
predecessor
8. The commissioners cannot be appointed or designated in the temporary or acting
predecessor
9. The commissioners are removable only by impeachment
The Civil Service Commission

Composition of Civil Service Commission
It is composed of a Chairman and two (2) Commissioners. It is envisioned to enhance its
independence on the theory that it will be more resistant to political pressure or influence than a
body headed by a single individual. Their terms of office are for seven (7) years only without
reappointment.
Qualifications of Members
1. They must be natural born citizens of the Philippines
2. They must be at least thirty five (35) years of age at the time of appointment
3. They must be persons with proven capacity for public administration
4. They must not have been candidates for any elective position in the elections immediately
preceding their appointment
The term civil service means that professionalized body of men and women who have made
of the government service of a lifetime career. The scope of this are every branch, agency,
171
subdivisions and instrumentality of the government including every government-owned or
controlled corporation with original charter.
Composition of Commission on Elections
It is composed of a Chairman and six (6) Commissioners. The 1973 Constitution increased
in the membership from three in the 1973 Charter to nine on the theory that it would make it
more difficult for the Commission to become the captive of any group or any person who
might be interested in the commission deciding or taking action one way or another.
Qualification of the Members

1. They must be natural born citizens of the Philippines.
2. They must be at least thirty five (35) years of age at the time of their appointment.
3. They must be at least holders of college degree.
4. They must not have been candidates for any elective position immediately preceding
elections.
The Commission on Audit

Composition on Commission on Audit
It is composed of a Chairman and two (2) Commissioners. It is designed to make it more
resistant to pressures from legislative and executive branches and other offices of the
government.
Qualifications of the Members

1. They must be natural born citizens of the Philippines.
2. They must be at least thirty five (35) years of age at the time of election.
3. They must be certified public accountants with not less than ten (10) years of experience.
4. They must not have been candidates for any elective position in the elections preceding
their appointment.
ARTICLE X- LOCAL GOVERNMENT

General Provisions
Section 1. The territorial and political subdivisions of the Republic of the Philippines are the
provinces, cities, municipalities and barangays. There shall be autonomous regions in Mindanao
and the Cordilleras as hereinafter provided.
LOCAL GOVERNMENT
Concept
Local government refers to a political subdivision of a nation or state, is constituted by law
and has substantial control of local affairs which officials elected or otherwise locally selected.
LOCAL GOVERNMENT UNITS
The local government units are the following:
1. Province 4. Barangay
2. City 5. Autonomous regions
3. Municipality
Powers of Local Governments
The powers of the local government are:
1. To have continuous succession in its corporate name
2. To sue and be sued
172
3. To use a corporate seal
4. To acquire and convey real or personal properties
5. To enter into a contract, and
6. To exercise such other powers as granted to corporations subject to limitations provided
by laws
ARTICLE XI- ACCOUNTABILITY OF PUBLIC OFFICERS

Section 1. Public officer is a public trust
Public office—is defined as the right, authority, and duty created and conferred by law in a given
period either fixed by law or enduring at the pleasure of the supporting power.
Public officer—is the individual invested with some portion of the sovereign functions of the
government for the benefit of the public
Nature of Public Office

1. It is a public trust because it renders service to the public.
2. It is not a property for the holder of the office may not claim invested right.
3. It is not a contract because one has no right to sue the government for the recovery of
damages.
The principle of the public accountability is emohasized in this section. All public officers and
servants must consider their positions as sacred trusts and not as a means for achieving of
power and wealth.
Section 2. Nature of Impeachment

Impeachment has been defined as a method of national inquest into the conduct of public
men. It aims to protect from official delinquencies or malfeasance.
Officials Removable by Impeachment:
1. The president and vice-president
2. Members of the Supreme Court
3. Members of the Constitutional Commissions
4. The Ombudsman
Grounds for Impeachment
1. Culpable violation of the constitution
2. Treason: example a Filipino imposes war in the Philippines
3. Bribery: either direct of indirect bribery
4. Graft and corruption
5. Betrayal of public trust—new ground for impeachment
Section 3. Initiating and Trial for Impeachment

The House of Representatives has the sole power to initiate all cases of impeachment. The
Senate has the sole power to try all cases of impeachment.
Procedure in Impeachment Cases

1. Filing of verified complaint in the House of Representatives
2. Trial by Senate
The members are required to be under oath or affirmation.
3. Requirement for conviction
173
 To convict an officer, at least 2/3 of all members of the Senate agreeing are
necessary.
 The only penalty to impose in an officer is limited ‘to removal from office and
disqualification to hold any office under the Republic of the Philippines’. If a criminal
offense has been committed, the party convicted is still liable to prosecution, trial,
and punishment.
 The power of the President to grant reprieves, commutations, and pardons does not
extend to cases of impeachment.
 Section 4. Anti-graft known as Sandiganbayan
The Sandiganbayan was a special court created by Batasang
Pambansa under the 1973 Constitution
 Section 5. Office of the Ombudsman to be known as Tanodbayan
Tanodbayan is a coined term in Filipino, which literally means ‘guardians of
the nation’. It is categorized like the three Constitutional Commissions as
independent. It is known as the office of the Special Prosecutor
 Section 8. Qualification of Ombudsman Deputies
They must be:
1. The natural born citizens of the Philippines
2. At least forty (40) years old at the time of the appointment
3. Persons with recognized probity and independence
4. Members of the Philippine Bar
5. Not have been a candidate for any elective office in the preceding election
ARTICLE XII- NATIONAL ECONOMY AND PATRIMONY

Lands in the public domain are classified into agricultural, forest or timber, mineral lands,
and national parks. Agricultural lands of the public domain may be further classified by law
according to the use to which they may be devoted. Alienable lands of the public domain shall be
limited to agricultural lands. Private corporations or associations may not hold such alienable
lands of the public domain except by lease, for a period not exceeding twenty-five years,
renewable for not more than twenty-five years, and not exceed one thousand hectares in area.
Citizens of the Philippines may lease not more than five hundred hectares or acquire not more
than twelve hectares thereof by purchase, homestead, or grant.
ARTICLE XIII- SOCIAL JUSTICE AND HUMAN RIGHTS

The Congress shall give highest priority to the enactment of measures that protect and
enhance the right of all people to human dignity, reduce social, economic, and political inequities
and remove cultural inequalities by equitable diffusing wealth and political power for the
common good.
To this end, the state shall regulate the acquisition, ownership, use, and disposition of
property and its increments.
The promotion of social justice shall include the commitment to create economic
opportunities based on freedom of initiative and self-reliance.
LABOR
The state shall afford full protection to labor, local and overseas, organized and
unorganized, and promote full employment and equality of employment opportunities for all.
174
It shall guarantee the rights of all workers to self-organization, collective bargaining and
negotiations, and peaceful concerted activities, including the right to strike in accordance with
law. They shall be entitled to security of tenure, humane conditions of work, and a living wage.
They shall also participate in policy and decision-making processes affecting their rights and
benefits as may be provided by law.
HUMAN RIGHTS
There is hereby created an independent office called the Commission of Human Rights.
The Commission shall be composed of chairman and four members who must be natural-born
citizens of the Philippines and a majority of whome shall be Members of the Bar. The term of
office and other qualifications and disabilities of the Members of the Commission shall be
provided by law. Until this Commission is constituted, the existing Presidential Committee on
Human Rights shall continue to exercise its present functions and power.
ARTICLE XIV- EDUCATION, SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, ARTS, CULTURE AND

SPORTS
All educational institutions shall include the study of the Constitution as part of the
curricula. They shall inculcate patriotism and nationalism, foster love of humanity, respect for
human rights, appreciation of the role of national heroes in the historical development of the
country, teach the rights and duties of citizenship, strengthen ethical and spiritual values,
develop moral character and personal discipline, encourage critical and creative thinking,
broaden scientific and technological knowledge, and promote vocational efficiency.
ARTICLE XV- THE FAMILY

The State recognizes the Filipino family as the foundation of the nation. Accordingly, it
shall strengthen its solidarity and actively promote its total development.
Requisites of a Valid Marriage

 Legal capacity of the contracting parties
a. Age b.
Status
 Consent freely given
 Authority of the solemnizing officer
 Marriage License
 Public Ceremony
Marriage, as an inviolable social institution, is the foundation of the family and shall be
protected by the State.
175

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PNU LET ReviewerGeneral Education

ENGLISH: Study and Thinking Skills

I. Study Strategies and Thinking Skills

Method for Underlining / Highlighting:

C. Notetaking While Reading

TWO ACCEPTED OUTLINE FORMATS

Roman and Arabic Number and Letter Decimal Numbering System

D. Skimming and Scanning

II. Reading Comprehension

ENGLISH: Academic Writing

I. COMMON SENTENCE ERRORS

1. It may locate something in time and place with a prepositional phrase or a

Dependent Word Fragments

B. Run-on Sentences and Comma Splice

Three ways to correct run-on sentences:

C. Dangling and Misplaced Modifiers

Examples of Dangling and Misplaced Modifiers

(The descriptive words, cost-efficient and convenient, modify computer-assisted

Nonparallel (Not Balanced)

main clause + Ø + subordinate clause.

Punctuate coordinating conjunctions correctly.

Pattern 1—Connecting two main clauses.

Pattern 2—Connecting two items.

Pattern 3—Connecting three or more items in a series

II. THE TOPIC SENTENCE AND THE PARAGRAPH

The following is an example of a paragraph that has these three parts:

Table of Transitional / Cohesive Devices

Function Traditional / Cohesive Device

To compare also, in comparison, in the same way, likewise, similarly

To give after all, as an illustration, certainly, even, for example, for

To all in all, together, as a result, as had been noted, basically,

To indicate accordingly, as a result, because, consequently, for this purpose,

The Thesis Statement

Broadly, thesis statements can be divided into 3 categories:

III. PATTERNS OF PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT

Sample Process Paragraph

I. Introduction in which you state your

 In the “block organization,” the focus is on the two topics

I. Introduction in which you state your

Sample Comparison-Contrast Paragraph

Sample Cause-Effect Paragraph

Sample Argumentative Paragraph

ENGLISH: Speech and Oral Communication

A. Aspect and Tense of Verb

-a situation that began in the

C. Dynamic Verbs, sometimes referred to as “action verbs,” express a wide range of

II. Subject – Verb Agreement

A. What to Remember About Noun Possessives and Pluralization

Adjectives that do not admit comparative degree according to Bryan Garner:

B. The Order of Adjectives in a Series

Correlative Conjunctions—pairs of conjunctions that are used together

Summary Chart of Modals and Similar Expressions

Affirmative Sentence + Negative Tag  Affirmative Answer

Negative Sentence + Affirmative Tag  Negative Answer Expected

XI. Basic Verb Forms Used in CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

SITUATION IF- Clause RESULT - Clause Examples

A. The Speech Mechanism

C. The Vowel Phonemes of English

Key Word Trager- IPA Key Word Trager- IPA

D. The Consonant Phonemes of English