Food and Humanity 2 (2024) 100243

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Food and Humanity

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Pineapple by-products utilization: Progress towards the circular economy

Sahil Chaudhary *, Barinderjit Singh
Department of Food Science and Technology, I. K. Gujral Punjab Technical University, Kapurthala, Punjab 144603, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Industrial processing of pineapple generates a considerable bulk by-product such as peel, crown, core, and
Pineapple waste pomace. These by-products remain mostly without further utilization. Thus, they are usually discarded as waste
Bioactive compounds in landfill sites, giving rise to serious environmental complications and economic expenses. However, these by-
Food applications
products are a treasure trove of high-value compounds with a medley of health benefits and industrial appli­
Cosmetics
Bioadsorbents
cations that can help to serve humanity. Valorization of these by-products is an efficient and strategic approach
to put bioactive compounds back into the economy; thereby, addressing both related environmental and eco­
nomic concerns. This review describes an updated tapestry of reports about the characteristics and compositions
of pineapple by-products, along with the benefits of employing them in a circular economy. Comprehensively,
the current review analyzed different propositions from the latest literature on the application of high-value
compounds from pineapple waste in the numerous areas of food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic realms, along
with the development of environmentally sustainable materials towards sustainability and circular economy.

1. Introduction since its conical shape restricts its usefulness for canning purposes. In
contrast, the N36 variety, a cross between Smooth Cayenne and Spanish
Pineapple (Ananas comosus) is a widely appreciated flavourful fruit, varieties has better resistance to pests and diseases, better shelf-life, and
relished for its unique aroma and taste. The English word ’pineapple’ pulpous flesh which makes it convenient for canning purposes (Ali et al.,
comes from European explorers who thought this fruit looked like a 2020; Rico et al., 2020). Being non-climacteric fruit, external (size,
giant pinecone. Originating in South America, this Bromeliaceae family appearance, aroma, and skin color) and internal factors are more or less
contender is produced both in the tropics and subtropics and sits at third determinative to maturity levels and varietal differences. Freshly
rank as an important fruit in world production. Among the top producers consumed in the form of chunks and juices, pineapples can be trans­
reported for the year 2021 are Costa Rica (2938.33 metric tons), formed into a variety of products including jams, jelly, fruit roll­
Indonesia (2886.42 metric tons), and the Philippines (2860.20 metric s/leather, and various other confectionery and retail items (Nath et al.,
tons) (Statista, 2021). The pineapple market is escalating due to its 2023). Growing cognizance and increased pineapple production also
nutritional value since they are known to be an abundant source of vi­ divert consideration toward wastes and by-products generated from its
tamins A, and C and organic acids. It contains carbohydrates, water, processing. These by-products mainly include crown, peels, core, and
crude fiber, protein, and other micronutrients such as calcium, potas­ pomace and account for more than 60% of the total fruit weight (Sarangi
sium, and manganese, essential for maintaining balanced nutrition et al., 2022; Abraham et al., 2023). Upon improper handling, they only
(Anjaly et al., 2022), therefore its consumption is often equated with add to the strenuous waste stream with serious eco-toxicological pro­
numerous health benefits, including digestion improvement (Lobo & prieties, in particular greenhouse gas emissions. Therefore, efficient and
Siddiq, 2017). There are different cultivars and varieties around the environmentally friendly utilization of pineapple waste is required,
globe. Major varietal groups include Cayenne, Queen (Preetha et al., taking into account the significant composition of the pineapple waste.
2023), Spanish, Pernambuco, and Peroleea which cater to numerous The “2030 Agenda” was publicized during the United Nations As­
varieties. Among them, Smooth Cayenne comprises more than 70% of sembly in 2015, appropriating 17 universal objectives (Sustainable
pineapple cultivation around the globe (Sun et al., 2016). MD2 variety is Development Goals, SDGs) (United Nations, 2015) essentially to combat
appreciated for its profound aroma, higher sugar content, and lengthier severe poverty, inequalities, and injustices and to defy climatic change.
mean life, while the Morris variety is promoted for commercial markets Transformation of wastes/by-products emphasizes a great potential and

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: sahilchaudhary3596@gmail.com (S. Chaudhary).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foohum.2024.100243
Received 15 October 2023; Received in revised form 21 January 2024; Accepted 23 January 2024
Available online 26 January 2024
2949-8244/© 2024 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
S. Chaudhary and B. Singh Food and Humanity 2 (2024) 100243

at the same time a great opportunity to foster sustainable development 2.1. Pineapple processing by-products
through their conversion into valuable products. The potential aim of
these emerging strategic routes is to constitute long-term sustainable 2.1.1. Peel
policies with ecological and socio-economic benefits (Scarano et al., Peels account for more than 30% of the total processing waste gen­
2022; Al-Obadi et al., 2022; Numa et al., 2023). The term ‘bio-economy’ eration and are mainly composed of hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin
refers to the recycling and valorization of renewable agro-industrial ranging between 6.5–35, 12–50, and 5–30 g/100 g d.w., respectively
wastes into a medley of novel value-added products such as feed, (Polanía et al., 2023b). Polyphenolic compounds that are promoted for
food, chemicals, energy, and fuel, whereas, the concept of ‘circular interesting bioactivities are also identified in pineapple peels such as
economy’ counts upon the transformation of the linear economy into a myricetin, salicylic acid, tannic acid, transcinnamic acid, and p-cou­
system of a closed loop. However, the concept and methodology of maric acid (Roda & Lambri, 2019). Proximate analysis reports for crude
‘bio-economy’ and ‘circular economy’ are different, but their core proteins, ash, and carbohydrates divulge around 5.11 – 6 g, 4.3 - 4.9 g,
principles aim at the enactment of sustainable approaches for efficient and 55.5 g, respectively (Sengar et al., 2021; Romelle et al., 2016). Peels
re-use and re-cycling of agro-industrial wastes. Pineapple by-products also engross sugars that can potentially promote microbial growth
are a cornucopia of biologically active compounds including dietary fi­ enabling the transformation of these lignocellulosic by-products into
bers, pectin, polyphenols, and others, that could be tapped for utilization sound, nutritional, and worthwhile products by fermentation (Aruna,
in various realms (Awasthi et al., 2022). Therefore, there is a societal 2019). Premier pineapple enzyme, Bromelain content in peels is only
need to augment advanced and economic holistic approaches for the next to the crown portion. Although peels are reported for a medley of
management and utilization of by-products from this Bromeliaceae valorization options, such as food packaging films, functional foods
contender, focusing on its complete valorization to produce novel development, pharma, and cosmetics, what makes it lucrative, is the
value-added products having industrial applications. The past few years high carbohydrate contents elicit production of biofuels and bioenergy.
have witnessed a spurt of research focusing on the extraction of
high-value compounds using various traditional and green technologies 2.1.2. Crown
(Nirmal et al., 2023). This review article provides an overview of the The crown is conventionally used for pineapple propagation, along
innovative methods for the utilization of pineapple by-products along with other methods (sucker and slip). This by-product depicts about
with their numerous potential applications in different industries 25–30% of the total pineapple processing waste. Quite commonly, the
(Fig. 1). crown is used for silage with peel with pomace at a 4:1 ratio (Banerjee
et al., 2018). The crown part is known to comprise major bromelain
2. Search strategy and methodology proportions, which is reasonable to point out that crown extracts divulge
proteolytic activity (Abraham et al., 2023). Various investigations have
In the present study, the research literature published in the English been conducted to route this waste for propitious obtainments and ap­
language was reviewed. The sources of scientific articles were Web of plications. Pineapple crown flour is equated with higher antioxidant
Science, Scopus, and Google Scholar. The searched terms for the first capacities, especially in the bound state, attributable to present pheno­
two were “pineapple AND by-products” to get as many as possible re­ lics, mainly ferulic acid, p-coumaric acid, and 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde
searches on that subject that were then pre-selected based on the names (Brito et al., 2021). Likewise, higher cellulose (43.5%) contents in the
of the studies. To identify the relevant literature for review (i.e., peer- crown (Banerjee et al., 2018) have been investigated for extraction of
reviewed research articles), web searches were carried out using Goo­ cellulose nanocrystals, which can potentially be used to fabricate
gle Scholar and Web of Science search engines and applying a combi­ nanocomposite coatings/films with improved mechanical conformity
nation of the following keywords: “pineapple by-products”, “pineapple (Prado & Spinacé, 2019). Pineapple crown transformation into magne­
processing waste utilization”, “pineapple by-products valorization”, tized activated carbon (MAC) can provide with solution for dye removal
“pineapple by-products in the circular economy”, and “pineapple by- from contaminated water (Astuti et al., 2019). The use of pineapple
products applications”. The article names were pre-screened manually crowns as a bio-adsorbent for Cr(VI) and Cr(III) in the aqueous phase is
to find articles that refer to the main subject of this review and the an apt and economical wastewater treatment approach (Gogoi et al.,
composition of the pineapple by-products as the relevant topic for the 2018).
study. About 300 items were shortlisted as eligible for review. The
shortlist included about 200 items that were published after 2010. The 2.1.3. Core
chosen articles were thoroughly studied to prepare the manuscript, to Core counts up to 15% of the total pineapple waste (Banerjee et al.,
the best of our knowledge. 2018), which can be used for developing candies, alcoholic beverages,
or vinegar, and traditionally, in Asia is used to make pickles (Lobo &
Siddiq, 2017; Abraham et al., 2023). The core is the richest source of
bromelain and is being recently investigated as an analog to

Fig. 1. Overview of pineapple by-products utilization towards circular economy.

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S. Chaudhary and B. Singh Food and Humanity 2 (2024) 100243

conventional enzymes obtained from the pulp. As reported for no than that, i.e., it creates business opportunities and protects the envi­
detectable differences in their proteolytic activity and the effect of pH on ronment by keeping valuable resources and materials in the economy. In
their enzymatic activity (Fissore et al., 2023). The core is reported for simple terms, nothing is wasted in the circular economy and is about
antioxidant properties, sugar, fiber, vitamin C, protein, phenolic com­ keeping valuable resources safe (Khajuria et al., 2022). In particular,
pounds, carotenoids, and flavonoids. Pineapple core is increasingly according to the European Commission (2015) in the circular economy,
recognized for high amounts of bromelain enzyme, which can be widely the values of products, materials, and resources are maintained in the
used in the food industry for tenderizing meat, chill-proofing beer, economy as long as possible. This not only equates to lower amounts of
leather tanning process, latex manufacturing (Hussain et al., 2022), waste generation but also instigates newer commercial possibilities and
bio-hydrogen production (Reungsang & Sreela-or, 2013), skincare innovations in the realm. Furthermore, to tap pineapple waste to ach­
products, and pharmaceuticals. ieve sustainable targets under the circular framework, it is imperative to
recycle those wastes into various products and applications, to cultivate
2.1.4. Pomace economic benefits while lowering the burden on the planet (Dhar et al.,
Pomace is the solid residue left over after juice extraction which 2023). In line with sustainable and circular goals, the transformation of
cannot be overlooked due to the high amount of dietary fiber, and pineapple processing by-products into essential compounds for the
around > 95% of which belongs to the insoluble fraction (Meena et al., production of value-added products and applications comes off as a
2022b). Higher amounts of fiber seek valuable utilization in various food win-win situation (Nayak & Bhushan, 2019; Mir-Cerdà et al., 2023). A
applications. Since pomace also comprises sugars and moisture, if not general outline to follow for the recovery of high-value compounds from
properly channelized, only routes to an insalubrious waste stream due to pineapple wastes is presented in Fig 2. Pineapple by-products are mainly
microbial degradation and fermentation, possibly. Henceforth, proper composed of DF, pectin, protein, phenolic compounds, vitamins, and
handling is quintessential to avoid consequences (Bitencourt et al., minerals, which can be recovered and be the starting material for other
2022). Pomace powder incorporation in food products is reported to products in the view of sustainability and a circular economy addressing
enhance the nutritional, functional, and therapeutic qualities of food. the global goal of “zero waste” in the environment (More et al., 2022;
Apart, the presence of bioactive chemicals and lower fat contents en­ Iqbal et al., 2021; Nirmal et al., 2023).
dorses its applicability as a functional ingredient. The nutritional profile
and deemed various applications of pineapple pomace, elicit a prospect
3.1. Dietary fiber
to exploit the market (Jose et al., 2022).
Dietary fiber (DF) is an important natural carbohydrate polymer and
3. By-product utilization towards the circular economy: features
is the major component of the plant cell wall. It plays an important role
and potential
in human health, promoting several physiological and metabolic posi­
tive effects. This plant polysaccharide has two main components: soluble
The circular economy provides a solution. It is a new way of doing
dietary fiber (SDF) and insoluble dietary fiber (IDF). Dietary fiber makes
things that improves waste management ways and embraces much more
up 76% of the pineapple by-products, out of which 99.2% is the

Fig. 2. Schematic representation of recovery of high-value compounds from pineapple by-products.

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S. Chaudhary and B. Singh Food and Humanity 2 (2024) 100243

insoluble fraction and 0.8% is the soluble fraction, which has a extraction (MAE) enhanced the pectin yield by 21.5% than the con­
considerable nutritional value (Jose et al., 2022). Pineapple peels ventional heating technique, with the highest yields of pectin (2.43
comprise higher TDF content, estimated to be 70.6% for dried peel ± 0.03%) and anhydrouronic acid (AUA) content (54.61 ± 0.21%). The
powder. Particularly, IDF made up the highest of the TDFs, which ac­ authors also divulged that the MAE qualifies as an alternative for pectin
counts to have 77% of neutral sugars such as glucose, xylose, mannose, extraction from pineapple peel, as it demands less solvent and a shorter
arabinose, and galactose (Meena et al., 2022a). The insoluble DF acts as extraction time.
a bulking agent, normalizing intestinal motility, and preventing con­
stipation while soluble fiber is associated with decreasing the intestinal 3.4. Bromelain enzyme
absorption of cholesterol and glucose. Apart from this, pineapple
pomace comprises 45.22% of TDF, of which 44.44% accounts for Bromelain is a protein-digesting enzyme, obtained from different
insoluble fiber, and 0.78% soluble fiber (Selani et al., 2014). Compar­ pineapple plant parts. In the food industry, bromelain is quite commonly
atively, core samples are reported for lower values of dietary fiber used for meat tenderization, baking, cheese processing, seafood pro­
(17.70%) (Santos et al., 2021). Overall, pineapple by-products account cessing, etc, but this is not where the listing wraps, since it is also known
for a good source of DF and, therefore could be used as a potential food for fibrinolytic, proteolytic, anticancer, antifungal, antibacterial,
ingredient to improve the nutritional quality of foods. Furthermore, antithrombotic, and anti-inflammatory effects, which is why it is
dietary fibers have good functional properties, like water absorption extensively used in pharma and health sector too. On a molecular level,
capacity (WAC), oil holding capacity (OHC), and swelling capacity bromelain is made up of several compounds such as cellulase, peroxi­
which contribute to the product quality that requires hydration, avoid­ dase, glucosidase, and protein inhibitors. The market for this enzyme is
ing syneresis, modifying texture and viscosity, and also stabilize high-fat escalating, and so is the research for clinching this market demand with
food products and emulsions. pineapple processing waste (Abraham et al., 2023).
Recently, Balaraman et al. (2022) employed ultrasound-assisted
3.2. Phenolic compounds liquid phase microextraction (UA-LPME) and natural deep eutectic
solvents (NADES) with moderate density (TBC:I: G/sodium sulfate) and
Phenolic compounds are ubiquitous in fruits and are of considerable reported improved bromelain yield and purity. In particular, Response
interest due to their antioxidant properties, therefore are an essential Surface Methodology-based optimization divulged solid: liquid ratio
part of the human diet. These compounds possess an aromatic ring (25 mL/g), ultrasound time (17.5 min), and temperature (45 ◦ C) for
bearing one or more hydroxyl groups and their structures may range optimal bromelain yield of (87%). Gel filtration chromatography and
from that of a simple phenolic molecule to that of a complex high- anion exchange chromatography have stemmed in a corresponding
molecular-weight polymer (Polanía et al., 2023a). Pineapple purity fold of 89.27. Fissore et al. (2023) extracted bromelain from
by-products have been the subject of investigations and have proven to pineapple core and compared it with the one extracted from pulp. The
be effective sources of phenolic antioxidants. In the latest study, Liyana authors followed the aqueous extraction of the blended pulp/core fol­
et al., (2023) evaluated the extraction of bioactive phenolic compounds lowed by a centrifugation step, and the results for the mass spectrometry
using enzyme-assisted extraction and the GC-MS analysis revealed 22 (MS) approach ferreted out the same peptidases in the pulp and the core,
bioactive volatile compounds. The compounds identified were acetic though detected differences were there in the protein content of the two
acid, followed by sterols (stigmasterol, β-sitosterol, and γ-sitosterol) and preparations, nothing for their proteolytic activity and the effect of pH
esters (benzenepropanoic acid, 3,5-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)− 4-hydroxy-, on their enzymatic activity. Zhou et al. (2021) extracted bromelain from
methyl ester and 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid). In another investiga­ pineapple peels and evaluated its purification, stability, and kinetics.
tion, ultrasound-assisted extraction (50 W, 60 ◦ C, and 30 min) yielded Results connoted that the activity of purified bromelain was inhibited by
TPC contents of 405.06 mg GAE 100 g− 1, from pineapple peels, and the Fe3 + , Al3 + , methanol, ethanol, and n-butyl alcohol, conversely,
obtained extract contained fructose (7.17 g 100 g− 1) and glucose (8.29 g Ca2 + , EDTA, glucose, D-xylose, maltose, potassium sodium tartrate,
100 g− 1) as major soluble sugars and caffeic acid (217.65 mg 100 g− 1) sodium citrate, citric acid, and sodium nitrite marked up the bromelain
as the major phenolic acid (Zampar et al., 2022). In a different study, enzyme activity. Apart, results also divulged that the major chain of
Rivera et al. (2023) reported increased TPC for the MD2 pineapple peels purified bromelain exhibited higher susceptibility to organic solvents as
treated with a solid-state fermentation (SSF) process, with gallic, they disrupt its molecular framework, causing enzymes’ primary chain
chlorogenic, caffeic, epicatechin, and p-coumaric acids, as identified to lose its folding and leaving a disordered structure.
compounds known to possess multiple health benefits due to their
antimicrobial, antioxidant and anticancer activity. Along the same line, 3.5. Organic acids
Paz-Arteaga et al. (2023) reported increased free phenols (by 72.31%)
for SSF of pineapple peel and core and enunciated it as a cost-effective Organic acids are organic compounds that have acidic properties and
and environmentally friendly alternative for the pharmaceutical and are often categorized based on the number of carboxylic functions. They
food industry for the production of natural antioxidants. find wide applications in different industries such as bakery, dairy,
livestock feed, beverage, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals. Growing
3.3. Pectin market demand and the quest for more natural ingredients have led
organic acid utilization to rise. Higher sugar contents and readily
Pectin is one of the common, nutritionally, and economically fermentable sugar present among pineapple wastes make it a commo­
important polysaccharides present in these plant-based waste or by- dious substrate for organic acid production (Hamzah et al., 2021). Some
products in large amounts. Pectin has many applications in food in­ of the recent studies on the production of organic acid from pineapple
dustries such as gelling, thickening, stabilizing, and emulsifying agents. waste are presented in Table 1.
Latestly, Shivamathi et al. (2022) extracted pectin from pineapple peel
with 16.24% yield using an ultrasound-assisted extraction process 4. Application of high-value compounds extracted from
(15.20 mL/g of liquid-to-solid ratio, 21.88 min, 70.83 ◦ C and pH 1.0). pineapple processing by-products
The authors also stated a purity index of 89.5–90% using ion exchange
chromatography (DEAE cellulose) and confirmed other quality charac­ 4.1. Food sector
teristics (emulsification, oil, and water holding capacity) abetting its
utilization as a value-added product in the food and pharma industry. Research trends divulge the medley of applications of high-value
Latestly, Zakaria et al. (2023) reported that microwave-assisted compounds extracted from pineapple processing by-products. These

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S. Chaudhary and B. Singh Food and Humanity 2 (2024) 100243

Table 1 inhibition was noted against B. cereus and S. aureus as 21.36 ± 0.30 mm
Recent reports on organic acid production from pineapple wastes. and 22.36 ± 1.32 mm, respectively. In another investigation,
Pineapple Microorganism Organic Yield References PPE-incorporated chitosan film increased the shelf-life of Indian cottage
by-product used/method acid cheese substantially at 4 ◦ C, while maintaining microbiologically safe
produced till the 9th day of storage. The cheese sample packaged with 1% PPE was
Solid waste Lactobacillus Lactic acid 54. 97 g/l Abdullah & found to be the most acceptable sample in sensory analysis which could
delbrueckii subsp. (79%) Winaningsih be correlated with its least weight loss (Jatav et al., 2023). The high
delbrueckii ATCC (2020) content of polyphenolic compounds and flavonoids in pineapple peel
9649
Solid waste Rhizopus oryzae Lactic acid 103.69 mg/g Zain et al.
extracts is found to be responsible for their excellent antimicrobial and
NRRL 395 (2021) antioxidant activities. Apart from this, essential oil is also fetched from
Peels Lactobacillus spp. Lactic acid 26.29 0.38 g/ Ngouénam pineapple peels which could potentially be used in biopolymer matrices
l et al. (2021) (Rout et al., 2022). GC-MS analysis for the EO extracted with the cold
Peel and Alkaline Ferulic 202 Tang &
extraction technique reported different components, among them,
crown treatment acid ± 18 mg/L Hassan
leaves (peel) and (2020) limonene was reported as the most abundant (Orodu & Akpedi, 2021),
120 which is known to induce antioxidant and antimicrobial properties and
± 11 mg/L therefore enables EO to be prominent integrant for bioactive packaging
(crown films.
leaves)
Peels Aspergillus niger Citric acid 15.51 g/L Ayeni et al.
(2019) 4.1.2. Antimicrobial agents
Rising concerns for food-borne illness due to microbial proliferation
is a universal issue. Moreover, consumers are also concerned about
bioactive components are effectively used as integrals to reap salubrious synthetic additives and their harmful repercussions upon consumption
products and nutraceuticals with ameliorated bio-functionality and and therefore demand for sound and safe products with maintained
technological properties. The utilization of various pineapple by- qualities. This has driven the research toward the exploration of by-
products for various applications in the food realm is cataloged in products for natural antimicrobial agents (Sar et al., 2023). Conducted
Table 2 and discussed hereunder. studies have elucidated the antimicrobial potentials of pineapple
by-products and therefore can be considered as natural preservatives
4.1.1. Food packaging (Batiha et al., 2021). Essential oil extracted from pineapple crown flour
Plastic and petroleum-based packaging have been recklessly used showed inhibition against B. cereus, E. coli, and L. monocytogenes. The
over the years for food packaging applications, ascribable to excellent potential of EO is associated with sulfur compounds such as dimethyl
mechanical and optical properties. This has led to the depletion of re­ trisulfide and terpenic compounds like phytol and its derivatives pre­
sources and landfills. Monumental production and infelicitous man­ sent. The antimicrobial properties of linalool, α-terpineol, and furfural
agement have led to serious environmental concerns, including are other discerned compounds, that are responsible alone or synergis­
greenhouse gas emissions, and it takes years to fully decompose upon tically (Brito et al., 2021). Recently, Moreira et al. (2022) reported the
burial (Atiwesh et al., 2021; Moshood et al., 2022). Reports state that antibacterial activity of pineapple peel and crown extracts against all
microplastics have reached the highest peak (Napper et al., 2020), the tested Gram-positive (Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, and Listeria
deepest ocean points i.e., Mariana Trench (Peng et al., 2018), and even monocytogenes) and Gram-negative (Escherichia coli, Salmonella Typhi­
human blood and milk (Barceló et al., 2023), marking the high time to murium, and Enterobacter cloacae), though considering MBC values,
control the plastic pollution. Apart, consumer cognizance for safe food E. coli and E. cloacae turned out to be the most sensitive for both peel and
with intact qualities is growing which has skyrocketed the research for crown extracts. The obtained results divulged that both extracts were
biodegradable and environment-friendly packaging systems, particu­ more efficient than the E211 control and similar to that presented by the
larly from cheap sources, such as pineapple waste biomass (Shlush & E224 control. Similar results were obtained against tested fungal strains,
Davidovich-Pinhas, 2022). Packaging film fabrications via sustainable with A. niger, P. funicolosum, and T. viride surfaced out to be the most
approaches could provide destined structural and barricade properties. sensitive with lower MIC values.
Furthermore, these packaging systems can potentially extend the
shelf-life of food products, as they can embody active ingredients that 4.1.3. Food additives
can cater to functional merits and thereupon enable food safety and Natural additives are promoted and used to improve the final
preservation (Hamed et al., 2022). In an investigation, pectin fraction product qualities. Innovative approaches have executed the by-product
from pineapple peel was used to develop film with improved film valorization to cater to the growing consumer demand for healthy food
opacity (0.56–1.60), decreased water vapor permeability (2.96–2.11 × products with natural additives. Different pineapple by-products and
10− 10 g m− 1 s− 1 Pa− 1), and elevated total phenolic content (TPC, their derivatives, such as extracts, enzymes, dietary fiber, peel, and
24.23–62.83 mg (GAE)/g film in water). Apart, incorporation also pomace powder, for various applications i.e., fat replacer, fiber content
induced the plasticizing effect in the film (Rodsamran & Sothornvit, enhancement, muscle tenderization, flavoring agent, colorant, and tex­
2019). In a study, nanocellulose extracted from crown leaf was incor­ turizers. Pineapple peel extract (PPE) powder incorporated in surimi
porated in whey protein isolate films which improved thermal stability, improved the gelling properties and SEM results showed comparatively
water barricade, and mechanical properties of the films (Fitriani et al., structured, finer, and closer-knit gel architecture (Sharma et al., 2022).
2021). In a different study, Montalvo-González et al. (2018) prepared
Utilizing pineapple by-products to develop coatings and films seems Vienna-type sausage with incorporated dietary fiber concentrate from
to be a win–win strategy, as routing these not only can improve the pineapple pomace, which induced a reducing effect on nitrites, mois­
functionality of packaging materials but indirectly also contributes to ture, shear force, and shrinkage, while reported increased carotenoids
reducing waste and maintaining environmental sustainability and antioxidant polyphenols. In a different study, dietary fiber was
(Chaudhary, 2023; Munekata et al., 2023). Recently, Jatav & Bhatta­ extracted from pomace and incorporated in semolina pasta which sub­
charya (2022) incorporated pineapple peel extract (PPE) in stantially improved the functional properties of the developed pasta
chitosan-based active packaging film. 3% extract addition improved the (Devi et al., 2023).
antioxidant potential of the fabricated films and exhibited inhibitory Apart, bromelain is commonly used as a meat tenderizer additive in
zones against foodborne bacterial organisms. The maximum area of muscle foods. Bromelain is a thiol proteinase available in the tissues of

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S. Chaudhary and B. Singh Food and Humanity 2 (2024) 100243

Table 2
General spectrum regarding utilization of bioactive compounds from pineapple wastes in the food sector.
Category Pineapple Compound Additional raw material (s) Final product/ Potential outcomes Reference
by-product extracted activity

Packaging Peel Pectin Commercial pectin Active edible 1. Pectin addition maintained the TPC and Meerasri &
coating antioxidant activity of coated fruit samples Sothornvit,
similar to the high quality of uncoated freeze- (2023)
dried samples.
Peel Extract Chitosan, gelatin, starch, Aloe Bioactive 1. Extract incorporation improved the thermal Gürler (2023)
vera gel composite edible stability and antioxidant potential of films, and
film also inhibited the growth of S. aureus and
E. coli.
Peel Extract (1-3%) Chitosan, glycerol Active food 1. Extract-incorporated films displayed more Jatav &
packaging film homogenous and well-ordered surface Bhattacharya
morphology compared to sole chitosan films. (2022)
2. 3% extract exhibited the highest antioxidant
activity with DPPH (8.70 ± 0.18 μmol TE/g
DW), ABTS (18.97 ± 0.57 μmol TE/g DW)
Pomace - Cornstarch, gelatin, sorbitol Biodegradable 1. Fabricated films showed improved Susmitha et al.
composite edible physicochemical properties including moisture (2021)
film content, swelling index, thickness, and opacity.
2. Films showed more than 50%
biodegradability after 15 days
Peel Extract (5, 10, Polyvinyl alcohol and Packaging film 1. Improved antioxidant properties of films, Kumar et al.
15, 20%) cornstarch primarily as a result of polyphenolic (2021)
compounds.
2. Improved thermal properties of the films
with PPE addition.
Peel Extract Alginate Active edible film 1. Retarded lipid oxidation, inhibited initial Lourenço et al.
aerobic mesophilic bacteria growth, and (2020)
maintained color to a good extent in beef meat
samples.
Antimicrobial Peel Powder - Antibacterial 1. Among peel polyphenol powder contents, Zhou et al.
agents activity protocatechuic acid content was the highest (2023)
(48.90 mg/L), followed by quercetin dihydrate
(17.56 mg/L)
2. 8 mg/mL concentration given 100%
bacterial inhibition below 40 ◦ C.
Peel, crown Extract Bacterial strain: S. aureus, B. Antimicrobial 1. Results showed that E. coli was the most Moreira et al.
cereus and L. monocytogenes, E. activity sensitive bacteria for both tested extracts with (2022)
coli, S. Typhimurium, E. cloacae a lower MIC value, followed by S. aureus and
Fungal strain: A. fumigatus, A. E. cloacae.
niger, A. versicolor, P. 2. Considering antifungal activity, A. niger,
funicolosum, P. P. funicolosum, and T. viride were the most
aurantiogriseum and T. viride sensitive fungi for both extracts analyzed with
lower MIC values. It was even possible to verify
that, for most of the fungi tested, the extracts
showed better antifungal performance than the
used controls.
Peel Extract Bacterial strain: Antibacterial 1. Ethanolic extracts of pineapple peel Hasan et al.
K. pneumoniae, E. coli, activity displayed positive results against Pseudomonas (2021)
P. aeruginosa, S. aureus, aeruginosa and Salmonella spp.
Salmonella spp.
Food additives Pomace Flour (5, 10, Refined wheat flour, salt, Cookies 1. Pomace flour incorporation improved Jose et al.
15%) sugar, baking powder, butter, antioxidant activity, dietary fiber, and (2022)
eggs, vanilla carbohydrate content, and lowered fat
contents.
2. Cookies incorporated with pomace powder
displayed good flour and dough properties.
Pomace Flour (0, 0.1, Milk, sugar, starter culture Yogurt 1. Enhanced fiber and carbohydrate content Meena et al.
0.25, 0.5%) (Lactobacillus bulgaricus and and reduced fat content. (2022b)
Streptococcus thermophilus) 2. Pomace powder addition showed an inverse
relationship between pH and titratable acidity
during yogurt storage
Pomace Dietary fiber Semolina, soya flour Functional pasta 1. Dietary fiber improved the nutritional Devi et al.
(0, 2, 3, 4%) quality of pasta with good functionality. (2023)
Peel Dietary fiber Wheat flour, Black rice Cookies 1. 6% DF given best sensory scores. Singh et al.
(0, 2, 4, 6%) 2. DF of pineapple waste utilization can be an (2022)
excellent source for the preparation of cookies
with black rice.
Peel Peel flour (PF) Banana peel flour, and Gluten-free muffin 1. The muffin formulations made with PF had Brigagão et al.
pumpkin seed flour higher insoluble fiber and total fiber contents (2021)
and were well accepted, showing the
consumers’ acceptance of fiber-enriched
products.
Core Bromelain - Bovine meat 1. Improved tenderization of tough muscle in Ramli et al.
enzyme beef without disturbing quality parameters. (2021)
(continued on next page)

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S. Chaudhary and B. Singh Food and Humanity 2 (2024) 100243

Table 2 (continued )
Category Pineapple Compound Additional raw material (s) Final product/ Potential outcomes Reference
by-product extracted activity

2. Microstructural analysis of the treated beef

samples demonstrated the degradation of
muscle fibers and the generation of numerous
spaces.
Crown Bromelain Egg white Enzymatic 1. Prepared protein hydrolysate displayed Johny et al.
enzyme digestion strong scavenging activities of DPPH (EC50 (2021)
= 238.3 µg/mL), ABTS (EC50 = 54.9 µg/mL),
peroxyl (EC50 = 391.6 µg/mL), and superoxide
radicals.
Peel and Extract Wheat flour, eggs, sugar “Súplicas” pastry 1. Promoted antioxidant activity during the Moreira et al.
crown shelf-life of pastry product “súplicas”. (2022)
Prebiotics Peel Flour - Prebiotic activity 1. Flour promoted human feces fermentation Campos et al.
through the growth of beneficial strains, being (2020)
corroborated by the decrease of simple sugars
and the production of healthy organic acids
(acetic, propionic, and butyric acids).
2. On the other hand, a high phenolic
compound content was released through flour
digestion, developing an antioxidant
environment within the human gut.
3. Pineapple flour promoted a positive
modulation in the overall system, proving a
synergetic interaction of dietary fiber and
polyphenols upon human microbiota.
Peel Extract - Prebiotic activity 1. The growth for beneficial bacteria Akter et al.
(L. plantarum and L. rhamnosus) in pineapple (2022)
peel extract (PPE) showed the maximum value
of 8.27 and 7.53 log CFU/mL respectively,
after 24 h incubation.
2. PPE contained the highest amounts of
indigestible polysaccharides 351.13 mg/g.
3. Peels exhibited maximum hydrolysis of
9.21% and 8.74% when treated with gastric
juice and α-amylase.
Encapsulating Peel Extract Maltodextrin - 1. The results showed that the antioxidant Lourenço et al.
agents capacity of the encapsulated compounds was (2021)
maintained after encapsulation.
2. The loaded microparticles obtained, which
consist of a bioactive powder, present a great
potential to be incorporated into food products
or to produce bioactive packaging systems.
Peel Cellulose Ginger EO - 1. Pineapple nanocellulose crystal -stabilized Phosanam et al.
nanocrystals ginger oil- Pickering emulsions exhibited high (2023)
stability with a creaming index of zero.
2. CNC was found to be an effective Pickering
stabilizer for oil-in-water emulsions in various
food applications.

pineapple which disintegrates myofibrillar proteins and collagen, hydrothermal pretreatment (121 ◦ C and 15 psi pressure), which was
ensuring meat tenderization (Anaduaka et al., 2023). In a study, enzymatically hydrolyzed (50 ◦ C, pH 5.0, and 15 U enzyme dose) to
bromelain extracted from pineapple peels was used for goat meat, reap 26 g of XOS/100 g of xylan with degree of polymerization (DP)n;
Woinue et al. (2021) reported that bromelain considerably improved n = 2 and 3, reported to have maximum prebiotic potential (Banerjee
(p < 0.05) water-holding capacity and the protein content. Apart, the et al., 2019). In a different study, Wee et al. (2020) explored the feasi­
authors stated that a bromelain concentration of 1 mg/mL to 1.5 mg/mL bility of using cell surface display of xylanase on E. coli to produce an
and an aging duration of up to 120 min provided apt tenderization XOS yield of 5.4 mg/g of pineapple hemicellulose. Alluding to the
without flawing food quality. application potentials, Byresh et al., (2022, pp. 16905) reported that
pineapple peel powder (PPP) could be used as a prebiotic, as incorpo­
4.1.4. Prebiotics rating it in white finger millet probiotic beverage (WFMPB) displayed
Prebiotics are the type of fibers that the human body cannot digest, the presence of phytochemical compounds that have health-beneficial
though the gut bacteria can. Prebiotics function as fuel or food for effects on diabetes, colitis, anxiety, depression, osteoarthritis, and ce­
probiotics. Prebiotics help to nourish gut bacteria and ultimately sup­ rebral ischemia.
port healthy digestive and immune systems. A promising class of pre­
biotics, called xylooligosaccharides (XOS) are considered functional 4.1.5. Encapsulating agents
oligosaccharides and have great prebiotic potential. XOS are the Natural bioactive compounds netted from pineapple processing
degraded products of xylan prepared via chemical, physical, or enzy­ wastes with their inherent health-benefiting properties are apt candi­
matic degradation (Pereira et al., 2023). Production of XOS from pine­ dates for food applications, though chemical inconstancy and their
apple wastes and by-products has been reported. In an investigation, susceptibility towards oxidative degeneration upon exposure to atypical
hemicellulose was extracted from pineapple peel by milieu limits their firsthand utilization for food and pharma (Comunian
hydrothermal-assisted alkali extraction method, yielding ̃87.6% hemi­ et al., 2021). Encapsulation is such technology that could benefit from
cellulose recovery with 10% (w/v) alkali at the end of 1.5 h of the stability, bioavailability, quality, safety, and applicability of the

7
S. Chaudhary and B. Singh Food and Humanity 2 (2024) 100243

bioactive compounds (Marcillo-Parra et al., 2021). It is a lucrative free radicals through oxidation where a molecule loses an electron. Free
approach with wide applicability conferring at the micro (1–1000 µm) radicals damage healthy cells as they travel through the lipid bilayer of
and nano (1- several hundred nm) levels, with different other important the cell membrane, followed by travel into the nucleus where cellular
parameters that could determine the actualization of the process. In the DNA damage occurs. This damage comes across as inflammation within
latest study, Polanía et al., 2023b encapsulated pineapple peel extract by the skin, prompting melanocytes to produce melanin granules eliciting
ionotropic gelation using corn starch, sodium alginate, and Weissella pigment lesions on the skin surface. Degradation of collagen and elastin
confusa exopolysaccharide as wall material. Obtained encapsulates proteins occurs in the dermis weakening skin, translating into lines and
tested for moisture content between (7.10 - 10.45% (w.b.)), solubility wrinkles. Antioxidants are important to prevent this damage since they
(53.06 ± 0.54%), and wettability (31.46 ± 2.02 s). TPC and DPPH of neutralize free radicals by donating an electron and preventing further
the encapsulate showed 232.55 ± 2.07 mg GAE/g d.m for TPC, and destruction of healthy cells (Michalak, 2022). Pineapple by-products
45.64 ± 0.9 µm Trolox/mg GAE for DPPH, highlighting applications in could be an economically feasible source for the development of natu­
the development of functional foods. ral cosmetics (Table 3). However, identification of the compound of
Cellulose accounts for 20–25% of the dry weight of pineapple peel interest from by-products alongside investigation about the skin type
(Dai et al., 2018) and has captured more research eyes recently, for and resultant effects of compounds on the skin is critical while devel­
application in hydrogels, packaging materials, and biopolymers (Chen oping natural cosmetics.
et al., 2021; Dai et al., 2023). On similar grounds, Rajapaksha et al. Pineapple by-products entail micronutrients of high biological value,
(2019) extracted cellulose from pineapple peels and used it for probiotic such as vitamin C, minerals, polyphenols, and phenolic acids. Catechin,
encapsulation. Similarly, the pickering emulsion with embedded cur­ epicatechin, gallic acid, ferulic (Lourenço et al., 2021), myricetin, sali­
cumin (PCNCs/EGCG-Cur) was prepared and stabilized by pineapple cylic acid, tannic acid, p-coumaric acid, syringic acid (García-Villegas
peel cellulose nanocrystals (PCNCs) and (− )-Epigallocatechin-3-gallate et al., 2022) are reported phenolic compounds that are promoted for
(EGCG) (Tang & Huang, 2022). In another report, lignocellulose nano­ preventing inflammation and signs of aging and even the skin’s tone and
crystals (LCNC) isolated from pineapple peel were complexed with therefore are used in skin creams. Latestly, Boonpisuttinant et al. (2022)
tannic acid (TA) via hydrogen-bonding interaction to fabricate the pineapple peel residues extracted by maceration in ethanol (PA-E) ex­
LCNC/TA complex for stabilizing pickering emulsions, which exhibited tracts demonstrated effective antioxidant and tyrosinase inhibition ac­
higher storage and environmental stabilities than those stabilized by tivities as well as the in vitro anti-ageing activities on cell-based assays
LCNC alone (Dai et al., 2021). including anti-melanogenesis and collagen biosynthesis stimulation. By
possessing a tyrosine-like structure, ferulic acid is believed to inhibit the
formation of melanin through competitive inhibition with tyrosine. In
4.2. Cosmetic sector particular, ferulic acid has been reported to protect the skin from
UVB-induced erythema, and upon mixing with vitamins C and E, ferulic
Cosmetic items used to just be harmless tools of the trade but con­ acid stabilizes the formulation and acts synergistically to double the
sumers nowadays are starting to ask if are they even safe. Over time, photoprotection (Saraiva et al., 2023). Pineapple peels encompass gallic
science and technology helped foster the industry, and continuous and ferulic acids which are reported for the preservation of hair color,
chemical utilization to reap more profits has only led to consumer strength, and growth (Velho et al., 2023) and can be efficaciously used
refusal. On account of this, green and organic trends in the fashion and for hair care cosmetics. Pineapple by-products are also a source of key
cosmetics sector are progressively gaining recognition. Since, people are carotenoids, from which β-carotene and lutein are stated for present in
more concerned about what they are putting on their skin, researchers the pineapple core part (García-Villegas et al., 2022). Bromelain is quite
and associated personnel have started to look towards the natural commonly used in skin care products, especially for treating wrinkles,
compounds (Martins and Marto, 2023). Following the circular system, acne, dry skin, burns, or enemas. The procedure is based on the subtle
chockful pineapple processing intermediate products can be reused as digestion and width pruning of the protein layer of dead cells (Stratum
input for the cosmetic and toiletry realm without and/or with minimal corneum), and reviving its restitution with younger cells (Ramli et al.,
waste generation (de la Luz Cadiz-Gurrea et al., 2020). Environmental 2017). Vrianty et al. (2019) tested the inhibitory activity of tyrosinase
stressors damage the skin upon exposure and lead to the formation of

Table 3
Latest studies on the application of pineapple processing by-products in the cosmetic sector.
Pineapple by- Compound/extract Role in cosmetics Potential outcomes Reference
products

Peel Methanolic and Sun protection 1. Fractions of the pineapple peel exhibited UV – B protection ability and DCM Samarakoon &
dichloromethane (DCM) cosmetics fraction consisted of an impressive photoprotective property with the Sun Rajapakse (2022)
extract Protection Factor (SPF) of 29.74 ± 0.03 at 1 mg/mL.
2. The aqueous methanol fraction was found to be the most photo-stable after
irradiation with direct solar radiation for 21 days.
Peel Extract Oil-in-Water (O/W) 1. Optimized peel extract-based nano cream was stable against coalescence Yahya et al. (2022)
Topical Nano Cream during the accelerated test but was influenced by Ostwald ripening over 6
weeks of storage at 4 ◦ C.
2. Safety assessments affirmed nano cream to be free of microbial
contamination and heavy metals.
Peel, crown Bromelain enzyme Facewash 1. The purified bromelain was used to create a facewash formulation and Abbas et al. (2021)
results divulged that skin infection pathogens like S. aureus and P. acne were
found highly sensitive to their action.
Peel Extract Antiseptic soap 1. Tested formulations of transparent solid soap with pineapple peel extract Junita &
inhibited bacterial growth, with the largest inhibition zone observed in F3 Runggamusi (2023)
with a diameter of 26.8 mm against S. aureus bacteria which causes a wide
variety of clinical diseases.
Peel Extract Face mask 1. A 20% concentration of pineapple peel extract provided the best antioxidant Maulidiaa et al.
activity, though concentration increase affects the physical quality (pH, (2020)
viscosity, and spreadibility), and the effectiveness (dry time, mask tightness,
and washability) of the mask.

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S. Chaudhary and B. Singh Food and Humanity 2 (2024) 100243

enzymes by pineapple core extract and the obtained results divulged enhancer, fluorescent material for biosensing, etc. in pharmaceutical
tyrosinase inhibition activity as 60.52 ± 1.25% and 85.02 ± 1.28% by applications (Nangare et al., 2021). Succinic acid, which in food in­
core extract and luteolin compounds, respectively at 100 μg/mL con­ dustries is used as an acidity regulator conventionally emanates from
centration. Bromelain can also be used to develop mouthwash formu­ petroleum sources (Meena et al., 2022b), finds application in the phar­
lations and was tested to control Streptococcus mutans, which is maceutical sector for manufacturing drugs such as metoprolol succinate
associated with dental plaque (Rahmi et al., 2019). (Pathanibul & Hongkulsup, 2021) refereeing pineapple wastes as an apt
Skin microbiota inhere on the skin and have essential roles in the candidate for alternate production. The biological activities and
protection against invading pathogens, the education of our immune health-promoting benefits of polyphenols are well known to the world.
system, and the breakdown of natural products. The stratum corneum is Pineapple by-products which are a treasure trove of polyphenols, can be
the outward epidermal layer of the skin and is the foremost physical exploited for the same and explored for possibilities in the pharma and
barrier that prevents chemical substances or pathogenic microorgan­ health sector (Table 4).
isms’ entrance, fluid evaporation, and body heat loss. Stratum corneum Pineapple peel polyphenols (gallic acid, catechol, myricetin) and
primarily subsumes 75–80% proteins, 5–15% lipids, and 5- 10% un­ flavonoids (apigenin, kaempferol) have been identified as significant
identified compounds. Skin microbiota functions to maintain a healthy anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-carcinogenic agents to sup­
cutaneous barricade, and the immune system, and restrict pathogenic press various human cancers in vitro and in vivo by multiple biological
thriving. A dysbiosis, imbalance in this microbiota is correlated with effects such as inducing cell cycle arrest, triggering cell apoptosis and
skin pathological diseases, such as acne, and sensitive and dry skin (Byrd autophagy, invasion and suppressing cell migration and stimulating
et al., 2018; Flórez-Fernández et al., 2023). Abbas et al. (2021) tested the immune response (Lubaina et al., 2020). Pineapple peel and core tested
antimicrobial potential of bromelain from pineapple waste biomass for for DPPH, ABT, and β-carotene blanching which resulted in 93.12 –
alleviation of acne. IC50 values of bromelain samples of peel, fruit, and 93.22%, 3.07 – 3.19 mg Trolox/g dry extract, 5.62 – 5.74%, respectively
crown came as 13.158lg/mL, 24.13lg/mL, and 113.79lg/mL. The puri­ (Lasunon et al., 2022). Therefore, the presence of these high-value
fied bromelain from pineapple by-products was used to develop a face metabolites pineapple by-products with a myriad of biological activ­
wash formulation that showed inhibitory effects against S. aureus and ities connotes their potential to be used as chemotherapeutic agents to
P. acne, which are common skin pathogens. Apart, essential oils from promote health.
pineapple waste biomass comprise key compounds like limonene which
was the most abundant (over 75% of the oil), and other compounds, viz. 4.4. Development of high-value products
palmitic acid, n-decanal,1-cyclohexene-1-carboxaldehyde, α-farnesene,
trans caryophyllene, and myrcene. α-farnesene, a sesquiterpene iso­ Growing cognizance of sustainability has enabled a cornucopia of
prenoid is used as a perfume in cosmetics (Hikal et al., 2021). opportunities for the utilization of biowastes for the development of
environmentally sustainable materials. Transformation of wastes and
4.3. Pharma and health sector by-products into such value-added products emblematize a performative
illustration of sustainability. Emerging greener and innovative ap­
Demand for natural ingredients has soared in the past decades proaches are being probed, especially in this particular area for devel­
attributable to their greater acceptability over synthetic counterparts by oping environmentally sustainable materials using pineapple by-
consumers. Pineapple processing by-products are abundant in phyto­ products. The latest studies of utilizing pineapple by-products for
chemicals and these days medley of value-added compounds is dredged fabricating such materials have been tabulated in Table 5.
up for their nutraceutical potentials, and pharmacological effects as well
as for the development of healthy foods and dietary supplements 4.4.1. Bio-adsorbent
(Rahman et al., 2020). Harnessing high-value compounds (dietary fi­ Pineapple by-products can be used to derive sustainable and low-cost
bers, pectin, organic acids, enzymes, vitamins, minerals, and poly­ adsorbents for wastewater treatment. Contamination of water with
phenols) from pineapple by-products serves opportunity as a heavy metals, dyes, pesticides, and organic and inorganic pollutants,
cost-effective and sustainable source of biologically active compounds imputable to industrial discharges, municipal discharges, and agricul­
(Soni et al., 2022). tural activities, is another global issue that cannot be overlooked (Sol­
Pectin from pineapple peels can be used in the pharmaceutical in­ angi et al., 2021; Sarangi et al., 2022). The ubiquity of lignin,
dustry since it has been reported to lower cholesterol levels in the blood, hemicellulose, and cellulose, and available carbonyl, carboxyl, and hy­
and treat diarrheal disease and duodenal ulcers extensively. Pectin from droxyl reactive groups, as well as the abundance of lignin, hemicellu­
pineapple can be used as a natural prophylactic as it is effective in lose, and cellulose, inside pineapple by-products, makes it apt and
eliminating toxic metals from the digestive and respiratory systems. sustainable contender for adsorbent production (Tran et al., 2023).
Apart, pectin in the pharma and medicinal sector can be used in tablet These by-products can be used unprocessed or can be modified with
formulations and can act as a binding agent and delay the delivery of physical (drying, grinding, heat treatment) and/or chemical modifica­
drugs (Zakaria et al., 2021) and as a carrier material in colon-specific tions (graft co-polymerization, deamination, saponification, disulfide
drug delivery systems. Furthermore, pineapple peels and pomace treatment, pyrolysis, protonation), to upscale the potentiality and
(Selani et al., 2014) are apt sources of dietary fiber which is known to adsorption capacity (Nyika & Dinka, 2023). In a study, Ghapar et al.
prevent constipation and promote smooth bowel movements, decrease (2020) used pineapple peels as a bio-adsorbent with prior chemical
cholesterol, help with diabetes, coronary artery disease, and cancer modification, i.e., impregnation with zinc chloride (ZnCl2) causing the
(Arayici et al., 2022; Ye et al., 2022). Bromelain has also been reported removal of pigments and acid-soluble oligosaccharides, fabricating a
copious advantages in the digestive and cardiovascular systems, besides porous structure. Obtained results showed the highest Fe(III) ions
an anti-inflammatory effect, anticancer, and antimicrobial agent (Roda removal i.e., 55.26% for 4 g adsorbent, divulging a dose-dependent
& Lambri, 2019; Santos et al., 2021). Talking about organic acids, adsorption trend. Latestly, Nerdy et al., (2023) extracted pectin from
ferulic, citric, lactic, and succinic acids are the most common ones that pineapple peels and used it as an adsorbent which yielded a removal
are obtained from pineapple by-products (Hamzah et al., 2021). Ferulic percentage of 64.8% to 72.4% for heavy metals (lead and cadmium) and
acid, a prevalent form of hydroxycinnamic acid that is found in pomace dyes (congo red and malachite green) in water. The authors also stated
and crown leaves known to chiefly induce antioxidant, the adsorption mechanism of the pores on the surface is not only the sole
anti-inflammatory, hepatic, neuro, and photoprotective effects (Nath reason for adsorption but also the formation of pectin hydrogels, which
et al., 2023). Citric acid is practicable as a green crosslinker, crystal facilitates hydrogen bonding between pectin and contaminants in
stabilizer, capping, and coating agent, novel disintegrant, absorption wastewater. Fundamentally, divalent ions bind with carboxyl groups

9
S. Chaudhary and B. Singh Food and Humanity 2 (2024) 100243

Table 4
Utilization of by-products in the pharmaceutical and health sector.
Pineapple by- Compound/ Bioactivity Experimental Potential outcomes Reference
product extract model

Peel Extract Antimalarial, anti-nociceptive, Mice 1. Peel extract demonstrated significant (p < 0.05) antinociceptive Ajayi et al.
and anti-inflammatory activities activity by increasing latency to jump on the hot plate, reduced (2022)
number of writhings in the acetic acid test, and reduced paw licking
time in 2nd phase of the formalin test.
2. Peel extract demonstrated mild antimalarial activity but
significant anti-nociceptive and anti-inflammatory properties
probably mediated via the inhibition of pro-inflammatory
mediators.
Peel Extract Atheroprotective, anti- Wistar rats 1. Peel extract significantly improved lipid profile and decreased Ajayi et al.
inflammatory, and antioxidant risk of atherogenicity in normal and high-fat diet-fed rats (2021)
activity 2. In addition, the extract improved serum and brain antioxidant
status by decreasing malondialdehyde and increasing glutathione
and catalase. Peel extract significantly impaired high-fat diet-
induced brain acetylcholinesterase activity and IL-6 levels.
Stem Bromelain Neuroprotective activity Mice 1. Bromelain alone and in combination with donepezil appears to Kumar et al.
have neuroprotective properties (2022)
Peel Protein extract Skin lesion healing Wistar rats 1. Protein extract obtained from pineapple peel played an Rocha et al.
important role in the recovery from acute cutaneous lesions in rats, (2019)
resulting in a reduction in the width of the lesion and accelerating
the healing process, which reinforces its therapeutic potential.
Crown Crude Immunomodulatory Activity Swiss Webster 1. The enhancement of the phagocytic index and specific humoral Saptarini
bromelain male mice immune response provided the first line of evidence about the et al. (2020)
immunomodulatory activity of crude bromelain.
2. The significant increase in the immunomodulatory activity of
crude bromelain was attributable to the presence of protease
activity and antioxidant activity.
3. Results showed immunomodulatory activity of crude bromelain
was dose-independent in 1.56, 3.12, and 4.68 mg/20 g body
weight (BW) of mice. It was concluded that crude bromelain
3.12 mg/20 g BW has immunomodulatory activity comparable to
the standard.

present in pectin to forge water-insoluble crosslinks, called “egg-box” nanocomposites, which are extensively reported for use in medicine,
structures causing rapid gelation. However, this metal-binding capacity food, leather, textiles, environment, electronics, and cosmetics (Katyal
is perhaps ascribable to structure i.e., degree of methylesterification et al., 2023). In the latest study, Jittaut et al. (2023) reported for
extent. In a different study, Dai et al. (2020) hierarchically processed 0.29 g/L BC yield using pineapple peel waste with Gluconacetobacter
pineapple peel waste by water, alkali, bleaching, and bleaching/alkali xylinus BNKC 19. Le et al. (2023) fabricated aerogel from the bacterial
treatments, respectively, accompanied by a separate or simultaneous fermentation (Acetobacter xylinum) of pineapple peel waste as a bacterial
removal of hemicellulose and lignin. Treated pineapple peel was further cellulose source by the freeze-drying technique. Developed aerogels
fabricated into hydrogels (WT-PPH, AT-PPH, BTPPH, and PPCH, possessing a 3D network with large pores derived from the unordered
respectively) by a facile dissolution-regeneration process in ionic liquid. interconnection of cellulose fibers and a high density of the hydroxyl
The Congo Red (CR) adsorption process of the hydrogels followed group on the surface, could effectively adsorb cationic dyes and a
pseudo-second-order kinetic and Langmuir isotherm models. Reported selected anionic dye.
maximum adsorption capacity was 114.94 mg/g for WT-PPH,
77.52 mg/g for AT-PPH, 138.89 mg/g for BTPPH, and 75.19 mg/g for 4.4.2. Activated carbon
PPCH, implying the separate bleaching treatment could improve the CR Activated carbon as an adsorbent is widely appreciated since it is
adsorption capacity more. In a different study, Ayob et al. (2020) re­ porous, inexpensive, and readily available for use as an adsorbent,
ported higher Pb2 + metal ions removal (85.88%) from wastewater furnishing a large surface area to remove an extensive range of con­
using pineapple waste-based adsorbent treated with NaOH than un­ taminants. Moreover, conferring to the 3 R approach (reduce, reuse, and
treated (52.57%). The authors also divulged the importance of other recycle) under the circular economy concept, activated carbon from
factors i.e., pH (4.0) and temperature (60 ◦ C) for the improved adsor­ food by-products and waste seems win-win approach to cultivate green
bent process. However, the application of pineapple waste-based bio-­ solutions with economic benefits (Kosheleva et al., 2019; Yousop et al.,
sorbents is in its nascent phase and necessitates further research on 2023; Tran et al., 2023). The development of activated carbon from
involved mechanisms and optimizations for specific targets. Recently, pineapple by-products comes across as a sustainable approach as these
aerogels have become known as a typical class of three-dimensional are cheap and abundantly available. Latestly, Hapiz et al. (2023) utilized
(3D) materials with a high degree of porosity and desirable properties pineapple crown leaves and transformed them into mesoporous acti­
for various applications, for example, air cleaning, water treatment, and vated carbon (PNAC) using microwave irradiation assisted by ZnCl2.
catalysis. Pineapple peel-based oxidized cellulose nanofibrils PNAC yielded maximal adsorption capacity i.e., 263.9 mg/g for crystal
(PP-TOCNF) were prepared by TEMPO-mediated oxidation followed by violet and 274.8 mg/g for methylene blue, and reported pore filling,
ball milling. PP-TOCNF-based aerogels exhibited light weight, good electrostatic forces, H-bonding, and π-π interactions as primal mecha­
porosity, water absorption, and mechanical properties, which also can nisms behind adsorption. Veeramalai et al. (2022) developed pineapple
be easily adjusted by the oxidation degree of PP-TOCNF (Lv et al., 2022). waste-based biochar (activated carbon) (PWbB) with pyrolysis, which
Bacterial cellulose (BC) is a natural biodegradable cellulose, commonly effectuated maximum dye removal at F 600.5 h PWbB (83.59%), while
synthesized by different bacteria. They are known for excellent the overall process follows the pseudo-first-order where the process was
physical-mechanical qualities, high surface area-to-mass ratio, and influenced by intraparticle and film diffusion, inferred by adsorption
crystallinity. These products are increasingly used to develop kinetics studies. In a different study, Yılmaz & Tugrul (2022) prepared

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S. Chaudhary and B. Singh Food and Humanity 2 (2024) 100243

Table 5 Table 5 (continued )

Utilization of by-products for transformation into value-added products. Pineapple Product Application and potential Reference
Pineapple Product Application and potential Reference by-product developed outcomes
by-product developed outcomes
magnetic diatomite (m-DE)
Peel and Activated 1. Treatment of kitchen Oni et al. showed an adsorption capacity
crown carbon wastewater and resulted in (2020) of 101.94 mg/g for methylene
reduction of various pollution blue.
contaminants such as TDS, Peel Activated 1. Pineapple peel-based Yusop et al.
BOD, pH, and turbidity carbon activated carbon (PPAC) posed (2022)
Crown Activated 1. According to the Langmuir da Silva et al. 544.07 m2/g for BET
carbon non-linear model, activated (2022) (Brunauer-Emmett-Teller)
carbon presented a maximum surface area, 285.32 m2/g for
adsorption capacity of 292 mg. mesopores surface area,
g− 1. 0.3035 cm3/g for total pore
Core Adsorbent 1. Bacterial cellulose (BC) was Tseng et al. volume, and average pore
produced using pineapple core (2023) diameter for PPAC was
as a carbon source by 2.23 nm.
Komagataeibacter europaeus. 2. The methylene blue (MB)
2. The vanadium adsorption adsorption uptakes by PPAC
capacity of BC produced by the increased from 19.53 to
HS medium was 5.24 mg/g BC 75.18 mg/g whereas MB
at pH 4 and 2.85 mg/g BC was removal dropped from 78.13
observed on the PCH medium. to 25.06%, when MB starting
Peel and Adsorbent 1. Pineapple waste treated Ayob et al. concentration was elevated
crown with NaOH reported for higher (2020) from 25 to 300 mg/L.
adsorption efficiency for lead Peel Activated 1. Pineapple peel-activated Rosli et al.
ions averaging 85.88% than carbon carbon (PiPAC) showed (2023)
untreated ones by about an maximum adsorption capacity
average of 52.57%. (qmax) for PiPAC–MB dye at
Crown Activated 1. The maximum adsorption Hapiz et al. 165.17 mg/g (pH 8) and
carbon capacity (qmax) for pineapple (2023) PiPAC–MR dye at 94.87 mg/g
crown activated carbon was (pH 6) at 60 ◦ C.
263.9 mg/g for crystal violet
and 274.8 mg/g for methylene
blue. activated carbon using pineapple peels by chemical activation using
Crown/ Biochar 1. Nonfibrous material (NFM) Srikhaow et al. ZnCl2, which yielded 30.50% zinc adsorption. Along the same line,
leaves from pineapple leaf fiber (2023)
pineapple crown leaf-based activated carbon (AC) was developed by
processing was used to
produce waste-derived combining KOH activation and microwave heating while the magneti­
biochar, an effective pesticide zation process was prepared by a co-precipitation method. Prepared
biosorbent. magnetized activated carbon consisted of both micropores and meso­
2. The biochar derived from pores with improved oxygen-containing functional groups, highlighting
pineapple leaf fiber processing
by-product (NFMBC)
the potential for dye removal from contaminated water (Astuti et al.,
efficaciously removed aqueous 2019).
pesticides, acetamiprid,
imidacloprid, and methomyl. 4.4.3. Biofertilizer
3. Adsorption and kinetic
Utilization of pineapple by-products for developing into biofertilizers
analyses suggested the multi-
layered adsorption of or organic fertilizers for upscaling soil fertility is it’s another lucrative
acetamiprid or imidacloprid application (Sarangi et al., 2023; Dhar et al., 2023). Pineapple peel as a
and the non-uniform soil amendment is reported to enhance water holding capacity and soil
adsorption of methomyl. aeration attributable to higher total fiber content (92.30 mg/kg) and is
Peel Biofertilizer 1. Liquid organic fertilizer Sutikarini et al.
from pineapple peel waste (2023)
reported to improve the quantities of native nutrients in the soil (Souza
could increase ultisol soil et al., 2016). In a study, pineapple peel powder was applied as an
fertility, especially on soil pH, organic fertilizer and after 30 days of treating the soil, obtained results
%C organic, %N total soil, C/N showed that nutrients i.e., Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), Potassium (K),
ratio, and content of P and K
and Calcium (Ca), for the treated soil, came to be 11%, 39%, 8%, 39%,
elements in the soil at dose
treatment of 50 mL/l. compared to control soil samples 1%, 17%, 4%, and 45%, respectively
Peel and core Organic 1. The application of Kamaruddin (Mustapha et al., 2021). In a different study, pineapple peel waste was
fertilizer composted pineapple peel and et al. (2023) channelized to develop decomposable pots. Jirapornvaree et al. (2017)
core increased soil chemical reported that a prepared decomposable pot with a 1:0 ratio of pineapple
characteristics, particularly
soil pH and exchangeable K
waste to the binder, with 1 cm thickness, degraded in more than 45
and Ca, and hence boosted days, with N and P release rates of 0.49% and 7.97 mg-P/kg, respec­
plant development. tively. In a different study, Zziwa et al. (2021) reported that a contin­
Crown Adsorbent 1. Modified and pretreated Gogoi et al. uous vermicomposting system as a potential pathway for nutrient
pineapple crown leaves acted (2018)
recovery from pineapple peel waste and produced vermicompost could
as reducing agents during
adsorption of Cr(VI) at be effectively used as a crop fertilizer where phosphorus is alleviating
pH= 1.5 and were also capable crop nutrients. Authors also opined on the boon of closing up the
of removing Cr(III) from nutrient loop and actualization of a circular economy for pineapple peel
aqueous phase at pH= 5 waste whereby the nutrients within the vermicompost are recycled back
Peel Adsorbent 1. Pineapple peel cellulose- Dai et al.
based adsorbent endowed by (2019)
into the production cycle. In an investigation, Chávez-García et al.
(2020) compared untreated and composted biochar derived from pine­
apple peels and emphasized compositing before using as soil

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amendments to eliminate toxicants and aggrandize biochar character­ 5.2. Biodiesel

istics. Latestly, Kamaruddin et al. (2023) prepared pineapple peel
compost which improved soil pH, macronutrients (K, Ca, and Mg), and Biodiesel refers to any diesel fuel substitute that is procured from any
micronutrients (Zn, Cu, and Mn). The authors also stated that both renewable sources, more specifically triglyceride-rich biomass. Fatty
composts improved the chemical properties of the soil, and upon acid methyl esters (FAME) account for the primal component of bio­
application one week before the transplants of the okra seedlings led to diesel that is produced via transesterification, during which, hydro­
better plant growth compared to the control treatment, except for the lyzation of the ester bond between glycerol and fatty acid chain occurs,
parameter of root length. followed by esterification. The transformation of triglyceride to FAME
necessitates the reaction with alcohol, that too with the catalyst aid to
5. Bioenergy produce glycerin and FAME (Hamzah et al., 2021). Associated benefits
for energy supplies, farm expansion, the economy, pollution reduction,
There is skyrocketing research ongoing for the efficient utilization of and more importantly lower carbon footprints are enough to expect an
biowastes and by-products to make energy and for decarbonizing our increase in biodiesel production in the coming times (Babadi et al.,
economy to attenuate climate change and restrain the reckless depletion 2022). In a study, Kanakdande et al. (2020) attempted biodiesel pro­
of fossil resources. Bioenergy is another key realm that has the potential duction from pineapple waste, which being high in sugar contents
to epitomize the concept of value from waste, which is at the heart of the served as the carbon source for lipid extraction in producing biodiesel.
circular economy concept. Fossil fuel depletion is a reality that pushes Alongside, pineapple waste, municipal wastewater, and Candida tropi­
mankind to find new renewable energy sources. Lab-scale research is at calis (MF510172) were employed to extract 13 mL/L of lipids, which led
its peak, and by refining all the steps in the process, it can be replicated to a transesterification process to yield FAME or biodiesel. Along the
at a larger scale, at something called, biorefinery. Biorefinery in simple same line, Adekunle et al. (2020) explored the potential of pineapple
terms, is a production house that uses biomass as a primary raw material peels as a biological catalyst while producing biodiesel from used
for the production of biofuels and other valuable by-products (Awasthi vegetable oil obtained from fast food outlets. The refined oil was
et al., 2022; Tsegaye et al., 2021). Biorefineries are a vital component in transesterified and a biodiesel yield of 78% was obtained for pineapple
any economy and therefore epitomize a lucrative window for moving up peel-catalyzed biodiesel samples.
the waste hierarchy through the coupling of the waste and production
sectors integrated within a future circular bio-economy. This has been 5.3. Biogas
garnering recognition as a premier concept for devising closed-loop
technical and biological cycles. The final disposal of waste and Biogas is another wonderful renewable energy source and is a po­
by-products can be minimized by promoting their reuse and valoriza­ tential integrant in reaching sustainable energy production goals. Biogas
tion, which upon successful application to biorefineries (Atabani et al., is primarily composed of flammable methane (55–75%), which repre­
2021), can also generate smart industry and enter into a circular econ­ sents the main energy source, apart also comprise CO2 (30–45%), oxy­
omy making new bio-products and new processes. gen, hydrogen, organic residues, and a few traces of nitrogen and
Types of bioenergy include biogas, bioethanol, and biodiesel which hydrocarbon. Analogous to natural gas, it can be used for multifaceted
may be sourced from agrifood wastes. Further, biobased fuels can show applications (Aransiola et al., 2023). Envisioning booming demands for
their capability for heat, electricity, and a wide range of transportation clean and green energy solutions, and waste management challenges,
energy sources. Pineapple wastes and by-products can also be effica­ biogas production from agrifood wastes eventuates as an efficacious
ciously transformed into bioenergy sources (Sarangi et al., 2022). route for both energy production and waste management. Biowastes
collected from agricultural, industrial, and urban domains can be used
5.1. Bioethanol for biogas production, which upon collection and sorting operations, are
fed to an anaerobic digester, where they get mixed and heated. During
Bioethanol is ethanol (C2H5OH), or ethyl alcohol, produced by bio­ the course of fermentation, bacterial action transforms the organic
logical methods. Bioethanol is commonly concocted by fermentation of matter into biogas, this whole process comes about as anaerobic diges­
food agrifood waste. Majorly, bioethanol production is based upon the tion, around which the biogas production revolves. The procured gas
conversion of waste food crop feedstocks, which serves the dual phase product is biogas and its yield depends on the substrate used,
advantage of resolving the issue of food waste disposal as well as though the general process culminates in stages common, i.e., hydro­
meeting the energy requirements of the increasing population, since lysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis, and methanogenesis (Pramanik et al.,
ethanol can be used as a vehicular fuel, thereby replacing gasoline 2019; Mirmohamadsadeghi et al., 2019; Deena et al., 2022). Pineapple
(Melendez et al., 2022). Pineapple processing biomass wastes can be peel waste, abounding in cellulose, hemicellulose, and other carbohy­
applied as a source of sugar for ethanol production. In a study, bio­ drates presents a potential substrate for methane production by anaer­
ethanol was produced from pineapple peels by employing alkaline obic digestion.
pretreatment and microbial hydrolysis through Trichoderma harzia­ Biohydrogen is deemed as one of the most potential and cleanest
num. Among tested NaOH concentrations (0, 1, 3, 5%), 0% gave the fuels for the future. Biohydrogen can be made biologically by bio­
highest total and reducing sugar (458.44 ± 13.6 g/L and 279.67 photolysis (direct and indirect), photo fermentation, dark fermentation,
± 21 g/L) than others. Further, samples pretreated with 0% NaOH, upon the combination of dark and photo fermentation, and bio-catalyzed
subjection to microbial hydrolysis showed an increment in reducing electrolysis. Since, storage concerns are associated with hydrogen due
sugar of the samples. Resultantly, a bioethanol yield of 5.98 ± 1.01 g/L to lower ignition energy, and higher combustion rate, there exist issues
from pineapple fruit peel was obtained at 48 h of fermentation (Casabar related to safety technical challenges in the storage, transportation, and
et al., 2019). In a different investigation, Jambulingam et al. (2021) utilization (Duan et al., 2022; Nath et al., 2023). Biohythane, a gaseous
tried to enzyme hydrolyze pineapple peels using crude cellulase enzyme mix of biohydrogen and biomethane, produced with two-phase anaer­
into simple sugars. Further enzyme hydrolyzed content was permitted to obic digestion with a hydrogen composition of approximately 10–30% is
undergo fermentation simultaneously (simultaneous saccharification drawing recognition attributable to its superior characteristics over
and fermentation) utilizing Saccharomyces cerevisiae to produce bio­ other biofuels (Rawoof et al., 2021). The latest studies for the production
ethanol. The yield of 10.07 g/l of bioethanol was determined by the of biogas, biohydrogen, and biohythane have been tabulated in Table 6.
potassium dichromate method.

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S. Chaudhary and B. Singh Food and Humanity 2 (2024) 100243

Table 6 Table 6 (continued )

Recent studies on employing pineapple by-products for the production of biogas, Pineapple Additional Product Remarks References
biohydrogen, and biohythane. by- raw developed
Pineapple Additional Product Remarks References product material/
by- raw developed Co-
product material/ substrate
Co- batch process
substrate conditions.
Peels - Biogas 1. The highest Arifan et al. Peels - Biohythane 1. The first stage Chu et al.
biogas (2022) of the (2020)
production biohydrogen
volume was production
obtained from reactor (CSABRH)
pineapple peel was fed by
waste, which was pineapple peel
616.33 mL waste juice with a
(357.190 mL/g substrate
volatile solids), concentration of
pretreated for 64.56 g COD/L.
25 min at 60 ◦ C The
2. A 67.27% yield hydrogenogenic
value of CH4 gas effluent from
content was CSABRH was
achieved in the directly fed to the
pineapple peel second stage of
hot water bath the methane
pretreatment for production
25 min at 100 ◦ C. reactor
Peel and Cow dung Biogas 1. Production of Unnikrishnan (CSABRC).
core biogas with a & Ramasamy 2. A maximum
1:1.5 ratio of cow (2022) hydrogen
dung and production rate
pineapple fruit of 599.0
waste resulted in ± 77.8 mL/LR-
63.81% methane d and methane
and 34.47% production rate
carbon dioxide. of 174.6
Peel and - Biohydrogen 1. 75.50 mL H2/ Tagne et al. ± 9.4 mL/LR-
pulp gVS yield was (2023) d were achieved
achieved at pH 6 at optimal HRT of
and selected 4 h in the
inoculum CSABRH and 3
isolated from an d in the CSABRC
olive pomace- with the
treating plant substrate
Peel and - Biohydrogen 1. Pineapple Cahyari et al. concentration of
core waste subjected (2018) 66.15 ± 2 and
to fermentation 37.7 ± 1.9 g
at 26.4-gram VS/ COD/L in the first
litre given the and second stage,
highest yield of respectively.
biohydrogen 3. These results
Peels Palm oil Biohythane 1. Maximum Kopli et al. indicate that the
mill effluent biohythane (2023) pineapple peel
(POME) production rate waste could be
sludge values (HPRmax) efficiently used
and (MPRmax), for biohythane
H2:CH4 (H2 + CH4)
= 1.93:0.67 L/L- production and
d, and the two-stage
biohythane yield process can
(HY) and (MY), operate
H2:CH4 successfully
= 1.18:0.55 mL/ under high
L-substrate feeding flow rate
2. Biohythane gas conditions.
production from
pineapple waste
can be 6. Other by-product utilization
accelerated by
M. mazei only 6.1. Xylitol and Xylooligosaccharides
with the
enhancement of
POME sludge Xylitol is a sugar alcohol that has potential application as a low-
through single- calorie sweetener and is deemed to be an apt sugar substitute for di­
stage AD system abetics, due to which it finds application in food and pharma. Xylitol
under mesophilic
holds good market value and can be produced from pineapple core and
peels, which are a rich xylan source (~25–35% dry basis). Since xylitol

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S. Chaudhary and B. Singh Food and Humanity 2 (2024) 100243

lacks a reducing carbonyl group, therefore is chemically less reactive biodegradability, biocompatibility, thermoprocessibilty, and workable
than the corresponding sugar xylose, obfuscating it for microbes to pliancy. PHAs are typically synthesized by microbial cultures grown on
cleave to xylitol and derive energy from it thereby reducing the acid- renewable materials in clean environments and find applications in the
producing potential. It is also known as curative to dental caries and form of packaging materials (films, boxes, coating, fibers), medical im­
also repairment of the affected enamel by increasing the pH of saliva plants, biofuels, and drug delivery carriers (Pandey et al., 2022).
(Banerjee et al., 2018). The hemicellulose concentration of pineapple Effectuating wider applications as biodegradable packaging materials,
cores (28.53%) is sufficient for use as raw material for xylitol produc­ the cost and properties of PHAs are critical. Suwannasing et al. (2023)
tion. Enzymatic hydrolysis-based xylitol production from pineapple reported the development of PHAs during 24–72 h (Bacillus sp. SV13) of
cores yielded higher efficiency, i.e., 21% higher than that of acid hy­ fermentation without any interference using pineapple cannery waste as
drolysis. The highest xylitol and biomass yield of 0.371 gxylitol/gxylose a carbon source GC-MS showed homopolymer of poly 3-hydroxybuty­
and 0.225 gcell/gxylose were observed by C. tropicalis using an enzymatic rate (P3HB) group characteristics, such as OH, CH, and C– –O.
hydrolysate (Mardawati et al., 2022). Xylooligosaccharides (XOS), are
the oligomers of β-1, 4-linked xylose residues, with various substituents 7. Current bottlenecks and future directions
including acetyl, phenolic and uronic acid. XOS can be obtained from
xylan-rich lignocellulosic material from agricultural and forest waste. The management and recovery of agricultural waste is a serious
XOS with a degree of polymerization of 2–4 is preferable for food in­ financial and ecological concern with harmful environmental effects.
dustries due to due to maximal prebiotic activity. XOS is also known to The recovery of these residues in useful products benefits the environ­
stimulate bacterial growth, and fermentation and also improves intes­ ment, saves a large number of substrates, and generates several new
tinal mineral absorption, and therefore finds its application as a food products mentioned throughout the text. However, the collective
ingredient. As far as conferring pharma sector, XOS is known to impart method, storage, preservation, and treatment of waste before processing
antioxidant, anti-allergenic, antimicrobial, and immunomodulatory ac­ represents a major challenge. Extraction process parameters can cause
tivities. XOS has significant potential as a prebiotic which depends upon rapid variations in the quality and quantity of the extracted bioactive
the degree of polymerisation (Banerjee et al., 2018). In an investigation, compounds, thereby facilitating losses, henceforth it is requisite to
Banerjee et al. (2019) extracted hemicellulose from pineapple peels and ensure conditions that will stabilize the bioactive components before
was enzymatically hydrolyzed to produce XOS. A maximum yield of and after extraction. In addition, undesirable extraction rates, lower
hemicellulose was obtained at 45 ◦ C. XOS yield of 25.7 ± 0.4 g/100 g of stability of natural active compounds than synthetic compounds, and
xylan was obtained at 50 ◦ C, pH 5.0, and 15 U enzyme dosage. difficulties in managing residues that may pose environmental or health
risks if not properly disposed of or utilized, are some of the other issues
6.2. Vinegar that need to be addressed to ensure sustainable waste conversion at the
commercial level. Hence, it is not yet possible to conclude that the uti­
Vinegar is a sort of alcoholic solution with close similarities like lization of these technologies alone will effectively actualize pineapple
smell and color, however, vinegar does not contain any ethanol which is waste utilization. Also, there is a need to inquire into reaction parame­
the active ingredient in alcohol. Instead, vinegar contains a close de­ ters optimization, aiming greener and more sustainable approach, and
rivative of ethanol, which is acetic acid (Abraham et al., 2023). It can be conducting a techno-economic assessment of the extraction and appli­
produced chemically, but production from natural counterparts equates cation of pineapple wastes. However, the higher cost associated with
with environmental friendliness. Vinegar finds its application as food these novel technologies and the difficulties in scaling up to industrial
dressings, preservatives, and disinfectants as well (Nath et al., 2023). standards remains a major challenge. Many authors have studied the
Chalchisa & Dereje (2021) produced vinegar from pineapple peels by scale-up of the extraction process of essential compounds during the
using yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) as an aerobic degradation of sugar industrial process and have shown that although each type of
to ethanol and then, ethanol to acetic acid (vinegar) by using different manufacturing industry needs different adaptations to obtain “zero
strains of acetic acid bacteria. The results showed that the vinegar waste” with low energy consumption and high efficiency (Chaudhary
samples were in the range of 3.5 to 4.31, 1.3 to 2.31◦ brix, 0.50 to2.47%, et al., 2024; Ding et al., 2023; Nirmal et al., 2023; Numa et al., 2023;
and 3.13 to 6.15 mg/100 g of pH, total soluble solids, total residual Pandiselvam et al., 2022; Preetha et al., 2021; Shukla et al., 2023).
reducing sugar and titratable acidity respectively. The optimum yield of There are numerous potentials for employment and revenue growth
acetic acid production was found to be 6.15 g/L at a fermentation time in the market for bio-based products, therefore, researchers should
of 72 h by the propionic bacterium acidipropionici acetic acid bacterial emphasize the gap existing between the in-vitro trials and commercial-
strain. In another investigation, vinegar was prepared from pineapple scale. Similarly, more studies are necessary to overview the individual
peel and core waste with a 5% (w/v) acidity level, with Acetobacter aceti compounds’ behavior, absorption rate, metabolism, and bioavailability.
inoculums and laboratory plant equipment for 30 days at 32 ◦ C. Ob­ It is also essential to determine the dose levels and enhance its cost-
tained vinegar from the juice of saccharified pineapple waste, was clear benefit efficiency for various applications, such as additives/in­
and showed no post-filtration deposits. The authors also studied the gredients for food and feed, cosmetics, and natural pesticides and fer­
metabolite profile of prepared vinegar and articulated mellein, L-lysine, tilizers. Comprehensively, the pineapple processing waste utilization in
and gallic acid as major components (Roda et al., 2017). In a study, biorefineries could provide significant economic benefits such as the
biovinegar prepared from pineapple peels was also compared with apple recovery of both energy and products with high added value, the crea­
cider vinegar (ACV) and dates vinegar (DV) for consumer acceptability tion of new jobs in new businesses significant savings on landfill costs,
and preference. Biovinegar showed the second highest radical scav­ and reduction in greenhouse gas emissions.
enging (82%) after ACV, apart there were no significant differences in Other than this, getting to know the market potential for the products
color intensity, sourness, sweetness, flavor, and aroma with the kinds of developed from pineapple waste is critical. The volumes and quality of
vinegar tested, but biovinegar was 56% more preferred than ACV and by-products that are available for valorization are also required to be
DV by the respondents (Selvanathan & Masngut, 2020). specified. Evidence-based metrics, such as life cycle assessment (LCA),
are critical to assess the environmental performance and sustainability
6.3. Polyhydroxyalkanoates credentials of a valorization system, technology, process, or product, so
are required for the fruition of pineapple by-product-based circular
Amongst the range of biopolymers, polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) economy. Apart, meta-analysis is an important and influential statistical
allude to sustainable futuristic substitutes for conventional petroleum- approach to understanding quantitative/numerical correlations be­
based plastics. Also, sometimes termed biopolyesters, they offer tween variables and performance indicators while strategizing

14
S. Chaudhary and B. Singh Food and Humanity 2 (2024) 100243

valorization. Since the consumer demand for natural products is snow­ Ajayi, A. M., John, K. A., Emmanuel, I. B., Chidebe, E. O., & Adedapo, A. D. (2021). High-
fat diet-induced memory impairment and anxiety-like behavior in rats attenuated by
balling, the regeneration of pineapple by-products into new food and
peel extract of Ananas comosus fruit via atheroprotective, antioxidant and anti-
products is apt for creating a future of sustainable and responsible inflammatory actions. Metabolism Open, 9, Article 100077. https://doi.org/10.1016/
consumption. Lastly, through the lens of the ongoing, continuous, and j.metop.2021.100077
accelerating progress towards valorization, Industry 4.0 technologies, Akter, B., Salleh, R. M., Bakar, M. H. A., Shun, T. J., & Hoong, C. L. (2022). Utilisation of
watermelon, pineapple and banana fruit peels as prebiotics and their effect on
which are at a nascent stage only, could spearhead the pineapple waste- growth of probiotic. International Journal of Food Science & Technology, 57(11),
based biorefinery. However, a multidisciplinary approach with the 7359–7367. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijfs.16090
collaboration of academics, engineers, economists, and policymakers, Ali, M. M., Hashim, N., Abd Aziz, S., & Lasekan, O. (2020). Pineapple (Ananas comosus):
A comprehensive review of nutritional values, volatile compounds, health benefits,
would be critical to harness the opportunity for upgrading the value of and potential food products. Food Research International, 137, Article 109675.
the pineapple processing chain. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2020.109675
Al-Obadi, M., Ayad, H., Pokharel, S., & Ayari, M. A. (2022). Perspectives on food waste
management: Prevention and social innovations. Sustainable Production and
8. Conclusion Consumption, 31, 190–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spc.2022.02.012
Anaduaka, E. G., Chibuogwu, C. C., Ezugwu, A. L., & Ezeorba, T. P. C. (2023). Nature-
derived ingredients as sustainable alternatives for tenderizing meat and meat
Pineapple, a tropical fruit consisting of coalesced berries, is the most
products: an updated review. Food Biotechnology, 37(2), 136–165. https://doi.org/
economically significant contender in the Bromeliaceae family, the pro­ 10.1080/08905436.2023.2201354
cessing of which generates by-products (peel, core, pomace, and crown) Anjaly, M. G., Prince, M. V., Warrier, A. S., Lal, A. N., Mahanti, N. K., Pandiselvam, R., …
that are rich in essential compounds. This manuscript spotlights the Kothakota, A. (2022). Design consideration and modelling studies of ultrasound and
ultraviolet combined approach for shelf-life enhancement of pine apple juice.
expeditive demand to formulate proper eco-compatible and sustainable Ultrasonics Sonochemistry, 90, Article 106166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
systems for the management of pineapple by-products to nurture the ultsonch.2022.106166
progression towards a circular economy along with reducing the Aransiola, S. A., Victor-Ekwebelem, M. O., Zobeashia, S. L. T., & Maddela, N. R. (2023).
Sources and techniques for biofuel generation. In Green Approach to Alternative Fuel
elevating economic and environmental impact on industries. Pineapple for a Sustainable Future (pp. 311–323). Elsevier,. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-
processing by-products are loaded with a medley of bioactive com­ 12-824318-3.00026-6
pounds that could be efficaciously used in food, pharma, and cosmetic Arayici, M. E., Mert-Ozupek, N., Yalcin, F., Basbinar, Y., & Ellidokuz, H. (2022). Soluble
and insoluble dietary fiber consumption and colorectal cancer risk: a systematic
realms. Additionally, these by-products can be used to develop envi­ review and meta-analysis. Nutrition and Cancer, 74(7), 2412–2425. https://doi.org/
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Future research efforts should focus on proposing green extraction ideas Arifan, F., Broto, D. W., Teguh, R., Sumardiono, S., Dewi, A. L., Yudanto, Y. A., &
Sapatra, E. F. (2022). Effect of thermal pretreatment of pineapple peel waste in
and practices to achieve the industrial sector sustainability targets, biogas production using response surface methodology. International Journal of
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state fermentation. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies, 57, Article
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products through appropriate in-vivo/-vitro studies. More exploration of Astuti, W., Sulistyaningsih, T., Kusumastuti, E., Thomas, G. Y. R. S., & Kusnadi, R. Y.
the bioavailability of high-value compounds from pineapple by-products (2019). Thermal conversion of pineapple crown leaf waste to magnetized activated
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also needed. A simultaneity of incentives, capital investments, policy Atabani, A. E., Tyagi, V. K., Fongaro, G., Treichel, H., Pugazhendhi, A., & Hoang, A. T.
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