CSC 201 Compiled by Papy T

O.BÁFÉ.MI AWÓLÓ.WÒ.
UNIVERSITY
ILÉ-IFÈ., NIGERIA.
FACULTY OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
INTRODUCTORY LECTURE NOTES
CSC 201: Computer Programming I

3 Units
Harmattan Semester, 2022-2023 Session
THIS DOCUMENT IS NOT FOR SALE !
O
. DÉ.JO
. BÍ, O
. dé.túnjı́ A.
Room 109, Computer Buildings,
oodejobi@oauife.edu.ng
November, 2023
Contents
1 Definition and explanation of terms 1

1.1 Agencies of computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 What a “computer”? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 History of Modern Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 The Computer System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5 Computer Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5.1 Input-Output devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5.2 Central Processing Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5.3 Memory devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5.4 Memory metric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.6 Computer Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.6.1 System software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.6.2 Application software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.7 What is Programming? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.7.1 Operand: Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.7.2 Operation: Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.8 The concept of Programming language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.8.1 Familiarly with Programming Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.8.2 Python Instruction format and structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.8.3 Python Variables and Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.8.4 Python Reserved words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.8.5 Naming Python variable and constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.8.6 Python Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.8.7 Familiarly with Programming Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.9 Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.10 Computer program development process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.11 Case example: FindAverage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.12 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
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Lecture Note 1
Definition and explanation of terms
The Lectures in this aspect of the course is concerned with preliminary subject-matter
in Computer Programming. Here the instances of abstraction and formal definitions
of fundamental terminologies in computer programming are introduced. History of
modern computers and the techniques and methods underlying Computer Program De-
velopment process are also explained with examples.
1.1 Agencies of computing

Ìs.irò (Computing) is a process (Ìlànò.n). The Yorùbá word Ìs.irò (Computing) translates
into English as (Ì-s.ı́-èrò): “The act of giving expression to instances of state in human
mental activity”. A prescribed mental activity is called Ìlànò.n (a process). A process
comprises Two (2) aspects: (i) State and (ii) Transition. The state and transition in a
process are inherent in human mental activity. Instances in mental activity are known
to their human agency only and cannot be seen. The state and transition in human
mental activity find sensorily accessible expression through an instrument of language.
Therefore, a process is human mental activity prescribed and expressed using a
language.
Humans are biological agencies. The computer is a machine. A machine is a
material agency. The computing machine is a tool for assisting the efficient expression
of a process ascribed to human mental activity. Computer programmer is a human or
group of humans. There are Two (2) fundamental differences between biological (e.g.
humans) and material (e.g. computer machine) agencies:
(i.) Faculty of language and

(ii.) Sensory organs.
“Sensory organs” and “Faculty of language” are inherent in biological agencies. A

material agency is a deliberately created tool for achieving a prescribed task. The func-
tion of material agency (machines) is prescribed to conform to a well-defined process.
The purpose of material agency (machines) is determined by its designer and user.
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The instruction that a computer executes is prescribed by its human programmer.
The instruction to achieve a problem-solving task is expressed using a “computer pro-
gramming language. “Computer programming language” differs from human written
language in the following aspects:
(i.) “Computer programming languages are prescribed and specifically designed to

communicate with machines. Computer instructions may NOT conform to Wit-
ten language grammar or Mathematical rules. E.g. I = I + 1
(ii.) Computer machines do not learn “A programming language” before they execute
its instructions. Human must learn a language before they can use it to commu-
nicate or effect action.
(iii.) Computer machines do not process the symbols in the instruction of “Program-
ming languages”, they process a material rendering of the instruction. A com-
puter manipulates prescribed signals such as Mechanical as well as signals ren-
dered into Diode Valve, Transistor, Electro-magnetic, Electronic, Micro-electronic,
and Nano-electronics. Symbols are ascribed to these signals by humans.
(iv.) Computer machine cannot recognise if there are mistakes in it program. However,
a computer can be programmed to reckon and report errors in the structure of an
instruction.
In this course, therefore, you should NEVER confuse a material agency (ma-
chine), no matter its sophistication, with biological agency (human).
Computer Programming is a process. A process has instances of state and transi-
tion. A programming language instruction is used to influence computer components
to give expression to the state and transition in the process. The sequence of Com-
puter instructions that describe a process from its “Beginning to its “End is a “program.
“Programming Language are created by mimicking “Written human language. The for-
mulation and expression of written sentences are replete in Computer Programming
language instruction. This is because “computer program instructions” are constructed
by taken recourse in the metaphor of “human written sentence construction”. The sim-
ilarities between “Computer programming language” and “Written human language”
are discussed in Section 1.8. However, there are fundamental distinctions between the
“Written human language” and “Computer programming language”. In the written hu-
man language, a NOUN is the name (label) used to identify an instance or agency. The
metaphor of NOUN used in computer programming language is an operand (string)
ascribed to a constant or variable data. In written human language, a VERB is word
ascribed to the motion (action) of an instance or agency. The metaphor of VERB in
computer programming language is the operator (e.g. Addition, Subtraction, Multi-
plication) used to manipulate data in the process of giving expression to the transition
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in computer states. Whereas Verb and Noun are part-of-speech in the grammar of writ-
ten language, Operator and Operand are symbols in the syntax of a valid computer
instruction.
In a simple formulation:
1 EXPRESSION = ACTOR + ACTION
2 HUMAN WRITTEN LANGUAGE SENTENCE = NOUN + VERB
3 COMPUTER LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION = OPERAND + OPERATOR
Item 1 above is inherent in human sensory experience. An Action and its Actor
are inextricably intertwined and inseparable in human sensory experience. Item 2 is
located in human language expression. Action (Verb) and its Actor (Noun) are sepa-
rated and expressed individually. Item 3 is ascribed to the Manipulation (Operation) of
Operand (Data) in computer memory.
In this course, therefore, you should NEVER confuse Computer Program-
ming Language (E.g. Python, Java, Fortran), no matter its sophistication, for
Human Written Language (E.g. Yorùbá, Hausa, Igbo, English).
In order that two or more humans can communicate with each other, they must be
familiar with a language. Therefore, familiarity with a programming language, such as
Python, is required to effectively write instructions for a computer system. Familiarity
is acquired through a careful study of the instruction construction in a programming
language as well as engagement and practises with the prescribed standard and con-
vention. The more program you write in a Programming Language, the more your
familiarity and competency with its use.
1.2 What a “computer”?

Computer is a device with the capacity to accept data and instructions,
process the data using the instruction and produce output in the format
specified in the instruction.
Based on the above definition, the computer can be viewed as depicted in Figure
1.1.
DATA
PROCESS OUTPUT
INSTRUCTION
Figure 1.1: Definition of Computer
A computing machine is, therefore, expected to have component for:

1. Accepting data and instruction.
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2. Processing data following the instruction.
3. Produce the output of the processed data according to the instruction.
A material agency (machine) or tool that has the capacity to carry out the tasks
listed above is a computer. Indeed modern computers have the capacity listed above,
but they are unlike other machines. What sets the modern computer apart from all the
machines before it is Language. Humans have created a language with which to give
instruction to modern computers. The language is created by imitating written human
languages. The language is called Computer Programming Language.
1.3 History of Modern Computers

The history computer evolves with technology. In the Manual era, material objects
are physically manipulated by humans to assist or support ı̀s.irò (a computing) process.
Fingers, Stones, pebbles, animal bones, pieces of wood and bamboo, etc. are used to
support memory and organisation during a computing process. Specialised tools such
as the Abacus, Slide-rule, Ò. pè.lè. and loom (cloth weaving) were developed and used
during the manual era. The character of the manual era is that, humans physically and
directly manipulate the materials used in the computing process. The main problem
with the manual era is that its computation process is realised with much labour. This
makes the output of computations prone to mistakes.
The manual era is followed by the mechanical era. During this era, metals such as
iron, copper and sliver were refined and used to fabricate devices that automatically give
expression to the state and transition in a computing process. This is the beginning of
the Machine era. A machine (È.ro.) is a material agency that is capable of working “by
itself” (that is autonomously). Example of machines in the Mechanical Era include,
(i) Pascal calculator, (ii) Leibniz calculator and (iii) Charles Babbage’s Difference
Engine. The main problem with the Mechanical era is that its computation process is
unreliable as machines broke down frequently. This makes the output of computations
prone to error. The Mechanical era is followed by the Vacuum and Cathode-ray Tube
era. The Vacuum and Cathode-ray Tube technology makes it possible to store and
manipulate the electrical signals used to represent instances in the state of a computing
process. This technology culminated in faster and more accurate material realisation
of the computing process. Example of machines in this era include Harvard Mark I
and IBM SSEC machines. This Vacuum and Cathode-ray Tube era is followed by
the Diode device era. The major problem of the Vacuum and Cathode-ray Tube is
the heat generated during computing process. Computer memory devices are realised
using mercury delay. The tube and mercury technology consumes substantial energy
as well. This problem was reduced by the Diode device era. The Diode technology
makes it possible to create cooler and more accurate computing machine. Example of
machine in the Diode device era include ENIAC and EDVAC.
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The Diode device era is followed by Transistor Era. During the Transistor
Era, circuits that implement basic logical operation such as AND, OR and NOT were
fabricated as a single ship. This way, the computing machine during this era consumes
less electricity. Magnetic cores and index register where incorporated into computing
machines. Example of machines in this era include: Honeywell 800, UNIVAC, IBM
7000 Series.
Transistor Era is followed by the Integrated Circuit Era. During this era, elec-
trical resistors, capacitors and transistors, are integrated as a silicon ship. The sil-
icon ships are use manufacture computing machine components. The microproces-
sor emerges during this era. The microprocessor is a device capable of automatically
carrying out arithmetic and logical operation. This makes it possible to manufacture
Calculator-on-a-chip devices. Example of machines in this era include Honeywell 6000
and the IBM 360/370 series. The disused chassis of IBM 370 machine used at the Uni-
versity of Ife. Computer Centre is depicted in Figure 1.2.
Figure 1.2: Plate of IBM 370 machine at the University of Ife. Computer Centre
From about 1975 onwards, Large Scale Integrated Circuit have emerged with
more advancement in technology. The number of electronic components and part that
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can be integrated into a single ship has increased tremendously. The modern Nano-
technology era makes it possible to put millions of circuit into a material ship that is
about the size of human index-finger nail.
As a summary, you should note the following in respect of computer technology:
1. Computer machines evolve with technology;

2. The performance of computing machines improve with advancement in technol-
ogy;
3. The cost of computing machines reduce with advancement in technology;
4. The size of computing machines reduce with advancement in technology;
5. The reliability of computing machines increase with advancement in technology;
6. The function and versatility of computing machines increase with advancement in
technology;
Despite the evolution of computer technology, however, the logic of computing

process remains unchanged. What this implies is that the logic of addition, multi-
plication, division, searching, sorting, and so forth, remain unchanged. This is so
even when better technique have been advance to achieve them. Therefore, a meaning-
ful definition of computing is not grounded in the technology for its creation.
You are expected to read more about the history of computer in standard textbooks
and on the internet. You may be required to submit an assignment on this.
1.4 The Computer System

The computer system is composed of Tangible (physical) and Intangible (non-physical)
aspects. The physical aspect are all the thing that you can physically touch, feel and
move. The Physical aspect of a computer are collectively called the Computer Hard-
ware. Examples of computer hardware include: the mouse, monitor or screen, key-
board, input-output devices such as printer and scanner as well as memory devices
such as your Flash Disk.
The Non-physical aspect are the intangible state and activity of the computer. You
cannot see or touch this aspect but you can know that they are in operation through the
activities of the physical aspect. The intangible aspects of the computer are collectively
called Computer Software. Examples of computer software are: Operating System
Software such as Microsoft Windows, UNIX, Android; Application Program Soft-
ware such as Microsoft Excel, Power-point as well as the Apps running on your mobile
phones.
If we use human as a metaphor or analogy, the physical body, i.e. head, legs,
hands, eyes, etc. are the hardware. Human mental activity are the software. Though
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you cannot see human mental activity, but you could see the physical activities through
his/her action. However, human physical activities are the manifestation of human
mental activity. Hence, human mental and physical aspects work in harmony in hu-
man activities. Similarly, the hardware and software must work in harmony before the
computer can function properly.
The next section introduces you to the hardware components of the computer. The
components discussed here are necessary for understanding how the computer program
works. There are other hardware components of the computer which you do not really
need to know much about before you can write a program. For example, the computer
motherboard and power supply unit.
1.5 Computer Hardware

The hardware structure of a computer is depicted in Figure 1.3. In the figure, the dotted
arrow head line is control signal and the full arrow lines are the data lines.
Figure 1.3: Structure of a Computer
Hardware is a set of physical devices that facilitates a computer soft-

ware’s operation.
1.5.1 Input-Output devices

The input component is also called the input device. Examples include Keyboard,
mouse, touch screen, pen and so on. The ability to use the Keyboard and Mouse is
central to computer programming.
1.5.2 Central Processing Unit

The Processing component comprises a number of other components that facilitate
the execution of a programme. The Computer Process Unit comprises three (3) other
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subcomponents:
Memory Element (ME)
This is the place where the computer stores results of ongoing operation. The memory
element are inside the processor. They are also called register. Each of the register
inside a process severs a specified purpose. An example is the Accumulator Regis-
ter, which stores the results of an ongoing arithmetic operation. Another example is
the processor Status Register, which stores the status of an ongoing operation, such
as when “an overflow” or “negative” result is generated. The Memory element can be
likened to a scratch pad that you use while solving mathematics problem: a place where
rough work is written. The content of the Memory Element or register is lost imme-
diately power is switched off from the computer. This is why the Memory Element of
register is called a Volatile Memory.
Control Unit (CU)
The Control Unit determines the operation of all the other hardware component of the
computer. However, the activity of the Control Unit is determined by the Computer
Software. The Control Unit (CU) will, for example, determine when the input device
must read data, when the output device must write output and when data and instruction
are transmitted between devices. The CU reads program instructions from the computer
memory and interprets (decodes) the instructions. It then uses the interpreted instruc-
tion to determine what is to be done. To achieve the tasks specified in the instructions,
the CU generates a series of control signals to the other parts of the computer hardware.
When everything seems to be working well but nothing is working, the control unit is
probably faulty.
Control units in advanced computers may change the order of some instructions
so as to improve performance.
Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU)
The ALU carries out arithmetic and logical operation. It arithmetic operations include:
Addition (+) and Multiplication (×). Its logical operations are those that evaluate to
True or False. Examples includes Greater Than (>), Less than (<). Most computer in-
structions are realised through these simple operations. It turns out that by performing
these simple operations, a computer can be programmed to achieved complex tasks.
This is done by breaking the complex tasks into simple steps that are realised through
the operation of the Arithmetic and Logical Unit. Therefore, modern computers can
be programmed to perform a well-defined task; although it will take more time to do
so if its ALU does not directly support the operations in the task. An ALU may also
compare numbers and return boolean (true or false) value depending on whether one is
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equal to, greater than or less than the other (“is 64 greater than 65?”). Logic operations
also include boolean logic: AND, OR, XOR and NOT. These can be useful both for cre-
ating complicated conditional statements processing boolean logic. Modern computers
(e.g. Superscalar machines) contain multiple ALUs so that they can process several
instructions at the same time. Graphics processors and computers with SIMD (Single
Instruction Multiple Data) and MIMD (Multiple Instruction Multiple Data) features
often provide ALUs that can perform arithmetic on vectors and matrices.
Memory elements (ME), Arithmetic and Logical Unit (ALU) and Control Unit
(CU) are together called the Central Processing Unit (CPU) of the computer.
CPU = ME + ALU + CU
The computer’s capacity to carry out small to large scale processes, its CPU must
be supported by Memory Devices.
1.5.3 Memory devices

Memory Devices are the hardware components of a computer in which
data and instruction are stored.
There are two categories of memory devices: (i) Main memory and (ii) Mass
memory. These are discussed in the following subsection.
Main memory devices
The Main memory is the memory device in which the computer stores the data and
instruction in the currently running program. The computer store temporary result of
operation in this memory. When a program is executing, its data and instructions are
store in the Main memory. The main memory is a Random Access Memory (RAM).
This implies that the computer can access data in the memory at any location of the
memory without delay and in any order. Main memory is usually smaller in size than
the Mass memory. It is also more expensive than the mass memory. A major weakness
of the Main memory is that when electric power is lost, its contents will be lost as well.
This is why it is called Volatile memory. The Main memory is also called Primary
memory or Core memory. The data and instruction that we wish to retrieve latter are
stored in the Mass memory. This is discussed as follows.
Mass memory devices
The Mass memory is the memory device in which the computer stores data and in-
struction that can be retrieved latter. When a program is NOT executing, its data and
instructions are store in the Mass memory. The mass memory is a Sequential Access
Memory (SAM). This implies that the computer can access data in the memory in the
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sequence or order they are store in the memory. Mass memory is usually much larger in
size than the Main memory. The Mass memory is also cheaper than the Main memory.
A major strength of the Mass memory is that when electric power is lost, its contents
are retained. This is why it is called Non-Volatile memory. A major weakness of Mass
memory is that it is slower than the Main memory. The Mass memory is also called
Secondary memory or Peripheral memory. There are other memory devices, such
as the Read only Memory (ROM) and Programmable Read only Memory (PROM). In
these memory devices, specialised data and instructions are stored. For example, the
data and instruction that the computer requires for its intrinsic operations are kept in
these specialised memory devices. Examples of such specialise data and instruction
are those that the computer system use during “start-up” and “Booting”. The computer
timing data is also stored in Specialised memory devices. This class of memory are
usually of interest to “Embedded” or “Real-time” system programming.
1.5.4 Memory metric

Computer memory devices are of various sizes. The different sizes of computer mem-
ory are reckoned using a metric based on the number of cells that makes up a unit of
data. The Bit (Binary Digit) is the smallest data element in modern digital computing
machines. The Bit is stored in a Cell. Therefore, a cell holds a Binary digit (Bit) dur-
ing computer operation. Each cell holds either Zero 0 or One 1 at an instance in
the computer operation. Four (4) cells, each of them holding a bit, e.g. 0 1 0 1 ,
makes a Nibble. A unit of data in modern computer is a Byte. A computer Byte
comprises Two (2) Nibbles or Eight (8) Bits, e.g. 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 . The number of
unit data comprising the entire storage space in a memory device is reckoned in Bytes
as depicted and described in Table 1.1. A Byte can hold one character, E.g. the letter
‘R’, the digit ‘5’, etc. Memory metric is, therefore, a rough estimate of the number
of characters that can be stored into a memory device. If the number of character in
your notebook is up to Ten thousand (10, 000), then you will need a memory of about
Ten Kilobyte (10KB) to store it. This is estimated as 10 × 210 Bytes, where 210 Bytes
corresponds to about One thousand (1,000) characters.
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Table 1.1: Computer memory metric
Ser. Name Description
Num-
ber
1. Bit A status of the computer cell. It can be Zero (0)
or One(1); 0 and 1
2. Nibble Four bits. 0 1 0 1
3. Byte Eight(8) Bits or Two (2) Nibble
4. Word This is the number of bytes that a machine can
process at one instance of its operation. This is
the data bus of the computer.
5. Kilobyte (KB) A byte is computed as 210 (1024) Bytes.
6. Megabyte One Megabyte is computed as 220 (1,048,576)
(MB) Bytes.
7. . Gigabyte A Gigabyte is a computed as 230
(GB) (1,073,741,824) Bytes.
8. Terabyte (TB) A Terabyte is computed as 240
(1,099,511,627,776) Bytes.
9. Petabyte (PB) A Petabyte is computer as 250
(1,125,899,906,842,624) Bytes.
10. Exabyte (EB) An Exabyte is computed 260
(1,152,921,504,606,846,976) Bytes.
1.6 Computer Software

The intangible aspect of the computer system are called “Computer Software”. Com-
puter Software often comprises several “Computer Programs”. If a program, or set of
programs, fails, the computer hardware may not function properly. The human who
writes program for controlling a computer is called a Computer Programmer. The
humans or group of humans involved in the Specification, Design, Programming (Cod-
ing) and Evaluation (Testing) of software are also called Software Developer. Every
programming for problem-solving involves familiarity with every aspects of software
development. The job of a computer programmer (software developer) is to design
and implement a set of programs that will make the computer to do what a user
wants. Usually the user is a human being. The user can also be another computer.
For the programmer to achieve this task he/she must first understand the problem that
the user wants to use the computer to solve. The programmer must also understand
the capability of the computer as well as how to instruct the computer to perform the
specified task. In this course you will learn how to instruct a computer using the
Python programming language.
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A software is a set of programs that influences and controls a computer
hardware during the task of executing a process.
Computer software are of Two (2) categories:
(i) System software.
(ii) Application software
These are explained in the following Subsection.
1.6.1 System software

System software is specifically developed by computer manufactures to make the com-
puter ready for use by other programs and users. System software performs the follow-
ing tasks:
1. Create the environment for other programs to run. [Run is the terminology used
for “a process executing on a computing machine”]
2. Manage the computer resources (disks, memory, printers, etc. ) for effective use.
E,g, Data Zipping (Compress data into smaller memory size)
3. Provide data about the status of the hardware and related computer component
[E.g. time].
4. Provide prompts (message) that can help the user in computer usage.
5. Provide interfaces that suit users fancy and appeal;
6. Respire or reclaim unused computer resources such as memory. System Software
that reclaims memory are call “Garbage Collector”.
A very important system program is the Operating system. Examples of operating
systems include:
1. Windows XP
2. UNIX
3. LINUX
4. Solaris
5. Mac OS
Other examples of system programs includes: Editor, Linker, Loader. System
programs are usually written by System programmers. System programs are commis-
sioned by specialised Computer vendors, organisation or Business interests. Aspects
of system programs are usually written using Low Level Language called Assembly
Language.
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1.6.2 Application software
An Application Package is a collection or suit of software intended for solving prob-
lems in a particular user environment. Each of the set of programs in an Application
software is for achieving specific user task. For example, a set of program can be writ-
ten for assisting with all the work done in the office. The work may include document
typing and processing also called word processing. Keeping a “table of inventory” also
called spreadsheet. Other program may be written for “drawing of graphics” and/or
“Architectural Design”. Some others may also be written for music compilation and
processing. An example of Application Package is Microsoft Office. This pack-
age comprises (i) MS Word (for word processing) (ii) Excel (For spreadsheet) (iii)
MS FrontPage (For graphic design) (iv) MS Publisher (For publishing works), (v) Ms
PowerPoint (For making presentation slides), etc. Another examples is OpenOffice. It
comprises similar applications like Microsoft Office. Other examples of Application
Software include:
1. In Mathematics, Science and Engineering [Octave, Matlab, Mathematical and

Maple]
2. In Internet browsing [Google Chrome, Safari, Firefox]
3. In Graphics design and Architecture [AutoCard, Adobe Photoshop, CorelDraw]
4. Online meeting [Skype, Hangouts, Google Meet, Zoom, and Whatsapp]
5. Banking [Oracle, TEMENOS, CorePlus, Bankware]
As you are already aware, there are Application programs (Apps) on your Mobile
Phone for doing all sort of tasks from banking, to playing games, searching for lo-
cation, and so forth. These Apps cannot run except there is a System program e.g
Android, already running on the hardware of your Computer or Phone. Application
programs are written by Application programmers. Substantial parts of Application
programmers are written using High Level Programming languages such as Python,
Java, C++, Pascal, FORTRAN.
1.7 What is Programming?

Computers will do what humans instruct. The instructions for computers are written in
a Programming Language. Computer will NOT do what they are NOT programmed to
do. To ask a computer to perform a task, you have to give it Two (2) things:
1. The data on which the computer will perform the task.

2. The set of instruction on how to manipulate the data.
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After applying this instruction to the data the computer produces an output. This
means that all what you want the computer to do must be reduced into data and in-
structions. While following the instruction, the computer will be manipulating the
data. If we adequately describe our instruction and accurately specify our data, then
the output that the computer generates will be what we want.
The art of composing the sequence of instructions that controls a com-

puter system is called programming.
The outcome of a computer programming activity is a program.
A program is a sequence of instructions which when executed by a com-

puter, the output corresponding to an input data will be produced.
An instruction is a unit of message or command that influences the operation of a

computer. An instruction is composed of Two (2) parts:
1. Operand (Data)
2. Operation (Operator)
INSTRUCTION = OPERAND + OPERATION

INSTRUCTION = DATA + OPERATOR
An analysis of the instruction:
ADD Two (2) data items identified with the names X and Y and Store the output in Z
is as depicted in Figure 1.4.
Figure 1.4: Fundamentals of Data and Instruction
14
1.7.1 Operand: Data
Data are the elements that the computer will manipulate during its processing operation.
Individual Data item (or datum) is labelled with a name. If the datum is a variable, it
is labelled with Variable name. If the datum is a constant, it is labelled with Constant
name. Other types of data including: Numerical, Literal or Logical are also labelled
accordingly. Operands are like the NOUN of a computer instruction because they state
the identity of the data to be manipulated.
1.7.2 Operation: Operator

Operators define the manipulation that will be carried out on data. This include arith-
metic operation such as Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and Division. It also
includes; Negation, Reversing, Search, Printing, Reading, and so forth. Operators are
like the VERB of a computer instruction because they prescribe the manipulation to be
applied on the data. That is, the state what should be done (Action) with the data.
1.8 The concept of Programming language

The process of programming can be viewed as the process involved when two (2) hu-
man individuals communicate through Writing Letter. The two (2) individual are
communicating using the written form of their habitual instrument of language. Their
habitual instrument of language is Human Language. In this case, however, the Pro-
grammer is communicating with a machine using a computer Programming Lan-
guage. Indeed the Program writing process is grounded in the metaphor of Letter
writing.
These are the attributes of the Letter Writing process
1. The message in a letter is written in a Human Language { e.g. Yorùbá, Igbo,
Hausa, English, etc. }.
2. The symbols in the message are drawn from the alphabet of the Human Language.
3. There is a format of presentation to which the text (narrative) in the letter conforms
{e.g. formal and informal letter }.
4. There is an opening (beginning) and a closing (ending) statement.
5. There are sequence of words, phrases, sentences and paragraphs between the
Opening and Closing statement. Each of the words, phrases, sentences and para-
graphs expresses aspects of the message in the letter. Each word, phrase, sentence
and/or paragraph is composed using the symbols drawn from the alphabet.
6. The message in the letter conveys information from the Writer (Sender) to the
Reader(Receiver).
15
Note that a letter is written by humans and the instruction or message in it will be
read by another human being.
In the same manner a computer program is written by human being (a Program-
mer) but the primary target or audience of the instructions or messages a machine (the
computer). A program:
1. A computer instruction is written in a Programming Language { e.g. Python,
FORTAN, JAVA, C++, VisualBasic, etc. }.
2. The symbols for composing an instruction are drawn from the alphabet of the
computer language.
3. There is format to which admissible instruction must conform {e.g. this is called
the Syntax or Format of instruction }.
4. A program has an opening and closing statement
5. There are sequence of instruction, functions and sub-programs between the Open-
ing and Closing statements.
6. The program conveys the writer (programmer’s) instructions to the computer (re-
ceiver).
The following subsections, and indeed, other aspects of this course will explicate
the above analogy.
To compose an effective computer program, it is important to be familiar with the
Programming Language and Programming Process. Familiarly with Programming
Language includes:
1.8.1 Familiarly with Programming Language

Familiarly with Programming Language includes:
1. The symbols in alphabet as well as those that have special influence on the com-
puter operation.
2. How to compose and ascribed names to data.
3. How to use the data and operand to compose instruction.
1.8.2 Python Instruction format and structure

During this course, the format and structure of the instruction for following Python
statements and expressions will be explained with examples. You will also be intro-
duced to other formats and structures that are used in the Python Object Oriented Pro-
gramming Language. In addition, you will learn the techniques for using the format
and instruction in programming. Some of the instruction and statement formats and
structures that would be consider include:
16
1. Data formatting.
2. Input and output statements.
3. Decision, Control and Conditional Statements.
4. Loops and Looping.
5. Array data structures.
6. Routings and Functions: Modular Programming (Breaking a complex program-
ming problem into smaller problems call modules).
7. File processing.
8. Object Oriented Programming
1.8.3 Python Variables and Constants

The variables in a Python program can be liken to the nominal part-of-speech in human
written language. The nominal part-of-speech is a NOUN. The “Noun” is a class of
strings, each of which is used to identify an instance or agency. Variable can hold one
constant at an instance during a computer operation. Therefore, the content of a variable
can change during the execution of a process. The constants in a Python program can be
liken to the words in human written language. The “word” is a string used to identify an
instance or agency. Constants do not change during the a computer operation. When the
value to be stored changes then it is given a variable name, for example Number or Sum.
Variable names correspond to the identity of a memory location in a computer system.
In the case of a constant, the exact value of the constant, e.g. “Ade”, “1234”, and
“Lagos” is stated. In the expression NAME = “Ade” , the string NAME is a variable
while the string “Ade” is a constant. Also in the expression Y = 10 , the symbol Y is a
variable while the number 10 is a constant. The number 10 can also be called a constant
string of Two (2) digits, 1 and 0.
1.8.4 Python Reserved words

There are certain names that have special function in the Python programming lan-
guage. These names are called Reserved words or Key words. Reserved words
CANNOT be used to name a variable or constant. Thirty-Tree (33) Python Reserved
words are listed in Table 1.2.
1.8.5 Naming Python variable and constant

The name of a variable can be composed from a combination of letters and digits. This
is much in a way similar to how words are composed from the English alphabet. The
17
Table 1.2: Python Reserved or Key words
True elif try return def in raise
and else while lambda del is from
as except with nonlocal break import finally
assert finally yield None continue if
class global pass not false for
composition of names in Python, however, follow a set of rules. Some of the rules
include:
1. A variable or constant name can only be composed using the Python set of sym-
bols. This includes upper case letters {A, B, C, ..Z}, lower case letters {a, b, c,
..z} and digits {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9}.
2. Variable or constant names are case-sensitive. What this implies is that Number,
number and NUMBER are three different names.
3. A variable or constant name CANNOT be any of the Python keywords.
4. A name should be limited to Thirty-one (31) characters in length. That is a name
should have not more than 31 characters.
5. A number should not start a name. For example example, the variable 5name is
wrong but Name5 is correct.
6. A special character (except the underscore, ), should not be used in forming a
name. For example, the variable Fn*ame is wrong but the name Fn ame is correct.
1.8.6 Python Statements

A Python statement is an instruction, which when executed, will influence the com-
puter operation. A statement is similar to a sentence in human languages. Each of the
statement in a program is also called a code. Various Python statement and how they
are used are discussed in your Laboratory and Tutorial Manual.
1.8.7 Familiarly with Programming Process

Familiarly with Programming Process includes:
(i) How to design the algorithm of a programming process
(ii) How to reduce the algorithm into program code or instruction.
(iii) How to create the digital version (the computer text) for the instruction composed
in (ii)
18
(iv) How to compile the digital version in (iii) into computer native language, that is
streams of 0 and 1.
(v) How to identify and remove errors and mistakes from your code.
(vi) How to document your code for future use and improvement.
Familiarly with Programming Process is briefly discussed in the following sec-
tions.
1.9 Algorithm
The origin of the term Algorithm was traced to a 9th century Arabic scholar called Abu
Ja’far Muhammed Ibn Musa Al-Khowarizm. An algorithm is a sequence of formal
instruction describing the solution to a computing problem. An algorithm describes
the solution one problem only. This implies that when an algorithm is written for a
problem it cannot be used to solve a different problem.
The following are the features of an algorithm:
1. [Terminal:] There is exactly one ENTRY (START) and one EXIT (END) points
in the algorithm. These are called the terminals of the algorithm.
2. [Finite process:] The steps in the algorithm must be finite. The number of steps
from when the input is applied and an output is generated must be totally count-
able. A step corresponds to an instruction.
3. [Effective:] The algorithm must produce the total output corresponding to the
input data.
4. [Soundness:] The algorithm must produce the same output for an input no matter
the number of times that the input is applied.
5. [Practical:] An algorithm must be executable on a computer system.
6. [Halt:] The program corresponding to an algorithm must release all computer
resources immediately after its termination.
The instruction in an algorithm and how they are structured follows a standard set
of rules. An algorithm intended for a program is design before it is reduced into codes
(set of instruction) and implemented on a computer. Algorithm designs are primarily
intended for use among programmers during the programming process. An algorithm
is, therefore, an important aspect of computer programming just as the Plan is important
in Building a house.
There are two (2) popular tools for designing an algorithm. These are: (i) Pseudo-
code and (ii) Flowchart. A pseudo-code uses instructions written out in long-hand as
19
well as mathematical expression to express an algorithm. This is done in a fashion
similar to human written language discussed above. Pseudo-code are usually not very
explicit as their interpretation often require an understanding of the rule for writing the
expression in the pseudo-code.
In the flowchart approach to algorithm design, however, geometric symbols are
used to represent instructions. Familiarity with only a few geometric symbols is re-
quired in order to design the algorithm for a complete problem. We will be using the
flowchart more often in this course. Some important flowchart symbols are shown in
Figure 1.5. We will discuss them further during our lecture.
Figure 1.5: Flowchart Symbols
20
1.10 Computer program development process
To develop a program for the solution a problem using the Python programming Lan-
guage, you need to follow some steps.
Step 1: Understand the problem: It is good to always start your programming by

giving the problem it solves a name. The first step in computer problem solving
is to understand the problem. To do this, you need to take a simple case example
and solve the problem manually. This will allow you to understand what goes into
the process of solving the problem. The outcome of this process is a SPECIFI-
CATION DOCUMENT containing a description of the solution process.
Step 2: Identify Input and Output: It this step the Input data are listed with their
data types and sample values. Also, the expected outputs are listed and is de-
scribed. After this identification step, you need to use signifiers, called variable
or constant names to label each Input and Output. The outcome of this step is a
DATA DICTIONARY of the program
Step 3: Formulate the process: The individual manipulation operations required for
transforming the input data to its corresponding output data are listed. This will
include: what calculations are required and how they will be invoked. You may
need to consider a number of alternative solution process at this stage before set-
tling for the most appropriate one for the problem at hand. The outcome of this
process is a PROCESS DICTIONARY. This comprises a list of the processes
that will be execute in order to produce output from an input. The document will
normally include a brief description of each of the process listed.
Step 4: Solution Algorithm Design: Formulate an algorithm to realise the Steps 2
and 3. This is the program design. To achieve this, you need to use Flowchart
symbols to construct a step by step or sequence of tasks involved in solving the
problem. You also need to follow the logic of the solution in achieving this task.
It may be the case that the solution will be implemented in modules by breaking
a bigger problem into smaller ones. Each of the smaller problems is then imple-
mented as a module. The outcome of this process is the SOLUTION DESIGN.
This is in the form of a flowchart (or pseudo-code) corresponding to the design of
the problem’s solution.
Step 5:Implement the Design: In this stage of the problem solving, you need to con-
vert the algorithm designed in Step 4 into a computer program. Here you will
reduced the Flowchart into Python instructions. The tasks here includes:
(i) Creating the source file. Here you type the program (from paper) into a com-
puter Text Editor.
21
(ii) Compiling the program. The program text will be applied to Python Compiler
software which will check it for Syntax error. If there are syntax errors (or
warning in your program) you will need to correct it in your source file. If no
error is found, the system will generate the object or executable file.
(iii) Repeat steps (i) and (ii) until your programe is running as desired. The out-
come of this sequence of steps, therefore, is a RUNNING PROGRAM.
Step 6: Programe Testing Run the program with the Input data you used in Step 1 to
confirm that the output you computer manually is also what the computer gener-
ates. Thereafter, select a number of example input data that you already familiar
with their outputs. If the output produce by your program is not correct, you need
to go back to the design [Step 4] of the solution. If the problem persists, then you
move to Step 3, and so forth. The outcome of this step is a PROGRAM TEST
DOCUMENT. The document contains a description of how the testing was per-
form. It states the data you used for each test and the output generated and the
programmers comments on the correctness of the output.
1.11 Case example: FindAverage

We will demonstrate the software development process discussed in Section 1.10 by
developing a program to find the average of Five (5) numbers.
Understand the problem: The name of the program is FindAverage. The task of
finding the average of Five (5) numbers involves: (i) Finding the Sum by adding
the numbers together and (ii) Dividing the Sum by 5. We will assume that the
numbers are of type Real. Type Real are numbers with factional part. For example,
5 is an Integer because it has no fractional part, but 5.0 is a Real number because
it has a fractional part; even when the fractional part is zero.
The command f loat is used to convert an input into a real number in Python.
Therefore, an input data is converted to real number by applying the f loat com-
mand to it.
The command int is used to convert an input into a integer number in Python.
Therefore, an input data is converted to integer number by applying the int com-
mand to it.
If we assume that the numbers we wish to find the Average are:
• 5.0
• 8.0
• 7.0
• 9.0
22
• 24.0
We will
1. Sum the numbers, i.e. 5.0 + 8.0 + 7.0 + 9.0 + 24.0 = 53.0
53.0
2. Divide the Sum by 5, i.e. 5.0 = 10.6
Identify the input and output: The input to the problem are the five numbers: let us
label them using the variables:
N umber1, N umber2, N umber3, N umber4, N umber5
The output from the program is the average: let us label it with the variable name:
Average.
Formulate the process: The process require for computing the output from the input
are as follows:
Sum = N umber1 + N umber2 + N umber3 + N umber4 + N umber5
and
Sum
Average =
5.0
Design the solution algorithm: The solution algorithm is represented by the flowchart
in Figure 1.6.
Start
Read Number1
Read Number2
Read Number3
Read Number4
Read Number5
Sum = Number1 + Number2 +

Number3 + Number4 + Number5
Average = Sum/5.0
Write Average
Stop
Figure 1.6: Design for the Average Program
23
Implement the solution: To implement the design, create the source file by typing the
following program code into the Python editor.
Table 1.3: Python code for the Flowchart in Figure 1.6
1 Number1 = float(input("Enter Number1: "))

6 Sum = Number1 + Number2 + Number3 + Number4 + Number5
7 Average = Sum/5
8 print("Average of the numbers is :", Avegrage)
Run the program as instructed in the CSC201 Laboratory and tutorial manual.
Test the Program: Run the program using the data used in Step 1 and see your output.
Now run the program again with at least Three (3) other set of input of your choice.
Table 1.4: Python code for the Flowchart in Figure 1.7
1 item = 5
2 Sum = 0.0
3
4 for n in range(item):
5 NextNumber = float(input("Enter the next number : "))
6 Sum = Sum + NextNumber
7
8 Average = Sum / item
9 print("Average of ", item, " numbers is :", Average)
The program in Table 1.3 will work only when the number of input is Five (5).
What this implies is that even if you want to find the Average of Three (3) numbers,
the program will not work. Also, the instruction to read every number is in the code.
Most often, programs are designed to be more flexible. The flowchart in Figure 1.7 is
the design for a program that can read a specified number of input data and output their
average. The Python code for the flowchart design in Figure 1.7 is in Table 1.4.
24
Start
Sum = 0.0
NextNumber = 0.0
Average =0.0
Item =0
Read NextNumber
Sum = Sum+ NextNumber

Item = Item +1
No
Item = 5?
Yes
Average = Sum/5.0
Write Average
Stop
Figure 1.7: Design for the Average Program
The Python program codes in Table 1.3 and Table 1.4 will work only when the
number of input is Five (5). What this implies is that even if you want to find the
Average of Three (3) numbers, the program will NOT work. Most often, programs
are designed to be more flexible. To improve the flexibility of the program, it will be
designed to be able to handle various number of input data.
1.12 Exercise
The Python code to find the average for any number of input data is in Table 1.5.
You are to carry our the Program development process above in respect of the
code.
25
Table 1.5: Python code for flexible Average computation
1 item = 0
2 Sum = 0.0
3
4 for n in range(item):
5 NextNumber = float(input("Enter next number : "))
6 Sum = Sum + NextNumber
7 item = item + 1
8 Average = Sum / item
9 print("Average of ", item, " numbers is :", Average)
26
CSC 201
ALGORITHMS AND FLOWCHARTS
INTRODUCTION
• The term algorithm originally referred to any computation performed
via a set of rules applied to numbers written in decimal form.
• The word is derived from the phonetic pronunciation of the last name
of Abu Ja'far Mohammed ibn Musa al-Khowarizmi, who was an Arabic
mathematician who invented a set of rules for performing the four
basic arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division) on decimal numbers.
INTRODUCTION CONTD
• An algorithm is a representation of a solution to a problem. If a
problem can be defined as a difference between a desired situation
and the current situation in which one is, then a problem solution is a
procedure, or method, for transforming the current situation to the
desired one.
• We solve many such trivial problems every day without even thinking
about it, for example making breakfast, travelling to the workplace
etc. But the solution to such problems requires little intellectual effort
and is relatively unimportant.
INTRODUCTION CONTD
• However, the solution of a more interesting problem of more
importance usually involves stating the problem in an understandable
form and communicating the solution to others.
• In the case where a computer is part of the means of solving the
problem, a procedure, explicitly stating the steps leading to the
solution, must be transmitted to the computer.
• This concept of problem solution and communication makes the
study of algorithms important to computer science
INTRODUCTION CONTD
• Throughout history, man has thought of ever more elegant ways of reducing the
amount of labour needed to do things.
• A computer has immense potential for saving time/energy, as most

(computational) tasks that are repetitive or can be generalised can be done by a
computer.
• For a computer to perform a desired task, a method for carrying out some
sequence of events, resulting in accomplishing the task, must somehow be
described to the computer.
• The algorithm can be described on many levels because the algorithm is just the
procedure of steps to take and get the result. The language used to describe an
algorithm to other people will be quite different from that which is used by the
computer, however the actual algorithm will in essence be the same.
PROCEDURE
• A procedure is a finite sequence of well-defined instructions, each of which can be
mechanically carried out in a finite amount of time.
• The procedure must break up the problem solution into parts that the recipient
party can understand and execute.
• In the case of a computer, the problem solution is usually in the form of a
program that encompasses the algorithm and explains to the computer a clearly
defined procedure for achieving the solution.
• The procedure must consist of smaller steps each of which the computers
understand. There may be no ambiguities in the translation of the procedure into
the necessary action to be taken.
• A program is then just a specific realisation of an algorithm, which may be
executed on a physical device
• A computer is essentially a physical device designed to carry out a
collection of primitive actions.
• A procedure is a sequence of instructions written in terms of which
evoke a proper operation.
• To make effective use of an algorithm on a computer one must not
only find and understand a solution to the problem but also convey
the algorithm to the computer, giving the correct sequence of
understood commands that represent the same algorithm.
Algorithm
• An algorithm is a set of procedures for solving a problem. it is a finite
sequence of unambiguous instructions for solving a problem, i.e., for
obtaining a required output for any legitimate input in a finite amount of
time.
• An algorithm is procedure consisting of a finite set of unambiguous rules
(instructions) which specify a finite sequence of operations that provides
the solution to a problem, or to a specific class of problems for any
allowable set of input quantities (if there are inputs).
• In other word, an algorithm is a step-by-step procedure to solve a given
problem
• Since an algorithm is just the solution steps for a problem, it can be
represented by ordinary English expressions.
Characteristics of Algorithms
• An algorithm must have a beginning and an end

• The non- ambiguity requirement for each step of an algorithm cannot be
compromised.
• The range of inputs for which an algorithm works has to be specified
carefully
• The same algorithm can be represented in several different ways
• Several algorithms for solving the same problem may exist
• Algorithms for the same problem can be based on very different ideas and
can solve the problem with dramatically different speeds
• It must terminate at a reasonable period of time.
• An algorithm is a step-by-step description of a procedure. Writing an
algorithm allows you to think about the logic of a program without
worrying about the syntax of the programming language.
• You can think of an algorithm as being like a recipe:

Put 1 tablespoon of oil in a frying pan.
i. Heat the oil on the stove at low temperature.
ii. Break three eggs into a bowl.
iii. Beat the eggs with a whisk.
iv. Add cheese.
v. Add seasonings.
vi. Add the egg mixture to the frying pan.
vii. Cook on both sides.
ALGORITHM DESIGN
• An algorithm can be written by using pseudocode and flowcharts
• While writing algorithms we will use following symbol for different operations:
‘+’ for Addition
‘-’ for Subtraction
‘*’ for Multiplication
‘/’ for Division and
‘ ’ for assignment. For example A X*3 means A will have a value of X*3.
Writing Algorithms Using Pseudocode
• pseudocode is like code but different. In fact, pseudocode is a description of the
program flow, written in the language you speak. When you write pseudocode, you
usually keep the sentences short and to the point.
• Pseudocode is one of the tools that can be used to write a preliminary plan that can be
developed into a computer program. Pseudocode is a generic way of describing an
algorithm without use of any specific programming language syntax. It is, as the name
suggests, pseudo code —it cannot be executed on a real computer, but it models and
resembles real programming code, and is written at roughly the same level of detail.
• Example: Problem: Design an algorithm to find the average of two numbers.

Solution:
1. Start
2. Get the first number
3. Get the second number
4. Add the two numbers together
5. Show the result
6. Stop
• Problem 1: Find the area of a Circle of radius r.
Inputs to the algorithm:
Radius r of the Circle.
Expected output:
Area of the Circle
• Algorithm:
Step1: Read\input the Radius r of the Circle
Step2: Area = PI*r*r // calculation of area
Step3: Print Area
Problem2: Write an algorithm to read two
numbers and find their sum.
• Inputs to the algorithm:
First num1.
Second num2.
• Expected output:
Sum of the two numbers.
• Algorithm:
Step1: Start
Step2: Read\input the first num1.
Step3: Read\input the second num2.
Step4: Sum =num1+num2 // calculation of sum
Step5: Print Sum
Step6: End
Problem 3: Convert temperature Fahrenheit to
Celsius
Temperature in Fahrenheit
Temperature in Celsius
• Algorithm:
Step1: Start
Step 2: Read Temperature in Fahrenheit F
Step 3: C = 5/9*(F32)
Step 4: Print Temperature in Celsius: C
Step5: End
Writing Algorithms Using Flowcharts
• A flowchart is a graphical representation of an algorithm.
• You can draw a flowchart on paper or using a flowcharting tool such as

Microsoft Visio. There are even flowcharting objects available in Microsoft
Office.
• When you draw a flowchart, you should use industry-standard shapes to

represent each step in the process. You usually draw the flow from top to
bottom or from left to right. Arrows connect the shapes to define the flow.
FLOWCHART SYMBOLS
• There are 6 basic symbols commonly used in flowcharting of assembly
language programs:
Terminal
Process
input/output
Decision
Connector and
Predefined Process.
• This is not a complete list of all the possible flowcharting symbols, it is the
ones used most often in the structure of programming language
General Rules for flowcharting (1)
1. All boxes of the flowchart are connected with Arrows. (Not lines)
2. Flowchart symbols have an entry point on the top of the symbol
with no other entry points.
3. The exit point for all flowchart symbols is on the bottom except for
the Decision symbol.
4. The Decision symbol has two exit points; these can be on the sides
or the bottom and one side.
5. Generally a flowchart will flow from top to bottom. However, an
upward flow can be shown as long as it does not exceed 3 symbols.
6. Connectors are used to connect breaks in the flowchart. Examples
are:
• From one page to another page.
• From the bottom of the page to the top of the same page.
• An upward flow of more than 3 symbols
7. Subroutines and Interrupt programs have their own and independent

flowcharts.
8. All flow charts start with a Terminal or Predefined Process (for interrupt
programs or subroutines) symbol.
9. All flowcharts end with a terminal or a contentious loop
flowchart for going to the market to purchase a pen.
EXAMPLE
Flowchart to add
two(2) numbers
and display the
result
Example 2: Write an algorithm to find the sum of
two numbers.
FLOWCHART
• Pseudocode:
• Step 1 – Start
• Step 2 – Input A
• Step 3 – Input B
• Step 4 –Calculate C = A + B
• Step 5 – Output C
• Step 6 – Stop
Example 3: Write an algorithm to find the difference and the
division of two numbers and display the results.
• Pseudocode:
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Input N1
Step 3: Input N2
Step 4: D = N1 –N2
Step 5: V = N1 / N2
Step 6: Output D
Step 7: Output V
Step 8: Stop
design an algorithm for finding the average of
six numbers, and the sum of the numbers
• Start
Get the sum
Average = sum / 6
Output the average
Stop
flowchart to calculate the average of two
numbers.
input three numbers from the keyboard, ADD
and output the result.
• variables: sum, number1, number2, number3 of type integer
Accept number1, number2, number3
Sum = number1 + number2 + number3
Print sum
End program
Input numbers from the user and check whether it
is even or odd
Example 4. Design an algorithm and the corresponding flowchart for adding the test
scores as given below:
26, 49, 98, 87, 62, 75
• a) Algorithm
1. Start
2. Sum = 0
3. Get the first testscore
4. Add first testscore to sum
5. Get the second testscore
6. Add to sum
7. Get the third testscore
8. Add to sum
9. Get the Forth testscore
10. Add to sum
11. Get the fifth testscore
12. Add to sum
13. Get the sixth testscore
14. Add to sum
15. Output the sum
16. Stop
Calculate Profit and Loss
compute the volume of a sphere. Use the formula:
V = (4/3) *pi*r3 where pi is equal to 3.1416
approximately.
converts the input Celsius degree into its
equivalent Fahrenheit degree. Use the formula:
F = (9/5) *C+32.
converts the input dollar to its peso exchange rate
equivalent. Assume that the present exchange
rate is 51.50 pesos against the dollar. Then display
the peso equivalent
converts an input inch(es) into its equivalent
centimeters. Take note that one inch is equivalent
to 2.54cms.
exchanges the value of two variables: x and y. The
output must be: the value of variable y will
become the value of variable x, and vice versa.
to find the circumference of a circle. Use the
formula: C=2πr, where π is approximately
equivalent 3.1416.
takes as input the purchase price of an item (P), its expected
number of years of service (Y) and its expected salvage value
(S). Then outputs the yearly depreciation for the item (D). Use
the formula: D = (P – S) Y.
Swapping of 2 variables without using
rd
temporary (or 3 variable).
Determine the most economical quantity to be stocked for each product that a
manufacturing company has in its inventory: This quantity, called economic order
quantity (EOQ) is calculated as follows: EOQ=2rs/1 where: R= total yearly production
requirement S=set up cost per order I=inventory carrying cost per unit.
Write a program to compute the radius of a circle.
Derive your formula from the given equation:
A=πr², then display the output.
Find Perimeter Of Circle using Radius( pi =
3,14)
Solve Quadratic Equation
CSC 201
ALGORITHMS AND FLOWCHARTS
INTRODUCTION
• The term algorithm originally referred to any computation performed
via a set of rules applied to numbers written in decimal form.
• The word is derived from the phonetic pronunciation of the last name
of Abu Ja'far Mohammed ibn Musa al-Khowarizmi, who was an Arabic
mathematician who invented a set of rules for performing the four
basic arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division) on decimal numbers.
INTRODUCTION CONTD
• An algorithm is a representation of a solution to a problem. If a
problem can be defined as a difference between a desired situation
and the current situation in which one is, then a problem solution is a
procedure, or method, for transforming the current situation to the
desired one.
• We solve many such trivial problems every day without even thinking
about it, for example making breakfast, travelling to the workplace
etc. But the solution to such problems requires little intellectual effort
and is relatively unimportant.
INTRODUCTION CONTD
• However, the solution of a more interesting problem of more
importance usually involves stating the problem in an understandable
form and communicating the solution to others.
• In the case where a computer is part of the means of solving the
problem, a procedure, explicitly stating the steps leading to the
solution, must be transmitted to the computer.
• This concept of problem solution and communication makes the
study of algorithms important to computer science
INTRODUCTION CONTD
• Throughout history, man has thought of ever more elegant ways of reducing the
amount of labour needed to do things.
• A computer has immense potential for saving time/energy, as most

(computational) tasks that are repetitive or can be generalised can be done by a
computer.
• For a computer to perform a desired task, a method for carrying out some
sequence of events, resulting in accomplishing the task, must somehow be
described to the computer.
• The algorithm can be described on many levels because the algorithm is just the
procedure of steps to take and get the result. The language used to describe an
algorithm to other people will be quite different from that which is used by the
computer, however the actual algorithm will in essence be the same.
PROCEDURE
• A procedure is a finite sequence of well-defined instructions, each of which can be
mechanically carried out in a finite amount of time.
• The procedure must break up the problem solution into parts that the recipient
party can understand and execute.
• In the case of a computer, the problem solution is usually in the form of a
program that encompasses the algorithm and explains to the computer a clearly
defined procedure for achieving the solution.
• The procedure must consist of smaller steps each of which the computers
understand. There may be no ambiguities in the translation of the procedure into
the necessary action to be taken.
• A program is then just a specific realisation of an algorithm, which may be
executed on a physical device
• A computer is essentially a physical device designed to carry out a
collection of primitive actions.
• A procedure is a sequence of instructions written in terms of which
evoke a proper operation.
• To make effective use of an algorithm on a computer one must not
only find and understand a solution to the problem but also convey
the algorithm to the computer, giving the correct sequence of
understood commands that represent the same algorithm.
Algorithm
• An algorithm is a set of procedures for solving a problem. it is a finite
sequence of unambiguous instructions for solving a problem, i.e., for
obtaining a required output for any legitimate input in a finite amount of
time.
• An algorithm is procedure consisting of a finite set of unambiguous rules
(instructions) which specify a finite sequence of operations that provides
the solution to a problem, or to a specific class of problems for any
allowable set of input quantities (if there are inputs).
• In other word, an algorithm is a step-by-step procedure to solve a given
problem
• Since an algorithm is just the solution steps for a problem, it can be
represented by ordinary English expressions.
Characteristics of Algorithms
• An algorithm must have a beginning and an end

• The non- ambiguity requirement for each step of an algorithm cannot be
compromised.
• The range of inputs for which an algorithm works has to be specified
carefully
• The same algorithm can be represented in several different ways
• Several algorithms for solving the same problem may exist
• Algorithms for the same problem can be based on very different ideas and
can solve the problem with dramatically different speeds
• It must terminate at a reasonable period of time.
• An algorithm is a step-by-step description of a procedure. Writing an
algorithm allows you to think about the logic of a program without
worrying about the syntax of the programming language.
• You can think of an algorithm as being like a recipe:

Put 1 tablespoon of oil in a frying pan.
i. Heat the oil on the stove at low temperature.
ii. Break three eggs into a bowl.
iii. Beat the eggs with a whisk.
iv. Add cheese.
v. Add seasonings.
vi. Add the egg mixture to the frying pan.
vii. Cook on both sides.
ALGORITHM DESIGN
• An algorithm can be written by using pseudocode and flowcharts
• While writing algorithms we will use following symbol for different operations:
‘+’ for Addition
‘-’ for Subtraction
‘*’ for Multiplication
‘/’ for Division and
‘ ’ for assignment. For example A X*3 means A will have a value of X*3.
Writing Algorithms Using Pseudocode
• pseudocode is like code but different. In fact, pseudocode is a description of the
program flow, written in the language you speak. When you write pseudocode, you
usually keep the sentences short and to the point.
• Pseudocode is one of the tools that can be used to write a preliminary plan that can be
developed into a computer program. Pseudocode is a generic way of describing an
algorithm without use of any specific programming language syntax. It is, as the name
suggests, pseudo code —it cannot be executed on a real computer, but it models and
resembles real programming code, and is written at roughly the same level of detail.
• Example: Problem: Design an algorithm to find the average of two numbers.

Solution:
1. Start
2. Get the first number
3. Get the second number
4. Add the two numbers together
5. Show the result
6. Stop
• Problem 1: Find the area of a Circle of radius r.
Inputs to the algorithm:
Radius r of the Circle.
Expected output:
Area of the Circle
• Algorithm:
Step1: Read\input the Radius r of the Circle
Step2: Area = PI*r*r // calculation of area
Step3: Print Area
Problem2: Write an algorithm to read two
numbers and find their sum.
First num1.
Second num2.
Sum of the two numbers.
• Algorithm:
Step1: Start
Step2: Read\input the first num1.
Step3: Read\input the second num2.
Step4: Sum =num1+num2 // calculation of sum
Step5: Print Sum
Step6: End
Problem 3: Convert temperature Fahrenheit to
Celsius
Temperature in Fahrenheit
Temperature in Celsius
• Algorithm:
Step1: Start
Step 2: Read Temperature in Fahrenheit F
Step 3: C = 5/9*(F32)
Step 4: Print Temperature in Celsius: C
Step5: End
Writing Algorithms Using Flowcharts
• A flowchart is a graphical representation of an algorithm.
• You can draw a flowchart on paper or using a flowcharting tool such as

Microsoft Visio. There are even flowcharting objects available in Microsoft
Office.
• When you draw a flowchart, you should use industry-standard shapes to

represent each step in the process. You usually draw the flow from top to
bottom or from left to right. Arrows connect the shapes to define the flow.
FLOWCHART SYMBOLS
• There are 6 basic symbols commonly used in flowcharting of assembly
language programs:
Terminal
Process
input/output
Decision
Connector and
Predefined Process.
• This is not a complete list of all the possible flowcharting symbols, it is the
ones used most often in the structure of programming language
1. All boxes of the flowchart are connected with Arrows. (Not lines)
2. Flowchart symbols have an entry point on the top of the symbol
with no other entry points.
3. The exit point for all flowchart symbols is on the bottom except for
the Decision symbol.
4. The Decision symbol has two exit points; these can be on the sides
or the bottom and one side.
5. Generally a flowchart will flow from top to bottom. However, an
upward flow can be shown as long as it does not exceed 3 symbols.
6. Connectors are used to connect breaks in the flowchart. Examples
are:
• From one page to another page.
• From the bottom of the page to the top of the same page.
• An upward flow of more than 3 symbols
7. Subroutines and Interrupt programs have their own and independent

flowcharts.
8. All flow charts start with a Terminal or Predefined Process (for interrupt
programs or subroutines) symbol.
9. All flowcharts end with a terminal or a contentious loop
flowchart for going to the market to purchase a pen.
EXAMPLE
Flowchart to add
two(2) numbers
and display the
result
Example 2: Write an algorithm to find the sum of
two numbers.
FLOWCHART
• Pseudocode:
• Step 1 – Start
• Step 2 – Input A
• Step 3 – Input B
• Step 4 –Calculate C = A + B
• Step 5 – Output C
• Step 6 – Stop
Example 3: Write an algorithm to find the difference and the
division of two numbers and display the results.
• Pseudocode:
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Input N1
Step 3: Input N2
Step 4: D = N1 –N2
Step 5: V = N1 / N2
Step 6: Output D
Step 7: Output V
Step 8: Stop
design an algorithm for finding the average of
six numbers, and the sum of the numbers
• Start
Get the sum
Average = sum / 6
Output the average
Stop
flowchart to calculate the average of two
numbers.
input three numbers from the keyboard, ADD
and output the result.
• variables: sum, number1, number2, number3 of type integer
Accept number1, number2, number3
Sum = number1 + number2 + number3
Print sum
End program
Input numbers from the user and check whether it
is even or odd
Example 4. Design an algorithm and the corresponding flowchart for adding the test
scores as given below:
26, 49, 98, 87, 62, 75
• a) Algorithm
1. Start
2. Sum = 0
3. Get the first testscore
4. Add first testscore to sum
5. Get the second testscore
6. Add to sum
7. Get the third testscore
8. Add to sum
9. Get the Forth testscore
10. Add to sum
11. Get the fifth testscore
12. Add to sum
13. Get the sixth testscore
14. Add to sum
15. Output the sum
16. Stop
Calculate Profit and Loss
compute the volume of a sphere. Use the formula:
V = (4/3) *pi*r3 where pi is equal to 3.1416
approximately.
converts the input Celsius degree into its
equivalent Fahrenheit degree. Use the formula:
F = (9/5) *C+32.
converts the input dollar to its peso exchange rate
equivalent. Assume that the present exchange
rate is 51.50 pesos against the dollar. Then display
the peso equivalent
converts an input inch(es) into its equivalent
centimeters. Take note that one inch is equivalent
to 2.54cms.
exchanges the value of two variables: x and y. The
output must be: the value of variable y will
become the value of variable x, and vice versa.
to find the circumference of a circle. Use the
formula: C=2πr, where π is approximately
equivalent 3.1416.
takes as input the purchase price of an item (P), its expected
number of years of service (Y) and its expected salvage value
(S). Then outputs the yearly depreciation for the item (D). Use
the formula: D = (P – S) Y.
Swapping of 2 variables without using
rd
temporary (or 3 variable).
Determine the most economical quantity to be stocked for each product that a
manufacturing company has in its inventory: This quantity, called economic order
quantity (EOQ) is calculated as follows: EOQ=2rs/1 where: R= total yearly production
requirement S=set up cost per order I=inventory carrying cost per unit.
Write a program to compute the radius of a circle.
Derive your formula from the given equation:
A=πr², then display the output.
Find Perimeter Of Circle using Radius( pi =
3,14)
Solve Quadratic Equation
Introduction to Programming with Python
1
Introduction to Python
• Python is a high-level programming language
• Open source and community driven
• “Batteries Included”
• a standard distribution includes many modules
• Dynamic typed
• Source can be compiled or run just-in-time
• Similar to perl, tcl, ruby
Features of Python
Python is a high-level, interpreted, interactive and object oriented-
scripting language. Python was designed to be highly readable which
uses English keywords frequently where as other languages use
punctuation and it has fewer syntactical constructions than other
languages.
• Python is Interpreted: This means that it is processed at runtime by the
interpreter and you do not need to compile your program before
executing it. This is similar to PERL and PHP.
• Python is Interactive: This means that you can actually sit at a Python
prompt and interact with the interpreter directly to write your programs.
• Python is Object-Oriented: This means that Python supports Object-
Oriented style or technique of programming that encapsulates code within
objects.
• Python is Beginner's Language: Python is a great language for the
beginner programmers and supports the development of a wide range of
applications, from simple text processing to WWW browsers to games.
• Python's feature highlights include:
• Easy-to-learn: Python has relatively few keywords, simple structure, and a clearly defined syntax.
This allows the student to pick up the language in a relatively short period of time.
• Easy-to-read: Python code is much more clearly defined and visible to the eyes.
• Easy-to-maintain: Python's success is that its source code is fairly easy-to-maintain.
• A broad standard library: One of Python's greatest strengths is the bulk of the library is very
portable and cross-platform compatible on UNIX, Windows, and Macintosh.
• Interactive Mode: Support for an interactive mode in which you can enter results from a
terminal right to the language, allowing interactive testing and debugging of snippets of code.
• Portable: Python can run on a wide variety of hardware platforms and has the same interface on
all platforms.
• Extendable: You can add low-level modules to the Python interpreter. These modules enable
programmers to add to or customize their tools to be more efficient.
• Databases: Python provides interfaces to all major commercial databases.
• GUI Programming: Python supports GUI applications that can be created and ported to many
system calls, libraries, and windows systems, such as Windows MFC, Macintosh, and the X
Window system of Unix.
• Scalable: Python provides a better structure and support for large programs than shell scripting.
Apart from the above mentioned features, Python has a big list of good features, few
are listed below:
• Support for functional and structured programming methods as well as OOP.
• It can be used as a scripting language or can be compiled to byte-code for building
large applications.
• Very high-level dynamic data types and supports dynamic type checking.
• Supports automatic garbage collection.
• It can be easily integrated with C, C++, COM, ActiveX, CORBA, and Java.
By the way, the language is named after the BBC show “Monty Python’s Flying Circus”
and has nothing to do with nasty reptiles. Making references to Monty Python skits in
documentation is not only allowed, it is encouraged!
Python 3 is available for Windows, Mac OS and most of the flavors of Linux operating
system. Even though Python 2 is available for many other OSs, Python 3 support either
has not been made available for them or has been dropped.
Assignment 1:
• DOWNLOAD PYTHON INTERPRETER
• Installing Python Programming Language
Getting Python on Windows platform:
Binaries of latest version of Python 3 are available on Python Official Website.
For versions 3.0 to 3.4.x, Windows XP is acceptable. In order to install Python 3.5 to 3.8- minimum OS
requirements are Windows 7 with SP1. Python 3.9+ cannot be used on Windows 7 or earlier.
Python 3.11 is the newest major release of the Python programming language:
The most up-to-date and current source code, binaries, documentation, news, etc., is available on the
official website of Python. You can download Python documentation from the site. The documentationis
available in HTML, PDF and PostScript formats.
Python Official Website: http://www.python.org/Python Official Website: http://www.python.org/
• You can create and run python codes on your mobile devices. There are so many python 3 interpreter
and IDE available on Google and IOS play store. For example, Pydroid 3 on Android phone.
• -Understand the following:
i. Local Environment Setup
ii. Running Python
First Python Program
•Interactive Mode Programming
Invoking the interpreter without passing a script file as a parameter brings up the
following prompt-
Type the following text at the Python prompt and press Enter-
Program Elements
• Identifiers:
• Variables:
• Reserved words
8
Python Identifiers
• A Python identifier is a name used to identify a variable,
function, class, module or other object. An identifier starts
with a letter A to Z or a to z or an underscore ( _ )
followed by zero or more letters, underscores and digits (0
to 9).
• Must begin with letter or underscore, followed by any number
of letters, digits, underscores
9
Rules for writing identifiers
• Identifiers can be a combination of letters in lowercase (a to z) or uppercase
(A to Z) or digits (0 to 9) or an underscore _.
Valid examples: Names like myClass, var_1 and print_this_to_screen,
• An identifier cannot start with a digit.

1variable is invalid, but variable1 is perfectly fine.
• Keywords cannot be used as identifiers.
>>> global = 1
File "<interactive input>", line 1
global = 1
^
SyntaxError: invalid syntax
10
Rules for writing identifiers
• We cannot use special symbols like !, @, #, $, % etc. in
our identifier.
>>> a@ = 0
File "<interactive input>", line 1
a@ = 0
^
SyntaxError: invalid syntax
• Identifier can be of any length.
11
Case-sensitivity
• Python is a case-sensitive language. This means,
Variable and variable are not the same.
• Thus, Manpower and manpower are two different
identifiers in Python.
12
Variables
• Variables:
– Do not need to be declared
– A variable is created when a value is assigned to it:
Examples: num = 3
– Can’t be used in an expression unless it has a value
– Error message: Name Error – means no value is
associated with this name
13
Variables
• In many programming languages, variables
are statically typed. That means a variable is >>> var = 23.5
initially declared to have a specific data type, >>> print(var)
and any value assigned to it during its 23.5
lifetime must always have that type.
>>> var = "Now I'm a string"
>>> print(var)
• Variables in Python are not subject to this Now I'm a string
restriction. In Python, a variable may be
assigned a value of one type and then later
re-assigned a value of a different type:
• Variable names don’t have static types – values (or objects) do
A variable name has the type of the value it currently references
14
Variables contain references to data values
Variables actually contain
A 3.5
references to values (similar A=A*2 A 3.5
to pointers). A = “cat”
This makes it possible to 7.0
assign different object types
to the same variable
“cat”
• Python handles memory management automatically. It will create new objects and store
them in memory; it will also execute garbage collection algorithms to reclaim any
inaccessible memory locations.
• Python does not implement reference semantics for simple variables; if A = 10 and B =
A, A = A + 1 does not change the value of B
15
Reserved Words
The following list shows the Python keywords. These are reserved
words and you cannot use them as constants or variables or any
other identifier names. All the Python keywords contain lowercase
letters only.
16
Reserved words
17
Lines and Indentation
• Python does not use braces ({}) to indicate blocks of code for class and
function definitions or flow control. Blocks of code are denoted by line
indentation, which is rigidly enforced.
• The number of spaces in the indentation is variable, but all statements within
the block must be indented the same amount. For example-
Thus, in Python all the continuous lines indented with the same number of spaces would 18
form a block.
Multi-Line Statements
• Statements in Python typically end with a new line.
Python, however, allows the use of the line continuation
character (\) to denote that the line should continue. For
example
• The statements contained within the [], {}, or () brackets

do not need to use the line continuation character. For
example
19
Quotation in Python
• Python accepts single ('), double (") and triple (''' or """)
quotes to denote string literals, as long as the same type
of quote starts and ends the string.
• The triple quotes are used to span the string across
multiple lines. For example, all the following are legal
20
Comments in Python
• A hash sign (#) that is not inside a string literal is the
beginning of a comment. All characters after the #, up to
the end of the physical line, are part of the comment and
the
• Python interpreter ignores them.
21
• You can type a comment on the same line after a
statement or expression
• Python does not have multiple-line commenting feature.

You have to comment each line individually as follows-
22
Using Blank Lines
• A line containing only whitespace, possibly with a

comment, is known as a blank line and Python totally
ignores it.
• In an interactive interpreter session, you must enter an
empty physical line to terminate a multiline statement.
23
Interesting Features
• White space does indicate meaning
– Instead of curly brackets or begin-end pairs,
whitespace is used for block delimiters.
– Indent statements in a block, un-indent at end of
block.
• Statements are terminated by <Enter>
• No variable declarations
• Dynamic typing
24
Python Basics
DR. B.O. AKINYEMI
Interactive Input statements
• The input function is a simple way for your program to get information from
people using your program. The basic structure is:
variable = input(“string”)
variable name = input(message to user)
• Here is an example:
>>>name = input('Enter your name: ')
• input() reads input from the keyboard as a string;

• The input function’s job is to ask the user to type something in and to capture
what the user types. The part in quotes is the prompt that the user sees. It is
called a string and it will appear to the program’s user exactly as it appears in
the code itself.
2
Input statements- numeric data
• To get numeric data use a cast :
>>> number = int(input("enter an integer: "))
enter an integer: 87
>>> number
87
• If types don’t match (e.g., if you type 4.5 and try to cast it as an integer) you
will get an error:
• Multiple inputs:
>>> x, y = int(input("enter an integer: ")),
float(input("enter a float: "))
enter an integer: 3
enter a float: 4.5
>>> print("x is", x, " y is ", y)
x is 3 y is 4.5 3
Input statements- eval() function
• Instead of the cast you can use the eval( ) function and Python
choose the correct types:
>>> x, y = eval(input("Enter two numbers: "))
Enter two numbers: 3.7, 98
>>> x, y
(3.7, 98)
4
Output Statements
• Statement syntax: (EBNF notation)
print ({expression,})
where the final comma in the list is optional
• Examples:
>>>print() # prints a blank line
>>>print(3, y, z + 10) # go to new line
>>>print('result: ', z, end=" ")# no newline
• Output items are automatically separated by a single space.
>>>name = input('Enter your name: ')
>>>print('Hello, ', name)
5
Exercise 1
6
Assignment Statements
• It calculates the value of the expression to the right of the equal sign and assigns
that value to the variable named on the left of the equal sign.
• Syntax: variable = expression
• Example
D= 2 * A*B, Test= 4 >= 8
• A variable’s type is determined by the type of the value assigned to it.
• Multiple assignment →var{, var} = expr{, expr)
>>> x, y = 4, 7
>>> x
4
>>> y
7
7
Expression, Operators and Operands
Expression can be any valid combination of constants, variables, parentheses and arithmetic and
logical operators. Tables 1.1 and 1.2 respectively described arithmetic and relational operators.
The operators indicate what action or operation to perform. The operands

indicate what items to apply the action to.
Table 1.2 Arithmetic Operators Table 1.2 Relational Operators
+ Addition == Equal to (
- Subtraction /= Not equal to
> Greater than

* Multiplication
>= Greater than or equal to
/ Division
< Less than
** Exponentiation
<= Less than or equal to
Logical operators are words (and,or,not) not symbols

8
Precedence Rule
A set of formation rules is used to establish the interpretation
of an arithmetic expression that contains two or more
operators. This rule determines the order in which the
operands are to be combined unless the order is changed by
the use of parentheses. The precedence of the arithmetic
operators is as follows:
9
Expressions
• An expression calculates a value
• Arithmetic operators: +, -, *, /, ** (exponentiation)
• Add, subtract, multiply, divide work just as they do in
other C-style languages (BEDMAS)
• OR---A common mnemonic to remember this rule is
PEMDAS, or Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally.
• Spaces in an expression are not significant
• Parentheses override normal precedence
10
Expressions
• Mixed type (integer and float) expressions are converted to
floats:
>>> 4 * 2.0 /6
1.3333333333333333
• Mixed type (real and imaginary) conversions:

>>> x = 5 + 13j
>>> y = 3.2
>>> z = x + y
>>> z
(8.2 + 13J )
• Explicit casts are also supported:

>>> y = 4.999 >>> x = 8
>>> int(y) >>> float(x)
11
4 8.0
1. if x=2.0, a=2.0 and b=4.0. What is the value of y if:
y = a*x+b**2/x ?
i. 8.0
ii. 12.0
iii. 16.0
iv. 32.0
v. 64.0
2. If x=1.5,i=3, and j=2. What is the value of y if:

y = 2*x + i/j
i. 3.0
ii. 3.5
iii. 4.0
iv. 4.5
v. 5.0
3. If x=4.5, y=3.0, and w=1.5, What is the value of z if: z = x+w/y+1
i. 1.5
ii. 3.0
iii. 4.5
iv. 6.0
v. not determined due to a Syntax error
4. if x=1.0, y=2.0 and w=3.0. What is the value of z if:

z=2.0(x(y+3.0)+w)
i. 12.0
ii. 16.0
iii. 18.0
iv. 22.0
v. not determined due to a syntax error
5. If y = c/d + a*x**2-5
Which operation is performed first by the computer?
i. /
ii. +
iii. *
iv. **
6. Which of the following set of integers are incorrect

i) 1,234 ii) -345 iii) 0 iv) 12.0 v) --3
a) None of the above
b) All of the above
c) i,ii,v
d) i,iv,v
Exercise
A program that computes the average of two numbers that the user enters:
num1 = eval(input('Enter the first number: '))

num2 = eval(input('Enter the second number: '))
print('The average of the numbers you entered is', (num1+num2)/2)
• For this program we need to get two numbers from the user. There are ways to
do that in one line, but for now we’ll keep things simple. We get the numbers one
at a time and give each number its own name.
• The only other thing to note is the parentheses in the average calculation. This is
because of the order of operations. All multiplications and divisions are
performed before any additions and subtractions, so we have to use parentheses
to get Python to do the addition first.
15
Points to Understand the Code
• Case: Case matters. To Python, print, Print, and PRINT are all different things.
For now, stick with lowercase as most Python statements are in lowercase.
• Spaces: Spaces matter at the beginning of lines, but not elsewhere. (Indentation
matters to meaning the code). For example, the code below will not work.
temp = eval(input('Enter a temperature in Celsius: '))
print('In Fahrenheit, that is', 9/5*temp+32)
– Block structure indicated by indentation
• The first assignment to a variable creates it
– Dynamic typing: no declarations, names don’t have types, objects do
• Assignment uses = and comparison uses ==
• For numbers + - * / % are as expected.
– Use of + for string concatenation.
– Use of % for string formatting (like printf in C)
CSC 201
CONTROL STRUCTURES OR LOGICAL STRUCTURES
• Control Structures are just a way to specify flow of control in programs. Any algorithm or program can be
more clear and understood if they use self-contained modules called as logic or control structures. It basically
analyzes and chooses in which direction a program flows based on certain parameters or conditions. There
are three basic types of logic, or flow of control, known as:
• The key to better algorithm design and thus to programming lies in limiting the controlstructure to only three
constructs.
• The sequence/sequential structure
• Decision Structure or Selection Structure/conditional structure
• Repetition or Iteration/looping Structure
1. The sequence structure

• The first type of control structures is called the sequence structure. This structure is the most elementary
structure. The sequence structure is a case where the steps in an algorithm are constructed in such a way
that, no condition step is required. The sequence structure is the logical equivalent of a straight line.
• Sequential logic as the name suggests follows a serial or sequential flow in which the flow depends on the
series of instructions given to the computer. Unless new instructions are given, the modules are executed in
the obvious sequence.
Sequence
For example, suppose you are required to design an algorithm
for finding the average of six numbers, and the sum of the
numbers is given. The pseudocode will be as follows:
Start
Get the sum
Average = sum / 6
Output the average
Stop
The corresponding flowchart will appear as follows:

2. Decision Structure or Selection Structure
• The decision structure or mostly commonly known as a selection structure, is case where
in the algorithm, one has to make a choice of two alternatives by making decision
depending on a given condition.
• Selection Logic simply involves a number of conditions or parameters which decides one
out of several written modules.
• Selection structures are also called case selection structures when there are two or more
alternatives to choose from.
• The selection requires the following
Choose alternative actions as a result of testing a logical condition
Produce code to test a sequence of logical tests
• The decision or selection structure can be implemented using
 IF statement
 Else statement
 CASE statement
Using if statement
From this structure, we have the following
If condition is true then

Do Task-A
else
Do task B
In this case, if condition is false, nothing happens. Otherwise Task-A

is executed.
Making Choices….
• There are many occasions where a program is required to take alternative
actions.
• For example, there are occasions where we need to take action according
to the user choice.
• All computer languages provide a means of selection. Usually it is in the
form of If statement and our pseudo-code is no exception to this.
• We will use the if statement together with logical operators to test for
true or false as shown below.
If a = b
print “a = b”
• The action is only taken when the test is true.
The logical operators used in our pseudo-code are
= is equal to
> is greater than
< is less than
>= is greater than or equal
<= is less than or equal
<> is not equal to
Compound Logical Operators
• There are many occasions when we need to extend the conditions that are
to be tested. Often there are conditions to be linked.
• In everyday language we say things like If I had the time and the money I
would go on holiday. The and means that both conditions must be true
before we take an action.
• We might also say I am happy to go to the theatre or the cinema. The
logical link this time is or .
• Conditions in if statements are linked in the same way. Conditions linked
with and only result in an action when all conditions are true. For example,
if a >b and a > c then display “a is the largest”.
• Conditions linked with an or lead to an action when either or both are true.
Selection Example:
• The following shows how the selection control structure is used in a program
where a user chooses the options for multiplying the numbers or adding them or subtracting.
• Use variables: choice, of the type character

ans, number1, number2, of type integer
display “choose one of the following”
display “m for multiply”
display “a for add”
display “s for subtract”
accept choice
display “input two numbers you want to use”
accept number1, number2
if choice = m then ans = number1 * number2
if choice = a then ans = number1 + number2
if choice = s then ans = number1 - number2
display ans
Example 2
• The program is to input a examination mark and test it for the award of a
grade. The mark is a whole number between 1 and 100. Grades are
awarded according to the following criteria:
>= 80 Distinction
>= 60 Merit
>= 40 Pass
< 40 fail
• The pseudo-code is
Use variables: mark of type integer
If mark >= 80 display “distinction”
If mark >= 60 and mark < 80 display “merit”
If mark >= 40 and mark < 60 display “pass”
If mark < 40 display “fail”
Using else statement
• This structure can be illustrated in a flowchart as follows:
In pseudocode form we get

If condition is true
Then do task A
else
Do Task-B
In this example, the condition is evaluated, if the condition is true
Task-A is evaluated and if it is false, then Task-B is executed.
• An if statement on its own is often not the best way of solving problems.
A more elegant set of conditions can be created by adding an else
statement to the if statement. The else statement is used to deal with
situations as shown in the following examples.
• The else statement provides a neat way of dealing with alternative
condition
Example : A person is paid at top for category 1 work otherwise pay is at
normal rate.
•
If the work is category 1
pay-rate is top
Else
pay-rate is normal
using case statement
• Repeating the if … else statements a number of times can be somewhat
confusing. An alternative method provided in a number of languages is to
use a selector determined by the alternative conditions that are needed.
In our pseudo-code, this will called a case statement.
Example: The following program segment outputs a message to the monitor screen
describing the insurance available according to a category input by the user.
Using else statement Using case statement

Use variables: category of type character
Display “input category” Use variables: category of type character
Display “input category”
Accept category
Accept category
If category = U DO case of category
Display “insurance is not available” CASE category = U
Else Display “insurance not available”
If category = A then CASE category = A
Display “insurance is double” Display “insurance is double”
Else CASE category = B
Display “insurance is normal”
If category = B then
CASE category = M
Display “insurance is normal” Display “insurance is medically dependent”
Else OTHERWISE
If category = M then Display “entry is invalid”
Display “insurance is medically dependent” ENDCASE
Else
Display “entry invalid”
Note: instead of using the word otherwise, one can use else.
Repetition or Iteration Structure
• A third structure causes the certain steps to be repeated. Any program
instruction that repeats some statement or sequence of statements a
number of times is called an iteration or a loop. The commands used to
create iterations or loops
• The commands used to create iterations or loops are all based on logical
tests.
The Repetition structure can be implemented
using:
• Repeat Until Loop
• The While Loop
• The For Loop
The Repeat Until loop.
•
The syntax is
REPEAT
A statement or block of statements
UNTIL a true condition
• Example : A program segment repeatedly asks for entry of a number in the range 1
to 100 until a valid number is entered.
REPEAT
DISPLAY “Enter a number between 1 and 100”
ACCEPT number
UNTIL number < 1 OR number > 100
Example 2. A survey has been carried out to discover the most popular sport. The
results will be typed into the computer for analysis. Write a program to accomplish this.
• REPEAT
DISPLAY “Type in the letter chosen or Q to finish”
DISPLAY “A: Athletics”
DISPLAY “S: Swimming”
DISPLAY “F: Football”
DISPLAY “B: Badminton”
DISPLAY “Enter data”
ACCEPT letter
If letter = ‘A’ then
Athletics = athletics + 1
If letter = ‘S’ then
Swimming = Swimming + 1
If letter = ‘F’ then
Football = Football + 1
If letter = ‘B’ then
Badminton = Badminton + 1
UNTIL letter = ‘Q’
DISPLAY “Athletics scored”, athletics, “votes”
DISPLAY “Swimming scored”, swimming, “votes”
DISPLAY “Football scored”, football, “votes”
DISPLAY “Badminton scored”, Badminton, “votes”
The WHILE loop
•
The second type of iteration we will look at is the while iteration. This type of
conditional loop tests for terminating condition at the beginning of the loop. In
this case no action is performed at all if the first test causes the terminating
condition to evaluate as false.
The syntax is:
•
WHILE (a condition is true)
ENDWHILE
• Example 11: A program segment to print out each character typed at a keyboard
until the character ‘q’ is entered.
• WHILE letter <> ‘q’

ACCEPT letter
DISPLAY “The character you typed is”, letter
ENDWHILE
Example 2: Write an algorithm that will output the square root of any number input
until the number input is zero.
•
In some cases, a variable has to be initialised before execution of the loop as
shown in the following example.
• Use variable: number of type real

DISPLAY “Type in a number or zero to stop”
ACCEPT number
WHILE number <> 0
Square = number * number
DISPLAY “The square of the number is”, square
ACCEPT number
ENDWHILE
The FOR Loop
•
The third type of iteration, which we shall use when the number of
iterations is known in advance, is a for loop.
• This, in its simplest form, uses an initialisation of the variable as a starting
point, a stop condition depending on the value of the variable. The variable
is incremented on each iteration until it reaches the required value.
• The pseudo-code syntax will be:

FOR (starting state, stopping condition, increment)
Statements
ENDFOR
• Example 1.
FOR (n = 1, n <= 4, n + 1)
DISPLAY “loop”, n
ENDFOR
• The fragment of code will produce the output

Loop 1
Loop 2
Loop 3
Loop 4
• In the example, n is usually referred as the loop variable, or counting variable, or

index of the loop. The loop variable can be used in any statement of the loop. The
variable should not be assigned a new value within the loop, which may change
the behaviour of the loop.
Example 2: Write an algorithm to calculate
the sum and average of a series of numbers.
•
The pseudo-code solution is:
Use variables: n, count of the type integer
Sum, number, average of the type real
DISPLAY “How many numbers do you want to input”
ACCEPT count
SUM = 0
FOR (n = 1, n <= count, n + 1)
DISPLAY “Input the number from your list”
ACCEPT number
SUM = sum + number
ENDFOR
Average = sum / count
DISPLAY “The sum of the numbers is “, sum
CSC 201
• Control Structures are just a way to specify flow of control in programs. Any algorithm or program can be
more clear and understood if they use self-contained modules called as logic or control structures. It basically
analyzes and chooses in which direction a program flows based on certain parameters or conditions. There
are three basic types of logic, or flow of control, known as:
• The key to better algorithm design and thus to programming lies in limiting the controlstructure to only three
constructs.
• The sequence/sequential structure
• Decision Structure or Selection Structure/conditional structure
• Repetition or Iteration/looping Structure
1. The sequence structure

• The first type of control structures is called the sequence structure. This structure is the most elementary
structure. The sequence structure is a case where the steps in an algorithm are constructed in such a way
that, no condition step is required. The sequence structure is the logical equivalent of a straight line.
• Sequential logic as the name suggests follows a serial or sequential flow in which the flow depends on the
series of instructions given to the computer. Unless new instructions are given, the modules are executed in
the obvious sequence.
Sequence
For example, suppose you are required to design an algorithm
for finding the average of six numbers, and the sum of the
numbers is given. The pseudocode will be as follows:
Start
Get the sum
Average = sum / 6
Output the average
Stop
The corresponding flowchart will appear as follows:

2. Decision Structure or Selection Structure
• The decision structure or mostly commonly known as a selection structure, is case where
in the algorithm, one has to make a choice of two alternatives by making decision
depending on a given condition.
• Selection Logic simply involves a number of conditions or parameters which decides one
out of several written modules.
• Selection structures are also called case selection structures when there are two or more
alternatives to choose from.
• The selection requires the following
Choose alternative actions as a result of testing a logical condition
Produce code to test a sequence of logical tests
• The decision or selection structure can be implemented using
 IF statement
 Else statement
 CASE statement
Using if statement
From this structure, we have the following
If condition is true then

Do Task-A
else
Do task B
In this case, if condition is false, nothing happens. Otherwise Task-A

is executed.
Making Choices….
• There are many occasions where a program is required to take alternative
actions.
• For example, there are occasions where we need to take action according
to the user choice.
• All computer languages provide a means of selection. Usually it is in the
form of If statement and our pseudo-code is no exception to this.
• We will use the if statement together with logical operators to test for
true or false as shown below.
If a = b
print “a = b”
• The action is only taken when the test is true.
The logical operators used in our pseudo-code are
= is equal to
> is greater than
< is less than
>= is greater than or equal
<= is less than or equal
<> is not equal to
Compound Logical Operators
• There are many occasions when we need to extend the conditions that are
to be tested. Often there are conditions to be linked.
• In everyday language we say things like If I had the time and the money I
would go on holiday. The and means that both conditions must be true
before we take an action.
• We might also say I am happy to go to the theatre or the cinema. The
logical link this time is or .
• Conditions in if statements are linked in the same way. Conditions linked
with and only result in an action when all conditions are true. For example,
if a >b and a > c then display “a is the largest”.
• Conditions linked with an or lead to an action when either or both are true.
Selection Example:
• The following shows how the selection control structure is used in a program
where a user chooses the options for multiplying the numbers or adding them or subtracting.
• Use variables: choice, of the type character

ans, number1, number2, of type integer
display “choose one of the following”
display “m for multiply”
display “a for add”
display “s for subtract”
accept choice
display “input two numbers you want to use”
accept number1, number2
if choice = m then ans = number1 * number2
if choice = a then ans = number1 + number2
if choice = s then ans = number1 - number2
display ans
Example 2
• The program is to input a examination mark and test it for the award of a
grade. The mark is a whole number between 1 and 100. Grades are
awarded according to the following criteria:
>= 80 Distinction
>= 60 Merit
>= 40 Pass
< 40 fail
• The pseudo-code is
Use variables: mark of type integer
If mark >= 80 display “distinction”
If mark >= 60 and mark < 80 display “merit”
If mark >= 40 and mark < 60 display “pass”
If mark < 40 display “fail”
• This structure can be illustrated in a flowchart as follows:
In pseudocode form we get

If condition is true
Then do task A
else
Do Task-B
In this example, the condition is evaluated, if the condition is true
Task-A is evaluated and if it is false, then Task-B is executed.
• An if statement on its own is often not the best way of solving problems.
A more elegant set of conditions can be created by adding an else
statement to the if statement. The else statement is used to deal with
situations as shown in the following examples.
• The else statement provides a neat way of dealing with alternative
condition
Example : A person is paid at top for category 1 work otherwise pay is at
normal rate.
•
If the work is category 1
pay-rate is top
Else
pay-rate is normal
using case statement
• Repeating the if … else statements a number of times can be somewhat
confusing. An alternative method provided in a number of languages is to
use a selector determined by the alternative conditions that are needed.
In our pseudo-code, this will called a case statement.
Example: The following program segment outputs a message to the monitor screen
describing the insurance available according to a category input by the user.
Using else statement Using case statement

Use variables: category of type character
Display “input category” Use variables: category of type character
Display “input category”
Accept category
Accept category
If category = U DO case of category
Display “insurance is not available” CASE category = U
Else Display “insurance not available”
If category = A then CASE category = A
Display “insurance is double” Display “insurance is double”
Else CASE category = B
Display “insurance is normal”
If category = B then
CASE category = M
Display “insurance is normal” Display “insurance is medically dependent”
Else OTHERWISE
If category = M then Display “entry is invalid”
Display “insurance is medically dependent” ENDCASE
Else
Display “entry invalid”
Note: instead of using the word otherwise, one can use else.
Repetition or Iteration Structure
• A third structure causes the certain steps to be repeated. Any program
instruction that repeats some statement or sequence of statements a
number of times is called an iteration or a loop. The commands used to
create iterations or loops
• The commands used to create iterations or loops are all based on logical
tests.
The Repetition structure can be implemented
using:
• Repeat Until Loop
• The While Loop
• The For Loop
The Repeat Until loop.
•
The syntax is
REPEAT
UNTIL a true condition
• Example : A program segment repeatedly asks for entry of a number in the range 1
to 100 until a valid number is entered.
REPEAT
DISPLAY “Enter a number between 1 and 100”
ACCEPT number
UNTIL number < 1 OR number > 100
Example 2. A survey has been carried out to discover the most popular sport. The
results will be typed into the computer for analysis. Write a program to accomplish this.
• REPEAT
DISPLAY “Type in the letter chosen or Q to finish”
DISPLAY “A: Athletics”
DISPLAY “S: Swimming”
DISPLAY “F: Football”
DISPLAY “B: Badminton”
DISPLAY “Enter data”
ACCEPT letter
If letter = ‘A’ then
Athletics = athletics + 1
If letter = ‘S’ then
Swimming = Swimming + 1
If letter = ‘F’ then
Football = Football + 1
If letter = ‘B’ then
Badminton = Badminton + 1
UNTIL letter = ‘Q’
DISPLAY “Athletics scored”, athletics, “votes”
DISPLAY “Swimming scored”, swimming, “votes”
DISPLAY “Football scored”, football, “votes”
DISPLAY “Badminton scored”, Badminton, “votes”
The WHILE loop
•
The second type of iteration we will look at is the while iteration. This type of
conditional loop tests for terminating condition at the beginning of the loop. In
this case no action is performed at all if the first test causes the terminating
condition to evaluate as false.
The syntax is:
•
WHILE (a condition is true)
ENDWHILE
• Example 11: A program segment to print out each character typed at a keyboard
until the character ‘q’ is entered.
• WHILE letter <> ‘q’

ACCEPT letter
DISPLAY “The character you typed is”, letter
ENDWHILE
Example 2: Write an algorithm that will output the square root of any number input
until the number input is zero.
•
In some cases, a variable has to be initialised before execution of the loop as
shown in the following example.
• Use variable: number of type real

ACCEPT number
WHILE number <> 0
Square = number * number
DISPLAY “The square of the number is”, square
ACCEPT number
ENDWHILE
The FOR Loop
•
The third type of iteration, which we shall use when the number of
iterations is known in advance, is a for loop.
• This, in its simplest form, uses an initialisation of the variable as a starting
point, a stop condition depending on the value of the variable. The variable
is incremented on each iteration until it reaches the required value.
• The pseudo-code syntax will be:

FOR (starting state, stopping condition, increment)
Statements
ENDFOR
• Example 1.
FOR (n = 1, n <= 4, n + 1)
DISPLAY “loop”, n
ENDFOR
• The fragment of code will produce the output

Loop 1
Loop 2
Loop 3
Loop 4
• In the example, n is usually referred as the loop variable, or counting variable, or

index of the loop. The loop variable can be used in any statement of the loop. The
variable should not be assigned a new value within the loop, which may change
the behaviour of the loop.
Example 2: Write an algorithm to calculate
the sum and average of a series of numbers.
•
The pseudo-code solution is:
Use variables: n, count of the type integer
Sum, number, average of the type real
DISPLAY “How many numbers do you want to input”
ACCEPT count
SUM = 0
FOR (n = 1, n <= count, n + 1)
DISPLAY “Input the number from your list”
ACCEPT number
SUM = sum + number
ENDFOR
Average = sum / count
DISPLAY “The sum of the numbers is “, sum
PYTHON DATA TYPES
DR. B.O. AKINYEMI
Python data types
•Python data types are divided in two categories,
mutable data types and immutable data types.
•Immutable Data types in Python – cannot be
changed
1. Numeric
2. String
3. Tuple
•Mutable Data types in Python
1. List
2. Dictionary
3. Set
Basic Data Types
• Numeric types: integer, floats, complex
• A literal with a decimal point is a float; otherwise an
integer
• Complex numbers use “j” or “J” to designate the
imaginary part: x = 5 + 2j
• type() returns the type of any data value:
int() float()
3
Data Types
>>> type(15) >>> 1j * 1j
<class 'int'> (-1+0j)
>>> type (3.) >>> s = 3 + 1j
<class 'float'> >>> type(s)
>>> x = 34.8 <class 'complex'>
>>> type(x) >>> x = "learning”
<class 'float'> >>> type(x)
<class 'str'>
4
Numeric Data Type in Python
•Integer – In Python 3, there is no upper bound on
the integer number which means we can have the
value as large as our system memory allows.
# Integer number
num = 100
print(num)
print("Data Type of variable num is", type(num))
• Output:
100
Data Type of variable num is, <class ‘int’>
Data Types in Python
• Python Numbers
• Python List
• Python Tuple
• Python Strings
• Python Set
• Python Dictionary
6
Basic Datatypes
 Integers (default for numbers)
z = 5 / 2 # Answer 2, integer division
 Floats
x = 3.456
 Strings
• Can use ”…" or ’…’ to specify, "foo" == 'foo’
• Unmatched can occur within the string
“John’s” or ‘John said “foo!”.’
• Use triple double-quotes for multi-line strings or
strings than contain both ‘ and “ inside of them:
“““a‘b“c”””
• Long – Long data type is deprecated in Python 3 because there is no need for it, since the
integer has no upper limit, there is no point in having a data type that allows larger upper
limit than integers.
• Float – Values with decimal points are the float values, there is no need to specify the data
type in Python. It is automatically inferred based on the value we are assigning to a
variable. For example here fnum is a float data type.
# float number
fnum = 34.45
print(fnum)
print("Data Type of variable fnum is", type(fnum))
Complex Number
•Numbers with real and imaginary parts are known as
complex numbers.
# complex number
cnum = 3 + 4j
print(cnum)
print("Data Type of variable cnum is", type(cnum))
•Output:
Binary, Octal and Hexadecimal numbers
• In Python we can print decimal equivalent of binary, octal and hexadecimal
numbers using the prefixes.
• 0b(zero + ‘b’) and 0B(zero + ‘B’) – Binary Number
• 0o(zero + ‘o’) and 0O(zero + ‘O’) – Octal Number
• 0x(zero + ‘x’) and 0X(zero + ‘X’) – Hexadecimal Number
# integer equivalent of binary number 101
num = 0b101
print(num)
# integer equivalent of Octal number 32

num2 = 0o32
print(num2)
# integer equivalent of Hexadecimal number FF

num3 = 0xFF
print(num3)
Python Data Type – String
• String is a sequence of characters in Python. The data type of String
in Python is called “str”.
• Strings in Python are either enclosed with single quotes or double
quotes.
• # Python program to print strings and type
s = "This is a String"
s2 = 'This is also a String'
# displaying string s and its type

print(s)
print(type(s))
# displaying string s2 and its type

print(s2)
print(type(s2))
Python Data Type – Tuple
• Tuple is immutable data type in Python which means it cannot be changed. It is
an ordered collection of elements enclosed in round brackets and separated by
commas
# tuple of integers
t1 = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
# prints entire tuple
print(t1)
# tuple of strings
t2 = ("hi", "hello", "bye")
# loop through tuple elements
for s in t2:
print (s)
# tuple of mixed type elements

t3 = (2, "Lucy", 45, "Steve")
print(t3[2])
Python Data Type – List
• List is similar to tuple, it is also an ordered collection of elements, however list
is a mutable data type which means it can be changed unlike tuple which is an
immutable data type. A list is enclosed with square brackets and elements are
separated by commas.
# list of integers
lis1 = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
# prints entire list
print(lis1)
# list of strings
lis2 = ("Apple", "Orange", "Banana")
# loop through tuple elements
for x in lis2:
print (x)
# List of mixed type elements

lis3 = (20, "Chaitanya", 15, "BeginnersBook")
print("Element at index 3 is:",lis3[3])
Python Data Type – Dictionary
• Dictionary is a collection of key and value pairs. A dictionary doesn’t allow
duplicate keys but the values can be duplicate. It is an ordered, indexed and
mutable collection of elements.
• The keys in a dictionary doesn’t necessarily to be a single data type,
• # Dictionary example
dict = {1:"Chaitanya","lastname":"Singh", "age":31}
# prints the value where key value is 1
print(dict[1])
# prints the value where key value is "lastname"
print(dict["lastname"])
# prints the value where key value is "age"
print(dict["age"])
Python Data Type – Set
• A set is an unordered and unindexed collection of items. This means when we
print the elements of a set they will appear in the random order and we cannot
access the elements of set based on indexes because it is unindexed.
• Elements of set are separated by commas and enclosed in curly braces.
• Set Example
myset = {"hi", 2, "bye", "Hello World"}
# loop through set
for a in myset:
print(a)
# checking whether 2 exists in myset
print(2 in myset)
# adding new element
myset.add(99)
print(myset)
Python Programming Examples
DR. B.O. AKINYEMI
Python program to print Hello World
# This prints Hello World on the output screen
print('Hello World')
•Output:
Hello World
Getting Input from User in Python
•input() function is used in Python to get user input.
•Get String input from user

# Python Program - Get String Input from User
str = input("Enter any string: ")
print(str)
•Output:
Enter any string: AKINYEMI
AKINYEMI
Get Integer Input from user
# Python Program - Get Integer Input from User
num = int(input("Enter an Integer: "))
print(num)
•Output:
Enter an Integer : 10
10
Get Float Input from user
# Python Program - Get Float Input from User
num = float(input("Enter a float value: "))
print(num)
•Output:
Enter a float value: 25.5
25.5
Python Program to Add Two Numbers
•hardcoded values in the source code:
# two float values
val1 = 100.99
val2 = 76.15
# Adding the two given numbers
sum = float(val1) + float(val2)
# Displaying the addition result
print("The sum of given numbers is: ", sum)
• Output:
The sum of given numbers is: 177.14
• Adding the numbers entered by User
# Getting the values of two numbers from user
val1 = float(input("Enter first number: "))
val2 = float(input("Enter second number: "))
# Adding the numbers
sum = val1 + val2
# Displaying the result
print("The sum of input numbers is: ", sum)
Output:
Enter first number: 10
Enter second number: 35.2
The sum of input numbers is: 45.2
Using built-in functions
• Note: The reason we used the float() function over the input()
function is because the input() function receives the value as
String, so to convert it into a float number we must use the
float() function
• If integer numbers:
val1 = int (input("Enter first number: "))
The int() function converts the given string into an integer number
• If Binary
val1 = bin (input("Enter first number: "))
The bin() function converts the given string into a binary number
Program for adding two binary numbers
# decimal value 1
num1 = '00001'
# decimal value 17
num2 = '10001'
# sum - decimal value 18
# binary value 10010
sum = bin(int(num1,2) + int(num2,2))
print(sum)
• Conversion of the string(which is a binary value) into an integer number so
we are passing the base value as 2 (binary numbers have base 2, decimals
have base value 10).
• Once the strings are converted into an integer values then we are adding
them and the result is converted back to binary number using the bin()
Python Program for simple interest
•Simple interest formula is given by:
Simple Interest = (P x T x R)/100
Where,
P is the principle amount
T is the time and
R is the rate
# Python program to find simple interest
SI = (P * R * T) / 100
# Print the resultant value of SI
print("simple interest is", SI)
Python Program for Program to find area of a circle
•Area of a circle can simply be evaluated
using following formula.
Area = pi * r2
where r is radius of circle
# Python program to find Area of a circle
PI = 3.142
Area= PI * (r*r)
print("Area is”, Area));
Python Program for compound interest
• Formula to calculate compound interest annually is given by:
Compound Interest = P(1 + R/100)T

Where,
P is principle amount
R is the rate and
T is the time span
# Python program to find compound interest for given values.

CI = principle * (pow((1 + rate / 100), time))
print("Compound interest is", CI)
Python in-Built Math Functions
• Evaluating some complex mathematical operations like
trigonometric operations, logarithmic operations, etc.
• The math module is the standard module in Python, and it
is always available to work with complex scientific
calculations.
• If we want to use mathematical functions under the math
module, first, you have to import the module using import
math statement in your program. After that, you can call
any method of that module.
• The math module does not support the complex data
types. For that, you can use the cmath module for the
complex counterpart.
Examples: PI
# calculating PI
import math
print('The value of PI:', math.pi)
Output: The value of PI: 3.141592653589

Python Power Function
pow(x,y,z)
The pow() method returns the value of x to power of y (xy).
x A number, the base
# calculating power
y A number, the exponent
import math
z Optional. A number, the modulus
print(math.pow(2, 3))
Output:
8.0
Python Math Trigonometric Functions
• All the trigonometric functions are available in python math
module, so you can easily calculate them using sin(), cos(),
tan(), acos(), asin(), atan() etc functions.
• Also ,you can convert angles from degree to radian and radian
to degree.
# Trig functions
import math
angleInDegree = 90
angleInRadian = math.radians(angleInDegree)
print('The given angle is :', angleInRadian)
print('sin(x) is :', math.sin(angleInRadian))
print('cos(x) is :', math.cos(angleInRadian))
print('tan(x) is :', math.tan(angleInRadian))
Class Exercises
1. Write a Python program which accepts the radius of a circle from the
user and compute the area.
from math import pi

r = float(input ("Input the radius of the circle : "))
print ("The area of the circle with radius " + str(r) + " is: " + str(pi *
r**2))
2. Write a Python program that will accept the base and height of a
triangle and compute the area.
b = int(input("Input the base : "))
h = int(input("Input the height : "))
area = b*h/2
print("area = ", area)
3. Write a Python program which accepts the user's first and last name
and print them in reverse order with a space between them.
fname = input("Input your First Name : ")

lname = input("Input your Last Name : ")
print ("Hello " + lname + " " + fname)
ASSIGNMENT
1. Write a python program that calculates the factorial of a number
2. Write a python program that computes the real roots of a quadratic

equation.
Python Lecture
Functions and Modules
CSC 201
WEEK 6 LECTURE
Modular Programming
Modular programming is the process of subdividing a

computer program into separate sub-programs.
A module is a separate software component. It can often be
used in a variety of applications and functions with other
components of the system. Similar functions are grouped in
the same unit of programming code and separate functions
are developed as separate units of code so that the code can
be reused by other applications.
Advantages of Modular
Programming
• Less code has to be written.
• A single procedure can be developed for reuse, eliminating
the need to retype the code many times.
• Programs can be designed more easily because a small team
deals with only a small part of the entire code.
• Modular programming allows many programmers to
collaborate on the same application.
• The code is stored across multiple files.
• Code is short, simple and easy to understand.
• Errors can easily be identified, as they are localized to a
subroutine or function.
• The same code can be used in many applications.
• The scoping of variables can easily be controlled.
Functions
• A function is a device that groups a set of statements so they
can be run more than once in a program( a packaged
procedure invoked by name).
• Functions are also the most basic program structure python
provides for maximizing code reuse.
• Functions could also be called subroutines and procedures in
other programming environments.
Why do we need functions?
• Maximizing code reuse and minimizing redundancy: because
a function allows us to code an operation in a single place and
use in many places. Hence reduce code redundancy in our
programs and thereby reduce maintenance effort.
• Procedural decomposition-Functions provide a tool for
splitting systems into pieces that have well defined roles i.e it
allows to debug the parts one at a time and then assemble
them into a working whole.
• Well designed functions are often useful for many programs,
i.e once you write and debug one you can reuse it.
• Makes program easy to read and debug.
• Reduce size of code by eliminating repetitive code ( i.e later if
you make a change ,you only have to make it in one place.
Defining Functions in Python
Functions in python are defined using the def statement
Function blocks begin with the keyword def followed by the
function name and parentheses ( ).
Any input parameters or arguments should be placed within
these parentheses.
You can also define parameters inside these parentheses.
The code block within every function starts with a colon : and is
indented.
The statement return [expression] exits a function, optionally
passing back an expression to the caller. A return statement with
no arguments is the same as return None.
The def statement creates a function object and assigns it to a
name
def functionname( (parameters)arg1, arg2, arg3,..........,argN):
Statements
Function bodies often contain a return statement:
def functionname(arg1,arg2,......,argN):
........
return [expression]
Note: Two types of functions are available in python: built in
such as dir(), len() or abs() and user defined functions.
def fun()................................# Create function object
fun () # Call object
fun.attr=value # Attach attributes
e.g def times(x,y): # Create and assign function

return x*y # Body executed when called
times(2,4) # Arguments in parentheses

returns 8
x=times(3.14,4) # Save the result object
x=12.56
and
>>> times(‘Ni’,4)
NiNiNiNi
Functions types
• always available for usage
• those contained in external modules
• programmer defined
We also have built in functions
• >>>type(32) >>>Int (-2.3)
• -<type ‘int’> -2
>>>float (32)
• 32.0
• >>>int(‘Hello’)
ValueError, Invalid literal for Int(): Hello
• >>> int (3.99999)
• 3
The following function takes a string as input parameter and
prints it on a standard screen
Function definition is here
def printme(str):
“ This prints a passed string into this function”
print (str)
return
Now you can call printme function
printme(“ This is first call to the user defined function!”)
printme(“ Again second call to the same function”)
When the above is executed it produces the following result
This is first call to the user defined function!
Again second call to the same function
Local and Global scope
Variables that are defined inside a function body have a local
scope and those defined outside the function body have a
global scope
#Global Scope
x=99 # x and func assigned in module: global
def func(y): # y and z assigned in function: local
#Local Scope
z=x+y # x is global
return z
e.g func(1) # func in module:
result=100
• Global x is global because it is assigned at the top level of the
module file
• Local y, z: y and z are local to the function (and exist only
while the function runs) because they are both assigned
values in the function definition
• z by virtue of the statement
• y because arguments are always passed by assignment
Example2
total=0 # this is a global variable
# Function definition is here
def sum(arg1,arg2):
# Add both parameters and return them.
total=arg1+arg2; # Here total is local variable
print(“Inside the function local total:”,total)
return total
# Now you can now call sum function
sum(10,20)
print(“ Outside the function global total):”, total)
Result
Inside the function local total:30
Outside the function global total:0
Categories of Functions
Fruitful functions- functions that yield results e.g math functions
Other functions that do not return a value are called void
functions.
The return keyword is used to return value no return returns
None
e.g def print-twice(bruce):
print bruce
print bruce
>>> print_twice(‘Spam’)
Spam
Spam
>>>print_twice(17)
17
17
>>> n = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
>>> def stats(x):
... mx = max(x)
... mn = min(x)
... ln = len(x)
... sm = sum(x)
return mx, mn, ln, sm
>>> mx, mn, ln, sm = stats(n)
>>> print stats(n)
(5, 1, 5, 15)
>>>
>>> print mx, mn, ln, sm
5 1 5 15
Function arguments
single arguments
multiple arguments
Pass by Reference vs Value
All parameters (arguments) in the python language are passed
by reference. It means that if you change what a parameter
refers to within a function, the change also reflects back in the
calling function.
Passing by reference means the called functions' parameter
will be the same as the callers' passed argument (not
the value, but the identity - the variable itself). Pass by
value means the called functions' parameter will be a copy of
the callers' passed argument. ... Java only supports pass by
value.
def changeme(mylist):
“ This changes a passed list into this function”
print(“ Values inside the function before change:”, mylist)
mylist[2]=50
print(“ Values inside the function after change:”, mylist)
return
if you now call changeme function
mylist=[10,20,30]
changeme(mylist)
print(“Values outside the function”, mylist)
Values inside the function before change:[10,20,30]
Values inside the function after change:[10,20,50]
Values outside the function[10,20,50]
Definitions
A method: Is a piece of code that is called by name that is
associated with an object. In most respects it is identical to a
function except for two key differences
It is implicitly passed for the object for which it is called
It is able to operate on data that is contained within the class
Pass by Value- Means copying the value from the argument
variable into the parameter variable i.e Parameters are the
placeholders for arguments.
Pass by Reference -means creating a new reference to variable
value that refers to the argument variable and putting that in the
parameter variable.
Parameter-A parameter is the variable which is part of the
method’s signature(method declaration)
Argument-An argument is an expression used when calling the
method
Python Modules
A module allows you to logically organize your python code.
Grouping related code into a module makes the code easier to
understand and use.
A module is a file consisting of python code. A module can define
function, classes and variables .A module can also include
runnable code.
What are modules for?
Python modules are used to organize Python code. For example,
database related code is placed inside a database module,
security code in a security module etc.
Smaller Python scripts can have one module. But larger programs
are split into several modules.
Modules are grouped together to form packages.
Modules names
A module name is the file name with the .py extension.
When we have a file called empty.py, empty is the modulename.
The __name__ is a variable that holds the name of the module
being referenced.
The current module, the module being executed (called also the
main module) and it has a special name: '__main__'. With this
name it can be referenced from the Python code.
Example of a simple module support.py
def print_fun(par):
print “Hello:”, par
return
You can use any python source file as a module by executing an
import statement in some other python source file
The syntax is
import module1[,module2[,.....moduleN]
For example # import module support
import support
#Now you can call defined function
support.print_func(“zara”)
When the above code is executed it produces the following
Results. Hello: zara
Python’s from statement lets you import specific attributes
from a module into the current namespace
The from......import has the following syntax
from modname import name1[,name2[,......nameN]]
e.g to import the function Fibonacci from the module fib
#fibonacci numbers module
def fib(n): #return Fibonacci series up to n
result=[]
a, b =0, 1
while b<n:
result.append(b)
a,b= b, a+b
return result
>> from fib import fib
>>fib(100)
[1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34,55,89]
Hence this statement does not import the entire module fib into
the current namespace; it just introduces the item Fibonacci
from the module fib into the global symbol table of the importing
module.
The from import* statement
It is also possible to import the names from a module into the
current namespace by using
from modname import*
This provides an easy way to import all the items from a module
into the current namespace; however this statement should be
used sparingly.
Frequently used modules
sys Information about Python itself (path, etc.)
os Operating system functions
os.path Portable pathname tools
shutil Utilities for copying files and directory trees
cmp Utilities for comparing files and directories
glob Finds files matching wildcard pattern
re Regular expression string matching
time Time and date handling
datetime Fast implementation of date and time handling
doctest, unittest Modules that facilitate unit test
pdb Debugger
hotshot Code profiling
pickle, cpickle, marshal, shelve Used to save objects and code to
files
getopt, optparse Utilities to handle shell-level argument parsing
math, cmath Math functions (real and complex)faster for scalars
random Random generators (likewise)
gzip read and write gzipped files
struct Functions to pack and unpack binary data structures
StringIO, cStringIO String-like objects that can be read and written
as files (e.g., in-memory files)
types Names for all the standard Python type
The main difference between a module and a package is that a
package is a collection of modules AND it has an __init__.py file.
myMath/
__init__.py
adv/
__init__.py
sqrt.py
add.py
subtract.py
multiply.py
divide.py
CSC 201:
Computer Programming (3
units)
Lecture 7
Dr. (Mrs.) A. R. Iyanda
Outline
• Concepts of Object Oriented Programming (OOP)
• Overview of Object Oriented concepts
• Creating classes
• Class fields and methods
• Instantiating objects from class definition
• Class inheritance
• Overriding methods
• Case examples
Definitions
• Object-oriented programming (OOP) is an engineering approach for
building software systems
• Based on the concepts of classes and objects that are used for modeling the
real world entities
• Object-oriented programs
• Consist of a group of cooperating objects
• Objects exchange messages, for the purpose of achieving a common objective
• Implemented in object-oriented languages
Definition contd.
• Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a programming paradigm that
represents concepts as “objects” that have data fields (attributes that
describe the object) and associated procedures known as methods.
Objects, which are usually instances of classes, are used to interact
with one another to design applications and computer programs.
OOP In Summary
• A program models a world of interacting objects
• Objects create other objects and “send messages” to each other
• Each object belongs to a class
• A class defines properties of its objects
• The data type of an object is its class
• Programmers write classes (and reuse existing classes)
Why OOP?
• Better suited for team development
• Facilitates utilizing and creating reusable software components
• Easier GUI programming
• Easier software maintenance
• All modern languages are object-oriented: Python, Java, C#, PHP, Perl,
C++, ...
Python- Case study of OOP
• Python is a multi-paradigm programming language. Meaning, it
supports different programming approach.
• It is an interactive, object-oriented, extensible, high-level general
purpose programming language. It provides an extraordinary
combination of clarity and versatility, and is free, open-source, and
comprehensively ported.
• It’s called general-purpose because Python can be used to build
various kinds of softwares, to solve (mostly) any kind of problem one
might have. It’s also really easy to learn.
Python- Case study of OOP contd.
• One of the popular approach to solve a programming problem is by
creating objects. This is known as Object-Oriented Programming
(OOP).
• An object has two characteristics:
• attributes
• behavior
Python- Case study of OOP contd.
Example:
• Parrot is an object,
• name, age, color are attributes
• singing, dancing are behavior
• The concept of OOP in Python focuses on creating reusable code. This
concept is also known as DRY (Don't Repeat Yourself).
Basic principles of the concept of OOP In
Python:
Class
• Code that defines the attributes and methods of a kind of object (A
class is a collection of variables and functions working with these
variables).
• A user-defined prototype for an object that defines a set of attributes
that characterize any object of the class. The attributes are data
members (class variables and instance variables) and methods,
accessed via dot notation.
• A collection of functions and attributes, attached to a specific name,
which represents an abstract concept.
Class contd.
• Class names should start with capital letters. That helps us distinguish
them from object names or other types of variable names.
• A class is what you may call in your daily life a type of things. Vehicle,
Car, Train, Animal, Bird, Human, Furniture, Table, Chair, any type of
thing you can imagine
• A class can have subclasses. Subclasses are also classes but they
inherit some properties from the superclass, the class they were
extended from
Example
• 1 class Vehicle():
• 2 has_wheel = True
• 3 runs_on_fuel = True
•4
• 5 def honk(self):
• 6 print "Honk! Honk!"
•7
• 8 class Car(Vehicle):
• 9 number_of_wheels = 4
• 10
• 11 class Train(Vehicle):
• 12 number_of_wheels = 108
Example contd.
• Each class has some properties which can be unique, or it can inherit some
properties from a superclass. In the above example, Vehicle is the
superclass, because Car and Train are extending it, and for the same reason
Car and Train are subclasses as they are the ones that are extending
Vehicle.
• A Vehicle class has two properties has_wheel and runs_on_fuel. Any thing
of the type of Vehicle would have these two properties. Then we’re
extending the class Vehicle and creating the classes Car and Train. The
syntax class Car(Vehicle) tells python that Car is a class and it will inherit all
the features of a Vehicle. Hence, the classes Car and Train by default have
those two properties (has_wheel and runs_on_fuel) in them. And they both
also define a property of their own. A Car has 4 wheels, while a Train has
108 wheels for example
Classes – Example
Object
• an object is a collection of data with associated behaviors.
• An object is a run-time value that stores state and belongs to some
class. Objects know what class they belong to, and so they
automatically know what operations they are capable of. The word
"instance" is another word for "object".
• An object in programming is an entity or “variable” that has two
entities attached to it: data and things that act on that data.
Object contd.
• The data are called attributes of the object, and the functions
attached to the object that can act on the data are called methods of
the object. Importantly, you design these methods to act on the
attributes; they aren’t random functions someone has attached to the
object.
• Creating an object from a class is called instantiation
Object contd.
• It can represent a person, a bank account or any item that a program
can handle. When a program is executed, the objects interact by
sending messages to one another.
• For example, if ‘customer’ and ‘account’ are two objects in a program,
then the customer object may send message to account object
requesting for a bank balance. Each object contains data and code to
manipulate data. Objects can interact without having to know details
of each other’s data or code. It is sufficient to know the type of
massage accepted and the type of response returned by the objects.
Classes and Objects – Example
Example contd.
• An object can be considered as an example or instance of a class.
Remember that bird on the tree, it’s an example of the class Bird. Or
you can call it an instance of the class Bird. Similarly, that Honda Civic
you saw on the road other day is an instance of the class Car.
• Now, what’s so special about objects? An object or instance of a class
contains all the properties and methods of it’s class. So any instance
of the class Vehicle would have has_wheel set to True, and any
instance of the class Car would have 4 wheels.
Case study:
• Honda Civic is an instance of the class Car. Hence it has 4 wheels.
Now, the class Car is a subclass of Vehicle. Hence any instance of the
class Car would also have all the properties of the superclass Vehicle.
Hence Civic has_wheel and runs_on_fuel set to True.
Let’s first define our classes -
• 1 >>> class Vehicle():
• 2 ... has_wheel = True
• 3 ... runs_on_fuel = True
• 4 ... def honk(self):
• 5 ... print("Honk! Honk!“)
• 6 ...
• 7 >>> class Car(Vehicle):
• 8 ... number_of_wheels = 4
• 9 ...
• 10 >>> class Train(Vehicle):
• 11 ... number_of_wheels = 108
• 12 ...
let’s create some objects -
• 1 >>> vehicle = Vehicle()
• 2 >>> print(vehicle.has_wheel)
• 3 True
• 4 >>> vehicle.honk()
• 5 Honk! Honk!
• 6
• 7 >>> car = Car()
• 8 >>> print(car.runs_on_fuel)
• 9 True
• 10 >>> print(car.number_of_wheels)
• 11 4
• 12 >>> car.honk()
• 13 Honk! Honk!
• 14
• 15 >>> train = Train()
• 16 >>> train.number_of_wheels
• 17 108
• 18 >>> train.honk()
• 19 Honk! Honk!
Explanation
• This is how we create an object from a class -
• 1 >>> vehicle = Vehicle()
• Now any property or method of an object can be accessed by a
simple .(dot). Syntaxes are -
• 1 >>> object_name.property_name
• 2 >>> object_name.method_name()
• Hence you see, when I print vehicle.has_wheel, it prints True. Because
the Vehicle class has the property has_wheel set to True and any
object of a class by default gets all the properties and methods of that
class.
Methods in Classes
• Define a method in a class by including function definitions within the
scope of the class block
• There must be a special first argument self in all of method definitions
which gets bound to the calling instance
• There is usually a special method called __init__ in most classes
A simple class def: student
Class vs. Object
Creating Classes
• The class statement creates a new class definition. The name of the
class immediately follows the keyword class followed by a colon as
follows −
• The class has a documentation string, which can be accessed via

ClassName.__doc__.
• The class_suite consists of all the component statements defining
class members, data attributes and functions.
Example
• The variable empCount is a class variable whose value is shared among all
instances of a this class. This can be accessed as Employee.empCount from inside
the class or outside the class.
• The first method __init__ is a special method, which is called class constructor or
initialization method that Python calls when you create a new instance of this
class.
• You declare other class methods like normal functions with the exception that the
first argument to each method is self. Python adds the self argument to the list for
you; you do not need to include it when you call the methods.
Creating Class and Object in Python
When run, you have

Creating Class and Object in Python contd.
• In the above program, we create a class with name Parrot. Then, we
define attributes. The attributes are a characteristic of an object.
• Then, we create instances of the Parrot class. Here, blu and woo are
references (value) to our new objects.
• Then, we access the class attribute using __class __.species. Class

attributes are same for all instances of a class. Similarly, we access the
instance attributes using blu.name and blu.age. However, instance
attributes are different for every instance of a class.
Methods- Creating Methods in Python
• Methods are functions defined inside the body of a class. They are
used to define the behaviors of an object.
Creating Method contd.
When we run, we have
In this program, two

methods are defined i.e. sing() and dance().
These are called instance method
because they are called on an instance
object i.e. blu.
Creating and Deleting Instances
Instantiating Objects
• An instantiation is a mechanism where objects are created from a
class.
• Always involves storage allocation for the object.
• A mechanism where objects are given an initial state.
Instantiating Objects contd.
• There is no “new” keyword as in Java. Just use the class name with ( )
notation and assign the result to a variable.
• __init__ serves as a constructor for the class. Usually does some
initialization work
• The arguments passed to the class name are given to its __init__()
method
• So, the __init__ method for student is passed “Bob” and 21 and the
new class instance is bound to b:
b = student(“Bob”, 21)
Constructor: __init__
• An __init__ method can take any number of arguments.
• Like other functions or methods, the arguments can be defined with
default values, making them optional to the caller.
• However, the first argument self in the definition of __init__ is
special…
Self
• The first argument of every method is a reference to the current
instance of the class
• By convention, we name this argument self
• In __init__, self refers to the object currently being created; so, in
other class methods, it refers to the instance whose method was
called
• Similar to the keyword this in Java or C++
• But Python uses self more often than Java uses this
Self contd.
• Although you must specify self explicitly when defining the method,
you don’t include it when calling the method.
• Python passes it for you automatically
Example- Creating Instance Objects
• To create instances of a class, you call the class using class name and
pass in whatever arguments its __init__ method accepts.
Deleting instances: No Need to “free”
• When you are done with an object, you don’t have to delete or free it
explicitly.
• Python has automatic garbage collection.
• Python will automatically detect when all of the references to a piece
of memory have gone out of scope. Automatically frees that memory.
• Generally works well, few memory leaks
• There’s also no “destructor” method for classes
Access to Attributes and
Methods
• Instead of using the normal statements to access attributes, you can
use the following functions −
• The getattrobj, name[, default] : to access the attribute of object.
• The hasattrobj, name : to check if an attribute exists or not.
• The setattrobj, name, value : to set an attribute. If attribute does not
exist, then it would be created.
• The delattrobj, name : to delete an attribute.
Definition of student
Traditional Syntax for Access
Accessing unknown members
• Problem: Occasionally the name of an attribute or method of a class is
only given at run time…
• Solution:
• getattr(object_instance, string)
• string is a string which contains the name of an attribute or method
of a class
• getattr(object_instance, string) returns a reference to that attribute
or method
getattr(object_instance, string)
hasattr(object_instance,string)
Attributes
Two Kinds of Attributes
• The non-method data stored by objects are called attributes
• Data attributes
• Variable owned by a particular instance of a class
• Each instance has its own value for it
• These are the most common kind of attribute
• Class attributes
• Owned by the class as a whole
• All class instances share the same value for it
• Called “static” variables in some languages
• Good for (1) class-wide constants and (2) building counter of how many
instances of the class have been made
Data Attributes
• Data attributes are created and initialized by an __init__() method.
• Simply assigning to a name creates the attribute
• Inside the class, refer to data attributes using self— for example,
self.full_name
Class Attributes
• Because all instances of a class share one copy of a class attribute,
when any instance changes it, the value is changed for all instances
• Class attributes are defined within a class definition and outside of
any method
• Since there is one of these attributes per class and not one per
instance, they’re accessed via a different notation:
• Access class attributes using self.__class__.name notation
-- This is just one way to do this & the safest in general.
Data vs. Class Attributes
Example- Accessing Attributes
• You access the object's attributes using the dot operator with object.
Class variable would be accessed using class name as follows −
Example- putting all the concepts together
Example contd.
• When the above is run:
• You can add, remove, or modify attributes of classes and objects at

any time −
Summary
• Instead of using the normal statements to access attributes, you can
use the following functions −
• The getattrobj, name[, default] : to access the attribute of object.
• The hasattrobj, name : to check if an attribute exists or not.
• The setattrobj, name, value : to set an attribute. If attribute does not
exist, then it would be created.
• The delattrobj, name : to delete an attribute.
Built-In Class Attributes
• Every Python class keeps following built-in attributes and they can be
accessed using dot operator like any other attribute −
__dict__: Dictionary containing the class's namespace.
__doc__: Class documentation string or none, if undefined.
__name__: Class name.
__module__: Module name in which the class is defined. This
attribute is "__main__" in interactive mode.
__bases__: A possibly empty tuple containing the base classes, in
the order of their occurrence in the base class list.
Inheritance
• Instead of starting from scratch, you can create a class by deriving it
from a preexisting class by listing the parent class in parentheses after
the new class name.
• The child class inherits the attributes of its parent class, and you can
use those attributes as if they were defined in the child class. A child
class can also override data members and methods from the parent.
• Syntax:
Use of Inheritance in Python
When we run, we have

Inheritance contd.
• In the above program, we created two classes i.e. Bird (parent class)
and Penguin (child class). The child class inherits the functions of
parent class. We can see this from swim() method. Again, the child
class modified the behavior of parent class. We can see this from
whoisThis() method. Furthermore, we extend the functions of parent
class, by creating a new run() method.
• Additionally, we use super() function before __init__() method. This is

because we want to pull the content of __init__() method from the
parent class into the child class.
Inheritance contd.
Subclasses
• Classes can extend the definition of other classes
• Allows use (or extension) of methods and attributes already defined in the
previous one
• To define a subclass, put the name of the superclass in parens after
the subclass’s name on the first line of the definition
Class Cs_student(student):
• Python has no ‘extends’ keyword like Java
• Multiple inheritance is supported
Example
When the above code is executed, it
produces the following result −
Multiple Inheritance
• Python has two kinds of classes: old and new
• Old style classes use depth-first, left-to-right access
• New classes use a more complex, dynamic approach
Redefining Methods
• To redefine a method of the parent class, include a new definition
using the same name in the subclass.
• The old code won’t get executed
• To execute the method in the parent class in addition to new code for
some method, explicitly call the parent’s version of method
parentClass.methodName(self,a,b,c)
• The only time you ever explicitly pass ‘self’ as an argument is when
calling a method of an ancestor
Definition of a class extending student
Extending __init__
Same as redefining any other method…
• Commonly, the ancestor’s __init__ method is executed in addition to
new commands
• You’ll often see something like this in the __init__ method of
subclasses:
parentClass.__init__(self, x, y)
where parentClass is the name of the parent’s class
Overriding Methods
• You can always override your parent class methods. One reason for
overriding parent's methods is because you may want special or
different functionality in your subclass.
• Functions in a subclass take precedence over functions in a superclass
Overriding contd.
• When an object receives a message, it checks its own methods first
before consulting its superclass. This means that if the object's class
and its superclass both contain a method for a message, the object's
method takes precedence. In other words, the first method found in
the hierarchy takes precedence. This is known as "overriding,"
because it gives a class an easy way to intercept messages before they
get to its superclass.
Overriding contd.
Encapsulation
• Using OOP in Python, we can restrict access to methods and
variables. This prevent data from direct modification which is called
encapsulation. In Python, we denote private attribute using
underscore as prefix i.e. single “ _ “ or double “ __“.
Data Encapsulation in Python
When run, you have
Data Encapsulation in Python contd.
• In the above program, we defined a class Computer. We use __init__()
method to store the maximum selling price of computer. We tried to
modify the price. However, we can’t change it because Python treats
the __maxprice as private attributes. To change the value, we used a
setter function i.e setMaxPrice() which takes price as parameter.
Polymorphism
• Polymorphism is an ability (in OOP) to use common interface for
multiple form (data types).
• Suppose, we need to color a shape, there are multiple shape option

(rectangle, square, circle). However we could use same method to
color any shape. This concept is called Polymorphism.
Using Polymorphism in Python
when run, you have

Using Polymorphism in Python contd.
• In the above program, we defined two classes Parrot and Penguin.
Each of them have common method fly() method. However, their
functions are different. To allow polymorphism, we created common
interface i.e. flying_test() function that can take any object. Then, we
passed the objects blu and peggy in the flying_test() function, it ran
effectively.
Case Examples
Viewing attributes and methods attached to strings and trying out a
few methods):
• In the Python interpreter, type in: a = "hello"
• Now type: dir(a). What do you see? Type a.title() and a.upper() and
see what you get.
Case Examples contd.
• Solution and discussion: The dir(a) command gives a list of (nearly) all
the attributes and methods attached to the object a, which is the
string "hello". Note that there is more data attached to the object
than just the word “hello”, e.g., the attributes a. doc and a. class also
show up in the dir listing.
• Methods can act on the data in the object. Thus, a.title() applies the
title method to the data of a and returns the string "hello" in title case
(i.e., the first letter of the word capitalized); a.upper() applies the
upper method to the data of a and returns the string all in uppercase.
Notice these methods do not require additional input arguments
between the parenthesis, because all the data needed is already in
the object (i.e., "hello").
Strings and how objects work:
• In the Python interpreter, type in: a = ’The rain in Spain.’
• Given string a:
1. Create a new string b that is a but all in uppercase.
2. Is a changed when you create b?
3. How would you test to see whether b is in uppercase? That is, how
could you return a boolean that is True or False depending on whether b is
uppercase?
4. How would you calculate the number of occurrences of the letter “n”
in a?
Solution and discussion:
1. b = a.upper()
2. No, the upper method’s return value is used to create b; the
value of a is not changed in place.
3. Use the isupper method on the string object, i.e., b.isupper()
will return True or False, accordingly.
4. a.count(’n’)
Example of a class definition for a Book class
• Can you explain

what each line of
code does?
Example contd.
• Solution and discussion: Line 1 begins the class definition. By
conven-tion, class names follow the CapWords convention (capitalize
the first letter of every word). The argument in the class statement is
a special object called object. This has to do with the OOP idea of
inheritance, which is a topic beyond the scope of this book. Suffice it
to say that classes you create can inherit or incorporate attributes and
methods from other classes. Base classes (class that do not depend
on other classes) inherit from object, a special object in Python that
provides the foundational tools for classes. Notice how attributes and
methods are defined, set, and used in the class definition: Periods
separate the instance name self from the attribute and method name.
So the instance attribute title is called self.title in the class definition.
Example contd.
• When you actually create an instance, the instance name is the name of the
object (e.g., beauty, pynut), so the instance attribute title of the instance beauty is
referred to as beauty.title, and every instance attribute is separate from every
other instance attribute (e.g., beauty.title and pynut.title are separate variables,
not aliases for one another). Thus, in lines 4–9, I assign each of the positional
input parameters in the def init line to an instance attribute of the same name.
Once assigned, these attributes can be used anywhere in the class definition by
reference to self, as in the definition of the write bib entry method. Speaking of
which, note that the write bib entry method is called with no input parameters,
but in the class definition in lines 11–17, I still need to provide it with self as an
input. That way, the method definition is able to make use of all the attributes and
methods attached to self. In lines 19–22, I create an instance beauty of the Book
class. Note how the arguments that are passed in are the same arguments as in
the def init argument list. In the last four lines, I create another instance of the
Book class.
Using instances of Book
• Consider the Book definition given in Example 48. Here are some
questions to test your understanding of what it does:
1. How would you print out the author attribute of the pynut
instance (at the interpreter, after running the file)?
2. If you type print beauty.write bib entry() at the interpreter
(after running the file), what will happen?
3. How would you change the publication year for the beauty book
to "2010"?
Solution and discussion:
1. Type: print pynut.author. Remember that once an instance of Book is
created, the attributes are attached to the actual instance of the class,
not to self. The only time self exists is in the class definition.
2. You will print out the bibliography formatted version of the
information in beauty.
3. Type: beauty.year = "2010". Remember that you can change instance
attributes of classes you have designed just like you can change
instance attributes of any class; just use assignment. (There is also a
function called setattr that you can use to assign attributes.

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O.BÁFÉ.MI AWÓLÓ.WÒ.

CSC 201: Computer Programming I

1 Definition and explanation of terms 1

Definition and explanation of terms

1.1 Agencies of computing

(i.) Faculty of language and

“Sensory organs” and “Faculty of language” are inherent in biological agencies. A

(i.) “Computer programming languages are prescribed and specifically designed to

1.2 What a “computer”?

Figure 1.1: Definition of Computer

A computing machine is, therefore, expected to have component for:

1.3 History of Modern Computers

1. Computer machines evolve with technology;

Despite the evolution of computer technology, however, the logic of computing

1.4 The Computer System

1.5 Computer Hardware

Figure 1.3: Structure of a Computer

Hardware is a set of physical devices that facilitates a computer soft-

1.5.1 Input-Output devices

1.5.2 Central Processing Unit

Memory Element (ME)

Control Unit (CU)

Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU)

1.5.3 Memory devices

Main memory devices

Mass memory devices

1.5.4 Memory metric

1.6 Computer Software

1.6.1 System software

1. In Mathematics, Science and Engineering [Octave, Matlab, Mathematical and

1.7 What is Programming?

1. The data on which the computer will perform the task.

The art of composing the sequence of instructions that controls a com-

The outcome of a computer programming activity is a program.

A program is a sequence of instructions which when executed by a com-

An instruction is a unit of message or command that influences the operation of a

INSTRUCTION = OPERAND + OPERATION

Figure 1.4: Fundamentals of Data and Instruction

1.7.2 Operation: Operator

1.8 The concept of Programming language

1.8.1 Familiarly with Programming Language

1.8.2 Python Instruction format and structure

1.8.3 Python Variables and Constants

1.8.4 Python Reserved words

1.8.5 Naming Python variable and constant

1.8.6 Python Statements

1.8.7 Familiarly with Programming Process

Figure 1.5: Flowchart Symbols

Step 1: Understand the problem: It is good to always start your programming by

1.11 Case example: FindAverage

Sum = Number1 + Number2 +

Figure 1.6: Design for the Average Program

Table 1.3: Python code for the Flowchart in Figure 1.6

1 Number1 = float(input("Enter Number1: "))

Table 1.4: Python code for the Flowchart in Figure 1.7

Sum = Sum+ NextNumber

Figure 1.7: Design for the Average Program

• A computer has immense potential for saving time/energy, as most

• An algorithm must have a beginning and an end

• You can think of an algorithm as being like a recipe: