INTERPRETING MOTION ALONG THE STRAIGHT LINE

DISPLACEMENT
Displacement is defined as the change in position of an object. It is a vector quantity and has a direction
and magnitude. It is represented as an arrow that points from the starting position to the final position.

VELOCITY
Velocity can be defined as the rate of change of the object’s position with respect to a frame of reference
and time.

ACCELERATION
Acceleration can result from a change in speed (increase or decrease), a change in direction (back, forth,
up, down, left, right), or changes in both. Like velocity, acceleration is a vector.

What is the velocity-time graph?

In the velocity-time graph, velocity is the dependent variable and is represented on the y-axis, and time
is the independent variable, represented on the x-axis.

What is the acceleration-time graph?

In the acceleration time graph, acceleration is the dependent variable and is represented by the y-axis,
and time is the independent variable and is represented by the x-axis.

What does the area represent on velocity graph?

The area under a velocity graph represents the displacement of the object. To see why, consider the
following graph of motion that shows an object maintaining a constant velocity of 6 meters per second
for a time of 5 seconds.

V(m / s)

The area of this rectangle can be found by multiplying height of the rectangle, 6 m/s, times its width, 5s,
which would give

area = height x width = 6 m/s x 5 s = 30 m

This is the same answer we got before for the displacement. The area under a velocity curve, regardless
of the shape, will equal the displacement during that time interval.

area under curve = displacement

What does the area represent on an acceleration graph?

The area under an acceleration graph represents the change in velocity. In other words, the area under
the acceleration graph for a certain time interval is equal to the change in velocity during that time
interval.

area = AV
It might be easiest to see why this is the case by considering the example graph below which shows a
constant acceleration of 4 m/s² for a time of 9s.

If we multiply both sides of the definition of acceleration, time At, we get Delta*V = a*Delta*t a =
(Delta*V)/(Delta*t) by the change in

Plugging in the acceleration 4m / (s ^ 2) and the interval 9s we can find the change in velocity:

Delta*V = a*Delta*t = (4m / (s ^ 2))(9s) = 36m / s

The area can be found by multiplying height times width. The height of this rectangle is a 4 m/s², and the
width is 9s. So, finding the area also gives you the change in velocity.

a = 4 m/s² x 9 s = 36 m/s

The area under any acceleration graph for a certain time interval gives the change in velocity for that
time interval.

Finding the displacement of the go-kart between t = 0 and t = 7s

We can find the displacement of the go-kart by finding the area under the velocity graph. The graph can
be thought of as being a rectangle (between t = 0s and t = 3s ) and a triangle (between t = 3s and t = 7s ) .
Once we find the area of these shapes and add them, we will get the total displacement.

The area of the rectangle is found by area = h x w=6m/sx3s = 18 m The area of the triangle is found by
area= bh = 1 =(45) (6 m/s) = 12 m

Adding these two areas together give the total displacement. total area = 18 m + 12 m = 30 m total
displacement = 30m

VELOCITY VS TIME
 + and -
 Constant Velocity
Horizontal sections
 Constant Acceleration
Straight slopes
 Speeding up/Slowing down
Distance from x-axis

ACCELERATION VS TIME

• No acceleration
Line stays on x-axis
• Constant Acceleration
Horizontal line above x-axis
Horizontal line below x-axis
Uniformly Accelerated Motion
Uniformly accelerated motion describes the movement of an object along a straight line with a constant
acceleration. This type of motion is governed by a set of equations known as the kinematic equations.

Uniformly accelerated motion -an object moves with a constant acceleration.

Acceleration
-rate of change in velocity with time.

The 5 major kinematic quantities are displacement (Δx), time (t), initial velocity (vi), final velocity (vf),
and constant acceleration (a). These quantities are commonly included when describing the position and
motion of an object.

The symbol delta (Δ) means 'a change in.

x = final position
x0 = initial position
vf = final velocity
vi = initial velocity
a = acceleration
t = time

These equations allow us to relate the following quantities:

Displacement (Δx): The change in position of the object.
Initial Velocity (vi): The velocity of the object at the beginning of the motion.
Final Velocity (vf): The velocity of the object at the end of the motion.
Acceleration (a): The constant rate of change in velocity.
Time (t): The duration of the motion.

Example:
SPEED EQUATION.
speed=distance/time
s=d

Sample problem:
Riding a tandem bicycle, a couple covers a distance of 20 kilometers in 2hrs. Calculate their speed.
Given:
D=20km
T=2hrs
Find: speed(s)
s=d/t
s=20km/2h
s=10km/h
VELOCITY EQUATION
velocity = displacement/time
v=d/t
Sample problem:
A car travels at uniform velocity a distance of 100m in 4 second. What is the velocity of the car?
Given:
D=100m
T=4s
Find: velocity (v)
v=d/tv=100m/4s
v=25m/s

Here's a breakdown of the key Characteristics of uniformly accelerated motion:

1.Constant Acceleration: - The primary defining feature of uniformly accelerated motion is that the
acceleration remains constant. This means the object's velocity changes at a steady rate.- The
acceleration can be positive (increasing velocity), negative (decreasing velocity), or zero (constant
velocity).
2. Velocity Changes Linearly: - Since the acceleration is constant, the velocity changes linearly over time.-
This means that if you plot the velocity of the object against time, the graph will be a straight line.
3. Displacement Changes Quadratically: - The displacement (change in position) of an object undergoing
uniformly accelerated motion changes quadratically with time.- This means that if you plot the
displacement of the object against time, the graph will be a parabola.

Free Fall Motion

An object that is moving under only the influence of gravity is in free fall. In order for an object to be in
free fall, wind and air resistance must be ignored. On Earth, all objects in free fall accelerate downward
at the rate of gravity or 9.8m/s².

Where:
v(t) is the velocity at time
v₀ is the initial velocity
- g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s²)
- y(t) is the position at time t
- y₀ is the initial position
- t is the time elapsed

Example problem:
A ball is dropped from a 20m building. How fast is the ball traveling just before it hits the
ground?

Using Equation: vf²=vi²+2a∆y

Known:
Vi=0m/s
∆y=-20m
a=-9.8m/s²
Unknown:Vf=?
Vf²=(0)²+2(-9.8)(-20)
√Vf²=392Vf=19.8m/s
1. How to Find Distance Fallen for an Object in Free Fall:
If an object is in free fall, we can use kinematic equations to find the distance it falls during a certain
time. You will typically use the following kinematic equation to calculate the distance fallen.

Formula for Finding Distance if Time is Known:

If the time is not known, another method for calculating the distance fallen is to use the following
kinematic equation.

Formula for Finding Distance when Time in Unknown:

2. How to Find Time for an Object in Free Fall:

The amount of time an object is in free fall will depend on its velocity and the distance it falls. Similar to
distance, there are two equations you can use to find the time, depending on what you know.

If you know the initial and final velocity of the object, then the simplest way to calculate time is using the
kinematic equation.

3. How to Find Final Velocity for an Object in Free Fall:

The final velocity of an object in free fall depends on the amount of time it falls. Due to the acceleration
of gravity, the velocity will increase every second by 9.81 m/s. The final velocity can be calculated using
the equation.Formula for Finding Velocity Using Time:If you do not know the amount of time the object
is falling, another method for calculating the final velocity is using the kinematic equation.Formula for
Finding Velocity Using Distance.
Formula for Finding Time Using Distance:

Note that in this equation there are two terms that include the time t.

3. How to Find Final Velocity for an Object in Free Fall.

The final velocity of an object in free fall depends on the amount of time it falls. Due to the acceleration
of gravity, the velocity will increase every second by 9.81 m/s. The final velocity can be calculated using
the equation.
Formula for Finding Velocity Using Time:
If you do not know the amount of time the object is falling, another method for calculating the final
velocity is using the kinematic equation.
Formula for Finding Velocity Using Distance:

This equation requires that you instead know the distance that the object falls. If you are using this
equation to find the final velocity, remember that the final velocity is squared in this equation. That
means you will need to take a square root as your final step to solve for the final velocity.

Example problem:
A ball is dropped from a height of 10 meters. How long will it take to reach the ground?
Solution:
Known quantities:
Δx = 10 m
vi = 0 m/s (dropped from rest)
a = g = 9.8 m/s²- Unknown quantity
t- Appropriate equation:
Δx = vit + (1/2)at²
Solving for t
10 m = (0 m/s)t + (1/2)(9.8 m/s²)t²
10 m = 4.9 m/s² t²
t² = 10 m / 4.9 m/s²
t = √(10 m / 4.9 m/s²)
t ≈ 1.43 s Therefore, it will take approximately 1.43 seconds for the ball to reach the ground.

This response will delve into the fundamental concepts of one-dimensional motion with constant
acceleration and demonstrate how to apply these principles to solve real-world problems. We will
explore various contexts, including the "tail-gating phenomenon," pursuit, rocket launch, and free-fall
scenarios.

Understanding the Fundamentals

 Constant acceleration refers to a situation where the velocity of an object changes at a uniform rate.
This means the object's speed and direction change consistently over time. To analyze such motion, we
employ a set of kinematic equations that relate displacement, velocity, acceleration, and time
Displacement: Equation: x = x0 + v0t + (1/2)at²- Explanation: This equation calculates the final position
(x) of an object based on its initial position (x0), initial velocity (v0), acceleration (a), and time (t).

Final Velocity: Equation: v = v0 + at - Explanation: This equation determines the final velocity (v) of an
object given its initial velocity (v0), acceleration (a), and time (t).

Average Velocity:
Equation: vavg = (v0 + v) / 2 - Explanation: This equation calculates the average velocity (V
average) of an object during a period of constant acceleration, using its initial and final velocities.
Tail-Gating Phenomenon

The "tail-gating phenomenon" describes a dangerous situation where a vehicle follows another
vehicle too closely, leading to potential accidents. To analyze this scenario, we can use the
kinematic equations to determine the distance between the vehicles and the time it takes for
the tailgating vehicle to collide with the vehicle in front.
Example:
Consider a car traveling at 20 m/s and a tailgating car traveling at 25 m/s. The tailgating car is 10
meters behind the first car. We can calculate the time it takes for the tailgating car to collide
with the car in front.

Step 1: Determine the relative velocity of the tailgating car. Since the tailgating car is traveling
faster, its relative velocity is 25 m/s - 20 m/s = 5 m/s.

Step 2: Use the equation x = x0 + v0t to determine the time it takes for the tailgating car to close
the 10-meter gap. In this case, x0 = 10 m, v0 = 5 m/s, and x = 0 m (collision). Solving for t, we get
t = 2 seconds.

This example demonstrates that even a small difference in speed can lead to a collision quickly when
tailgating. Pursuit Problems Pursuit problems involve scenarios where one object chases another. We can
use the kinematic equations to determine the time it takes for the pursuer to catch the target and the
distance traveled during the pursuit.

 This example demonstrates that even a small difference in speed can lead to a collision
quickly when tailgating.
 Pursuit Problems
 Pursuit problems involve scenarios where one object chases another. We can use the
kinematic equations to determine the time it takes for the pursuer to catch the target and
the distance traveled during the pursuit.

Example:
A rocket launches vertically with an initial acceleration of 20 m/s2. We can determine the
rocket's velocity after 10 seconds and its height at that time.

Step 1: Use the equation v = v0 + at to find the rocket's velocity after 10 seconds. Assuming the initial
velocity v0 is 0 m/s, we get v = (0 m/s) + (20 m/s2)(10 s) = 200 m/s.
Step 2: Use the equation x = x0 + v0t + (1/2)at2 to determine the rocket's height after 10 seconds.
Assuming the initial height x0 is 0 m, we get x = (0 m) + (0 m/s)(10 s) + (1/2)(20 m/s2)(10 s)2 = 1000 m.

This example demonstrates how the rocket's acceleration and time affect its velocity and height during
launch.

Free-Fall Problems

Free-fall problems involve objects falling under the influence of gravity. The acceleration due to gravity is
approximately constant near the Earth's surface, with a value of g = 9.8 m/s².

Example:

A ball is dropped from a height of 10 meters. We can calculate the time it takes for the ball to hit the
ground.

Step 1: Use the equation x = x0 + v0t + (1/2)at2 to determine the time it takes for the ball to fall. In this
case, x0 = 10 m, v0 = 0 m/s, a = 9.8 m/s2, and x = 0 m (ground). Solving for t, we get t = 1.43 seconds.
This example demonstrates how the acceleration due to gravity influences the time it takes for an object
to fall a certain distance.

Motion can be described using the concept of relative velocities in both 1D (one-dimensional) and 2D
(two-dimensional) scenarios.

In one-dimensional motion, relative velocity refers to the velocity of an object as observed from another
object's frame of reference. If two objects are moving in the same direction, the relative velocity
between them is the difference between their individual velocities.

If they are moving in opposite directions, the relative velocity is the sum of their velocities.

In two-dimensional motion, relative velocities become more complex as motion can occur in multiple
directions. When dealing with relative velocities in 2D motion, it is essential to consider both the
magnitude and direction of the velocities. The relative velocity between two objects moving in two
dimensions is the vector sum of their individual velocities.

When analyzing relative velocities in 2D motion, it is crucial to break down the velocities into their
horizontal and vertical components to accurately calculate the relative motion between the objects.

Overall, the concept of relative velocities helps in understanding how objects move concerning each
other in both one-dimensional and two-dimensional scenarios, providing insights into their relative
speeds and directions of motion.

PROJECTILE MOTION

Projectile motion refers to the motion of an object that is thrown or projected into the air. It is
influenced by gravity and initial velocity.
Projectile motion consists of two main components: horizontal and vertical motion.

INDEPENDENCE OF MOTION
HORIZONTAL "VELOCITY" COMPONENT
 It NEVER changes, covers equal displacements
in equal time periods. This means the initial
horizontal velocity equals the final horizontal velocity
 In other words, the horizontal velocity is CONSTANT.
BUT WHY? Gravity DOES NOT work horizontally to increase
or decrease the velocity.

VERTICAL "VELOCITY" COMPONENT

 Changes (due to gravity), does NOT cover equal
displacements in equal time periods.
 Both the MAGNITUDE and DIRECTION change: As the
projectile
moves up the MAGNITUDE DECREASES and its direction is
UPWARD. As it moves down the MAGNITUDE INCREASES and
the direction is DOWNWARD
 Governed by gravity, which accelerates the object downwards
at approximately 9.8 m/ s2 .

RANGE OF A PROJECTILE IN A PROJECTILE MOTION

It is the horizontal distance travelled by the projectile during entire motion.

Horizont
Formula: The range R of the projectile is calculatedal range
2
u sin (2 θ )
using: R¿
g
Example:
Given Data: u = 30m/s , θ = 50, g = 9.8 m/ s2
 2 2
u sin (2 θ ) 30 sin 100 900 ×0.984 885.6
R¿ → R¿ → R¿ → R¿ → R ¿ 90.4 m
g 9.8 9.8 9.8

R
Horizontal
TIME OF FLIGHT IN PROJECTILE MOTION
range
Time taken by the projectile to cover the entire trajectory is called as time of flight.

H T

θ
Tim
of
R

2u sin ( θ )
Formula: The time of flight t can be calculated using: t ¿ g
Example:
Given Data: u = 20m/s , θ = 45, g = 9.8 m/ s2

2u sin ( θ ) 2(20) sin 45 40 ×0.707 28.28

t¿ → t¿ → t¿ → t¿ → t ¿ 2.9 sec
g 9.8 9.8 9.8

MAXIMUM HEIGHT OF PROJECTILE MOTION

It is the maximum vertical distance travelled by the projectile from the ground level during its motion.
Maximum
v height
H
CIRCULAR MOTION
Circular motion refers to the motion of an object
moving along a circular path, where the object experiences
a constant change in direction.
Important quantities include tangential velocity, centripetal
acceleration, tangential acceleration, and radius of curvature.

EXAMPLES OF CIRCULAR MOTION

Orbiting of planets Movement of fan blades

TANGENTIAL VELOCITY
Tangential velocity is the linear speed of an object moving along a circular path. It is directed
along the tangent to the circular path at any given point and represents how fast the object is
moving in that direction.
Formula: tangential
2 πr
velocity vt is given by: vt= where r is the radius of the circular path and T is the period of rotation.
T

Example: For a car traveling around a circular track with a radius of 50 meters, if it completes one lap in
20 seconds, the tangential velocity can be calculated as:

Given: r = 50 meters, T = 20 seconds

2 πr 2 π ×50
vt= → vt= → vt ¿ 15.71 m/s
T 20
2
vt
Formula: The centripetal acceleration ac is calculated as: ac ¿
r
Example: Consider a Ferris wheel with a radius of 10 meters that completes one full rotation in 15
seconds. First, we need to calculate the tangential velocity vt :

Given: r = 10 meters, T = 15 seconds

→vt ¿ 4.19 m/s

2 πr 2 π ×10
vt= → vt=
t 15

Now, we can calculate the centripetal acceleration using the tangential velocity:

Given: vt = 4.19 m/s, r = 10 meters

ac ¿ →ac ¿ → ac ¿ 1.76 m/s

2 2
vt (4.19)
r 10
TANGENTIAL ACCELERATION
Tangential acceleration is the rate of change of tangential
velocity of an object moving along a circular path. It acts
in the direction of the motion and is responsible for changing
the speed of the object.

Formula: The tangential acceleration can be calculated as: at ¿

vf −vi
t

Example: If a car increases its speed from 10 m/s to 20 m/s while moving in a
circle over a time period of 5 seconds.

Given: vi = 10 m/s , vf = 20 m/s , t = 5 seconds

at ¿ →at ¿
vf −vi 20 m/s−10 m/s 2
→ at=2 m/s
t 5

RADIUS OF CURVATURE

The radius of curvature is the radius of the circular arc that best approximates a
curve at a given point. It quantifies how sharply a curve bends; a smaller radius
indicates a sharper bend, while a larger radius indicates a gentler curve.
INERTIA FRAME OF REFERENCE
An inertial frame of reference is a frame where Newton’s law holds true. That means if no external force
is acting on a body it will stay at rest or remain in uniform motion.

Action and Reaction Pair

● An action-reaction pair refers to two forces in accordance with Newton's Third Law of Motion, which
states that "for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Here are some examples:

ACTION: A hammer hits a nail.

REACTION: The nail exerts an equal and opposite force on the hammer.

ACTION: A rocket expels gas downward.

REACTION: The rocket is pushed upward by the force of the expelled gas.

Action: A person pushes against a wall.

Reaction: The wall pushes back against the person with equal force in the opposite direction.

In each of these pairs, the action and reaction forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction,
and they act on different objects.

Free-Body Diagram (FBD)

 Is a graphical representation used in physics and engineering to illustrate all the forces acting on
a single object or in simple terms a technique to visualize an object and all forces applied to it .

1st step. Draw object as free: Start by sketching a simplified version of the object you’re analyzing. This
is usually represented as a simple shape like a box or a dot.

2nd step. Identify and Draw Forces: Represent each force acting
On the object with arrows pointing away from the object.
Each arrow should be labeled with the type of force it represents,
such as gravitational force, normal force, frictional force, or applied force.

3rd step. Lable each force: Clearly label each arrow with the name of
the force and, if necessary, its magnitude.
FN
4th step. Draw a coordinate system. Ensure that each force arrow is
drawn in the direction the force is acting. You want to pick an orientation
that makes sense for your object and the applied forces
Ff
W