Ship Knowledge - Klaas Van Dokkum

DOKMAR MARITIME PUBLISHERS B.V.
SHIP KNOWLEDGE
SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION
BY KLAAS VAN DOKKUM
10th EDITION
WWW.DOKMAR.COM
SHIP KNOWLEDGE
10™ EDITION
SHIP KNOWLEDGE 1
AUTHOR:
Klaas van Dokkum
LAY-OUT:
Klaas van Dokkum
COVER:
Peter Schotvanger
PUBLISHED BY:
DOKMAR Maritime Publishers BV
P.O.Box 5052
4380 KB Vlissingen, The Netherlands.
1st edition: 2003

2nd edition: 2005
3 rd edition: 2006
4th edition: 2007
5th edition: 2008
6th edition: 2010
7th edition: 2012
8th edition: 2013
gth edition: 2016
10th edition: 2020
© Copyright 2020, DOKMAR

Vlissingen, The Netherlands
ISBN 978-90-71500-40-4
All rights reserved. No part of this pub

lication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system or transmitted in any
form or by any means, including elec
tronic, mechanical, by photocopy, through
recording or otherwise, without prior writ
ten permission of the publisher.
Great care has been taken with the inves
tigation of prior copyright. In case of omis
sion the rightful claimant is requested to
inform the publishers.
Acknowledgements
I stand in great debt to the following persons for their invaluable cooperation in realizing this eight edition:
Mr J.H. ten Katen, retired ship repairer and ex Lloyd's Surveyor, for his rich experience in the shipping industry and his textual
contributions in plain, simple wording. He expertly provided corrections and added much supplementary material, as well.
Professor Thomas Lamb (University of Michigan, USA) helped with editing the first edition and the concept of the 2nd one in
scrupulous detail. He, also, possesses the talent of putting his expert knowledge in the field of shipbuilding in plain terms, greatly
contributing to the readability of the work.
To Mr Erwin van den Berg (Naval Architect) I am indebted for the bulk of corrective work on the second edition that he accom
plished in the very short time available.
Mr Klaas Slot (klaasslot@mac.com) gratuitously provided the book's first-class photographs, for which the author owes him his
sincere gratitude.
Translation:
Carmen Koenen-Loos, The Netherlands
Michel Wijnhold, The Netherlands
Textual corrections and proof readings:

Mike Cooke-Yarborough, Naval Architect, UK
- Iain Irving, Dover, UK
Mimi Kuyper-Heeres, Senior lecturer Nautical English, Terschelling, The Netherlands
Tom Scott, maritime journalist, The Netherlands
Advice:
Peter Bos, Master at Holland America Line, USA
- Jacob Pinkster, M.Sc. FRINA, Naval Architect, The Netherlands
Martijn van Engeland, Naval Architect, DELFTship BV, The Netherlands
The following persons, each an authority in their field, contributed to the following chapters:
Chapter 3: Jan Groen, Naval Architect
Chapter 4: Guus van der Bles, Naval Architect
Arie Stuurman, Naval Architect
Gert Vinke, bachelor in Mechanical engineering
Chapter 5: Kees Koomen, Master mariner, pilot, lecturer nautical college, author
Chapter 7: Leo Demmers, Engineer
Chapter 11: Michiel Parlevliet, Wartsila
Egbert Sprokkereef, Mechanical Engineer, MAN Energy Solutions Netherlands BV
Hans van Suylekom, Bachelor Mechanical Engineering
Chapter 11+12: Sven JanBen, Marine Engineer, HB Hunte Engineering GmbH
Chapter 13: Jan van Boerum, Electrical Engineer
René Borstlap, Electrical Engineer
Ing. Joeri ten Napel MBA, Electrical Engineer
Chapter 14: PPG Protective & Marine Coatings
Chapter 15: Harry Klaverstijn, Manager Regulatory Affairs, Palfinger
Wigger Plantinga, Sales Manager, Datema Nautical Safety
Chapter 16: Herbert Koelman, Naval Architect, Sarc BV
And, of course, my wife Joke for all her support and advice during the work on this book.
Introduction to the 10th edition.
The book covers diverse subjects relating to modern ship In preparing this 10th English edition a number of inad
building and seamanship. An attempt is made to give as equacies, omissions and defects from the 9th edition have
complete an overview as possible of ships, pertinent auxil been remedied, many subjects have been improved upon,
iaries, systems, rules and regulations. Current trends (such and quite a lot of new ones have been added.
as those in the offshore industry) are dealt with in this book
in a very clear and detailed manner. In order to facilitate finding a certain word or subject, an
index and list of abbreviations are included at the back of
Ship Knowledge is a rich source of information meant for all the book.
those with an interest in ships and the maritime industry.
It is eminently suitable for maritime students and new Reflecting the author's aims to forge a strong link between
comers in the field. For those employed in shipbuilding, the contents of this book and the expertise and views of its
shipping and related fields, Ship Knowledge will prove itself readers, any reactions, recommendations or criticism are
to be an efficient and convenient reference book. highly welcome.
On the website www.dokmar.com you will find free

downloads of questions pertaining to each chapter.
SHIP KNOWLEDGE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. SHIPWISE 6
2. THE SHAPE OF A SHIP 24
3. TYPES OF SHIP 50
4. THE BUILDING OF A SHIP 84
5. FORCES ON A SHIP 100
6. LAWS AND REGULATIONS 122
7. STRUCTURAL ARRANGEMENT 154
8. CLOSING APPLIANCES 196
9. CARGO GEAR 214
10. ANCHOR AND MOORING GEAR 236
11. ENGINEROOM 258
12. PROPULSION AND STEERING GEAR 290
13. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS 318
14. MATERIALS AND MAINTENANCE 358
15. SAFETY 384
16. STABILITY 412
INDEX 425
ABBREVIATIONS 429
CREDITS 430
SHIP KNOWLEDGE 5
1 Introduction
This chapter shows some isometric views of ships. All visible parts and spaces
are numbered and named. This is meant as an introduction to different types
of ships and can be used as a reference for the following chapters.
2 Multi-purpose ship
SHIPWISE 1. Rudder 22. General cargo

2. Propeller 23. Sheer strake
3. Main engine with gearbox and 24. Hold fan exhausts
1 Introduction 8 shaft generator 25. Fixed bulkhead
4. CO2 bottles in CO2 room 26. Container pedestal
2 Multi-purpose ship 8
5. Man overboard boat (MOB) 27. Tank top, max. load 15 t/m2
3 Mega yacht 10 6. Free fall lifeboat 28. Containers, 1 bay, 5 rows, 3 tiers
7. Crane for MOB, lifeboat, life raft 29. Vertical bulkhead or pontoon
4 Container ship 12
and provisions. 30. Hatch coaming
5 Car & passenger ferry 14 8. Funnel with all exhaust pipes 31. Wing tank (ballast)
9. Mainmast 32. Bulk cargo
6 . Tankers 16 10. Mast table with radar scanners 33. Side deck
7 . Offshore support vessels 18 11. Monkey island with magnetic 34. Hatch covers
compass and search light 35. Foremast with steaming light
8 . Fishing vessel 20 12. Bridge 36. Breakwater
13. Bridge wing 37. Anchor windlass
9 . Clipper ship 22
14. Accommodation 38. Collision bulkhead
15. Hatch stacking crane 39. Deep tank
16. Heavy fuel oil tank 40. Bow thruster
17. Bulk cargo 41. Bulbous bow and forepeak tank
18. Vertical bulkhead or pontoon 42. Port side
19. Heavy cargo, steel coils 43. Starboard side
20. Project cargo
21. Tween deck
5»
8 1. SHIPWISE
in hold 174 TEU (Twenty feet Equivalent Units)
on deck 96 TEU
Principle Dimensions:
Length overall Tonnage Regulation (London 1969) 4900 Gross Tonnage
118.55 metres
Length between perpendicular Grain capacity (excluding bulkheads) 328500 Cubic Feet
111.85 metres
Breadth moulded 15.20 metres
Depth At a draught of 6.30 metres service speed will be 14 knots,
8.45 metres
with a shaft power of 3321 kiloWatt.
Design Draught 6.30 metres
Corresponding deadweight Main engine = 3840 kW / 150 kW for PTO (Power Take Off)
6600 tons
/ 90% MCR (Maximum Continuous Rating)
(excluding grain bulkheads/tween deck)
1. SHIPWISE
3 Mega Yacht
Principle particulars:
Length overall 82,00 metres
Maximum beam 14,20 metres
Maximum speed approximately 20 knots
Accommodation 1 master suite, 2 VIP and 3 twin guest cabins
Material hull - steel, superstructure - aluminium
Engines propulsion MTU diesels, 2 x 4680 Hp
Fuel capacity 294 m3
Naval architects oceAnco
Exterior design Nuvolari & Lenard
Interior design Nuvolari & Lenard, Alberto Pinto
1. Rudder 11. Life rafts

2. Garage 12. Elevator
3. Swimming pool (with adjustable 13. Entrance
floor in top position usable as 14. Bridge
helipad or dance floor) 15. Dining room
4. Stern thruster 16. VIP cabin
5. Reversing gearbox 17. Guest cabin
6. Propulsion engine 18. Crew cabin
7. Upper deck saloon 19. Bow thruster
8. Main saloon 20. Fore mast
9. Crew lounge 21. Radar aerials
10. Crew mess 22. Satellite dome
10 1. SHIPWISE
1. SHIPWISE
4 Container ship
The numbers and explanations thereof belong to the two pictures below.
The container ship shown here is not the same as in the photo at the top right.
1. Bay 57+59 etc, (odd numbers), 20' container positions

2. Bay 58 etc, (even numbers), 40' container positions
3. Row 02+04 etc, even numbers: port side
4. Row 00
5. Row 01+03 etc, odd numbers: starboard side
6. Reefer container plugs for electrical power supply
7. Tier 82
8. Tier 84
9. 40' containers
10. 20' containers
11. Container pedestal (for 20 ft containers)
12. Hatch cover
13. Lashing bridge
14. Lashings rods
15. Flared tops for easy position of container & spreader into the cell guides
16. Hatch cover positioning indications
17. Hatch cover lifting points
12 1. SHIPWISE
Data above 'Megamax-24' Max. draught 16 metres 1. Bays
container ship: Gross Tonnage (GT) 232,618 ton 2. Rows
Length overall 400 metres Container capacity 23,756 TEU 3. Tiers
Width overall 61.5 metres Maximum speed 14.1 knopen
1. SHIPWISE
5 Car & Passenger Ferry
1. Rudder 24. Upper trailer deck

2. Controllable pitch propeller 25. Ramp to lower hold
3. Shaft 26. Stabilizer, retractable
4. Ballast tank 27. Shops and restaurants
5. Aft engine room with gearbox 28. Helicopter deck
6. Inlet chest 29. Entertainment spaces
7. Forward engine room with 1 of the 4 main engines 30. Fan room
8. Stern ramp 31. Heeling tank
9. Mooring gear 32. Void
10. CO2 room 33. Ro-Ro cargo
11. Cargo office 34. Web frame
12. Main deck for trailers and containers 35. Car deck
13. Accommodation ladder 36. Marine evacuation system
14. Outside decks 37. Cinema
15. Lifeboat in davits 38. Satellite dome for internet
16. Deck 11 39. Satellite dome for communication (Inmarsat)
17. Funnel 40. Radar mast
18. Exhaust pipes 41. Officers cabins
19. Panorama lounge 42. Bridge
20. Officers and crew mess 43. Car deck fan room
21. Passenger cabins 44. Fore deck
22. Fast-rescue boat 45. Anchor
23. Drivers accommodation 46. Bulbous bow
Principle particulars: Crew: 141
Delivered: Nov. 2001 Access:

Stern ramp (1 x w) 12.5x18 m
Contract Price: 128 million
USD Machinery:
Main engines (4):
Classification: Output, each 9450 Kw
Lloyd's Register +100A1, Roll Output, total 51394 BHP
on Roll-off Cargo and Passen Revolutions per minute 500
ger Ship + LMC, UMS, SLM.
Aux engines (2):
Dimensions: kW each 4050
Length o.a. 215.10 m Rpm 720
Length b.p. 203.70 m
Beam mid. 31.50 m Propellers (2):
Draught design 6.05 m Diameters 4.9 m
Depth 9.40 m Rpm 153
Tonnage: Bow thrusters (2):

GT 59,925 kW each 2000
NT 26,868
tDW design 8,800 Speed / Consumption:
tDW scantling 10,350 Trial speed 23.8 knots
Service speed 22.0 knots
Passengers: Fuel consump. 130.8t./24hr
Total capacity 1360 Fuel quality 380 cSt
- cabins 546
Tank Capacities:
Car / Trailer Deck: Heavy fuel oil 1000 m3
Cars 1380 Lube oil 50 m3
Lane 3355 m. Fresh water 400 m3
Ballast water 3500 m3
ROBBERT DAS 2001

6 Tankers
LNG tanker (MOSS-Rosenberg Principle)
16 1. SHIPWISE
1. Rudder with propeller 6. Longitudinal vertically corrugated 11. Bulbous bow + draught marks
2. Hydraulic power unit bulkhead 12. Deck mounted cargo heater
3. Submerged ballast pump 7. Submerged cargo pump 13. Transverse stiffeners
4. Double-hull 8. Tank top 14. Manifold
5. Transverse vertically 9. T: tugboat 15. Hose crane
corrugated bulkhead 10. Bow thruster motor 16. Various deck lines
1. Rudder 7. Uptake / funnel 12. Walkway

2. Propeller 8. Stores crane 13. Forward lookout
3. Tail shaft 9. Spherical cargo tanks 14. Manifold
4. Propulsion turbines 10. Centre column with ladder and 15. Hose crane
5. Condenser cargo pumps 16. Insulation
6. Boiler 11. Cargo tank safety devices
1. Working deck
2. Anchor roller
3. Steering gear
4. Starboard ducted propeller
5. Stern tube
6. Thruster
7. Azimuth thruster
8. Tanks for dry bulk cargo e.g.
cement / mud
9. Deck cranes
10. Propeller shaft
11. (Reduction) Gear box
12. Main engine
13. Heavy lift crane
14. Life rafts Multipurpose support vessel
15. MOB-boat with crane

16. Remote Operated vehicle (ROV)
17. Storage reel / towing winch
18. Bridge with controls for deck
gear and ship's manoeuvring
19. Fire fighting monitor
20. Radar antennae
21. Antenna for communication
system / satellite antenna
22. Switchboard
23. Helicopter deck
24. Auxiliary generator
25. A-frame for anchor handling
1. SHIPWISE
8 Fishing vessel
1. Rudder
2. Kort nozzle
3. Propeller
4. Engine room
5. Engine room bulkhead
6. Main engine
7. Fuel tanks, two wing tanks and a
centre tank
8. Starboard bracket pole, used when
fishing with nets and otter boards.
A comparable type of fishing vessel in service
9. Portal mast
10. Revolving drum for nets
11. Funnel
12. Mess room, day room
13. Bridge with navigational
equipment and control panels
for the main engine, and the
nets and fish winch
14. Cabin for four
15. Bulwark
16. Bulwark frame
17. Freeing port
18. Wooden work deck
19. Fish tank hatch
20. Drop chute
21. Fish hold, with an insulation
layer of about 20 cm all around
22. Bilge keel
23. Sheer strake
24. Double bottom
25. Bow thruster installation
26. Name of the ship and fishery
(registration) number
27. Fishing winch
28. Conveyor belt and
fish cleaning table
29. Fair leads for fish line
30. Forecastle
31. Fishing wire blocks
32. Fishing wire
33. Fishing derrick
34. Mast
35. Radar antenna on mast
20 1. SHIPWISE
ROBBERT DAS 2002
1. SHIPWISE
21
9 Clipper ship 'Stad Amsterdam'
1. Mizzen topgallant 17. Fore lower topsail 33. Fore topmast staysail
2. Mizzen topsail 18. Brace winches 34. Inner jib
3. Cross jack 19. Harbour entrance 35. Outer jib
4. Spanker 20. Davits 36. Flying jib
5. Long room 21. Deck pantry 37. Bowsprit
6. Steering wheel 22. Lower deck 38. Cathead
7. Mizzen top 23. Tween deck 39. Figurehead
8. Main lower topsail yard 24. Chicken lockers 40. Bob stays
9. Long room sky light 25. Capstan 41. Bow thruster
10. Chart room 26. Boat gear 42. Accommodation
11. Main upper topsail 27. Fore course 43. Lounge
12. Main lower topsail 28. Foretop 44. Owner's cabin
13. Main course 29. Forestay 45. Propeller frame
14. Mainstay 30. Life boat 46. Martingale or dolphin striker
15. Main top 31. Crew cabins 47. Jib boom
16. Fore upper topsail 32. Side lights
22 1. SHIPWISE
Principle particulars:
Length overall: 76 metres

Length over deck: 60.5 metres
Beam overall: 10.5 metres
Air draught: 46.5 metres
Draught (max.): 4.8 metres
Number of sails: 29
Area of sails: 2,200 m2
Engine: 749 kW
GT: 723
Speed under sail: 16.5 knots
Speed under power: 11 knots
Building yard: Damen
Oranjewerf
Amsterdam
Building time: 1997 - 2000
1. SHIPWISE
2
1 Principle dimensions Construction (Scantling) water
line (CW|)
The water line used as the limit to
1.1 Definitions which the various structural compo
nents are designed.
Length overall (Loa)
Length of the ship between extremities. Deck lineExtended line from the
Length between perpendiculars upper side of the freeboard deck (or
THE SHAPE (Lpp or Lbp) deck-covering) at the ship's side.
Length from aft perpendicular (centre of
OF A SHIP
rudderstock) to forward perpendicular Moulded dimensions
Load line Length (Lh) Distance between two points, meas
1 Principal dimensions 26
Length as used in freeboard calcula ured at inside of shell plating (or out
2 Form coefficients 31 tion. side framing).
3 Hull form (Lines Plan) 33

Beam (Bmld) Base Line
4 Drawings 36 The greatest moulded breadth, meas The Baseline is a level, or plane, at
ured from side to side at the outside the underside of the frame at mid
5 Important data on 44 of the frames, but inside the shell length (mid ship section). This is the
various ships plating. top of the flat keel plate, when there
Breadth overall (Boa) is no rise of floor.
The maximum breadth of the ship as
measured from the outer hull on star Depth
board to the outer hull on port side, The vertical distance between the
including rubbing bars, permanent base line and the upper continuous
fenders etc. deck. The depth is measured at half
Lpp at the side of the ship.
Perpendiculars
Imaginary lines, perpendicular to the Draught(T)
base line or plane (and the water The maximum depth underwater, inch
line). This includes: shell plating.
- Forward Perpendicular (FPP or Draught Forward (Tfwd)
Fp). This line crosses the intersec Vertical distance between the water
tion of the water line and the stem. line and the underside of the keel,
- Aft Perpendicular (APP or AP) as measured at the forward perpen
This line usually aligns with the dicular.
centre line of the rudder stock (the Draught aft (Ta)
imaginary line around which the The vertical distance between the
rudder rotates). water line and the underside of the
The perpendiculars are shown on the keel as measured at the aft perpen
lines plan. They are the ends of the dicular.
'block' which contains the underwater
part of the hull.
The draught marks, load line mark,
Plimsoll mark and deck line have
Water Line
to be marked permanently on the
The water line of a ship lying in the
shell plating.
water. There are different water lines
Usually this means that they are
for different situations, such as:
outlined on the plating by bead
Light water line
welding or by welded plate.
The water line of a ship carrying only
her regular inventory.
Deep water line
The water line of maximum load The lines plan shows the shape
draught in seawater. of the ship. At the outside of the
Length on the water line (Lwi) frames and other internals the shell
Horizontal distance between the plating is fitted around the internals.
points where bow and stern intersect The thickness of the shell plat
the water plane, at summer mark, ing is not taken into consideration
less the shell plating, i.e. moulded. for certain measurements. Those
measurements are called moulded.
26 2. THE SHAPE OF A SHIP

1. Length overall (Loa)
2. Length between the fore and aft
perpendicular (Lpp)
3. Length on the water line (LW|)
4. Breadth overall
5. Depth
6. Draught
7. Freeboard
8. Air draught
The freeboard Is marked according

to the result of the freeboard calcula
tion, where the summer freeboard In
salt water Is established.
The main parametres In that calcula
tion are length, width (beam), sheer,
length of superstructures, length/
depth ratio, etc,
Allowances are made for fresh water.
The minimum freeboard depends on:

Freeboard Pilrnsoll Mark - The geographical area
The distance between the water line The Pllmsoll mark or Freeboard mark - The time of the year
and the top of the deck at the side Is a symbol Indicating the maximum
(at the deck line). The term summer Immersion of the ship In the water, The Pllmsoll mark can be checked by
freeboard means the distance from leaving a minimum freeboard for the crew. The origin Iles In the safety
the top of the summer load line and safety. The mark consists of a circle of the people on board.
the Pllmsoll mark and the upper edge with a dlametre of 300 mm., through The abbreviations of the marked load
of the deck line, which a horizontal line Is drawn with lines have to be In the language of the
Its upper edge going through the cen Flag State of the vessel.
Air draught tre of the circle. A reference line Is drawn for easy
The vertical distance between the This level Indicates the minimum checking of the position of the mark
water line and the highest point of freeboard In salt water summer con (during the annual load line survey).
the ship. The air draught Is measured ditions. Beside the circle Is the load This Is the deck line.
from the summer mark. If the ship line mark consisting of a number of It is normally at the level of the
has less draught one can ballast until horizontal lines Indicating the mini weather deck, but If the weather deck
It reaches the summer draught and mum freeboards as above, Is not the freeboard deck (e.g. Ro-Ro,
so obtain Its minimum air draught, All load lines are connected by a ver passenger ships), at the level of that
tical line. The ship may load cargo deck.
untlll the upper edge of the relevant When the distance between the deck
load line Is at the water level. line and the mark Is Impractically
larne, nr the connection between the
deck and the shell plate Is rounded off
(tankers, bulkcarriers), the reference
line Is positioned at a lower level.
A Summer freeboard
Freeboard deck
F------------------ T
-------- S
-------- W
-------- WNA
I
Freshwater I Seawater
Explanation of abbreviations used on the mark:

TF: Tropical Fresh (for water with a density of 1.000 t/m3)
F: Fresh (ditto)
T: Tropical (for water with a density of 1.025 t/m3)
S: Summer freeboard (ditto)
W: Winter (ditto)
WNA : Winter North Atlantic (ditto), only for ships less than 100 metres long
GL: Germanischer Lloyd - (DNV GL)
When the distance between the deck Hopper Dredgers have a similar free
line and the mark is impractically board allowance as these ships can
large, or the connection between the drop their cargo (sand) in case of
deck and the shell plate is rounded off emergency instantly, and so increase
(tankers, bulkcarriers), the reference their freeboard.
line is positioned at a lower level.
The mark and the deck line are to be Tankers carrying liquid cargoes and
marked permanently on the port and being completely watertight, also
starboard-side, mid-length. (See also have allowance for less freeboard
load-line Certificate, Chapter 6) compared with other cargo ships with
When a ship carries a deck cargo of the same length.
timber, and certain requirements are
met, this ship is allowed to have more Trim
draught (less freeboard). The difference between the draught
The mark and the deck line are to be at the stem and the draught at the
marked permanently on the port and stern.
starboard-side, mid-length. (See also Down and trimmed by the head.
load-line Certificate, Chapter 6) Vessel, loaded with cargo, to the
mark, and the draught forward is
When a ship carries a deck cargo of larger than at the stern.
timber, and certain requirements are Down and trimmed by the stern.
met, this ship is allowed to have more Vessel loaded with cargo, to the mark,
draught (less freeboard). and the draught aft is larger than
1. Plimsoll mark This is because of the additional forward.
2. Load line mark, a number of hori reserve buoyancy provided by the On an even keel, in proper trim.
zontal lines indicating the mini deck cargo. To indicate this, the ship The draught aft equals the draught
mum freeboard as above has a special freeboard mark for car forward.
3. The deck line is marked off above rying a deck cargo of timber, the so-
the Plimsoll circle called timber mark.
4. Draught marks.

1.2 Proportions 1.3 Volumes and weights
The ratios of some of the dimen- General

sions discussed above can be used to The size of a ship can be expressed
obtain information on resistance, sta by using terms which describe the
bility and manoeuvrability of the ship. characteristics of the ship.
Some widely used ratios are: Each term has a specific abbreviation.
The type of ship determines the term
The sheer line is easily visible L/B to be used.
The ratio of length and breadth. For instance, the size of a container
Sheer L/B can differ quite significantly vessel is expressed in the number of
This is the upward rise of a ship's depending on the type of vessel. 20' containers it can load; a Ro-Ro
deck from mid length towards the Common values: carrier's size is given by the total lane
bow and stern. The sheer gives the Passenger ships 6-8 metres and a passenger ship by the
vessel extra reserve buoyancy at the Freighters 5-7 number of passengers she can carry.
stem and the stern. Tug boats 3-5
Measurement Treaty
Camber A larger L/B value is favourable for All aspects concerning the measure
The transverse curvature of the deck. speed, but unfavourable for manoeu ments of seagoing vessels are listed
This curvature helps to ensure suf vrability and stability. in the Certificate of Registry.
ficient drainage of any water on deck. The Certificate of Registry is required
L/D by the International Convention on
Rise of floor The length/depth ratio. Tonnage Measurement of Ships, as
Common to some types of vessels The customary values for L/D vary set up by the IMO-conference in
like tugboats and fishing boats. between 10 and 15. This ratio plays a 1969.
This is the upward deviation from role in the determination of the free The treaty applies to seagoing vessels
the baseline of the lower edges of board and the longitudinal strength. with a minimum length of 24 metres
the floors from the keel towards the on international voyages.
bilges, in order to collect water inside B/T (T = Draught) At the IMO-conference in 1969 the
the hull near centre line, for easy The breadth/draught ratio, varies new measurements for the 'Gross
pumping. This was used in all ships between 2 and 4.5. Tonnage1 and 'Net Tonnage' were
but is not common in large ships A larger breadth in relation to the introduced, to establish a worldwide
today (they have flat bottoms). draught (a larger B/T value) gives a standard for calculating the size of
greater initial stability. a ship. In many countries the Gross
Bilge radius Tonnage is used to calculate harbour
The radius of the curvature of the B/D dues and pilotage charges, and to
bilge. The breadth/depth ratio, varies be determine the size of the crew.
tween 1 and 2. If this value increases,
it will have an unfavourable effect on Register ton
the stability (because the deck edge To determine the size of a ship the
will submerge at a smaller angle of register ton is used.
heel) and strength. It is based on volume where one reg
ister ton equals 100 eft, or 2.83 m1
34
2.
1. Camber
2. Keel
3. Bilge radius
4. Rise of floor
Ships with a small depth
2. THE SHAPE OF A SHIP

Gross Tonnage (GT)
Net Tonnage (NT)
In the drawing NT is given a different colour

within GT (which is more-or-less the whole ship),
to indicate the difference between NT and GT.
Gross Tonnage Underwater volume (m3)

The gross tonnage (GT) is calcu The moulded underwater volume of a ship is the displacement in m3 minus
lated using a formula that takes into the contribution of the shell, propeller and rudder. Or: the calculated volume
account the ship's volume in cubic of that part of the hull which is immersed in the water, on the outside of the
metres below the main deck and frames without extensions. The influence of the shell in weight is compensated
the enclosed spaces above the main by the extra displacement.
deck. Displacement (m3)
This volume is then multiplied by a The displacement is the volume of the part of the ship below the water line
coefficient, which results in a non- including the shell plating, propeller and rudder.
dimensional number (this means no Displacement D or A (ton)
values of T or m3 should be placed The displacement is the weight of the volume of water displaced by the ship.
after the number). One could also say: the displacement equals the total mass of the ship.
All measurements used in the calcula
tion are moulded dimensions. Displacement (ton) = water displaced (m3) x density of water (t/m3)
In order to minimise the daily expens Lightship weight (ton)

es of a ship, the ship owner will keep This is the weight of the ship including the regular inventory, but without any
the GT as low as possible. One way cargo, fuel or crew. The regular inventory includes: anchors, life-saving appli
of doing this is by keeping the depth ances, lubricating oil, paint, etc.
small, so more cargo can be placed on Deadweight (ton)
deck. This strategy is particularly used This is the weight a ship can load to take her from her lightship draught to her
in container feeder ships. summer load line draught. This is a fixed value, which is unique for each ship.
As a consequence, dangerous situa Through the years, there is usually a build-up of mud in the ballast tanks, addi
tions can occur as the loss of reserve tional spares are taken on board, and less is taken off.
buoyancy can result in a loss of stabil There is also water which cannot be pumped out. The total weight of all this, is
ity and in more 'water on deck'. called the growth, and has to be subtracted from the deadweight.
Deadweight (ton) = design displacement A(ton) - light ship weight (ton)

Net Tonnage
Deadweight (ton) = maximum weight A(ton) - actual weight A(ton)
The net tonnage is also a non-dimen
sional number that describes the vol
ume of the cargo space. Cargo Capacity (t)
The NT is derived from the GT by This is the total weight of cargo a ship is designed to carry, at a certain time.
subtracting the volumes occupied by: The actual cargo loaded (in ton) is not a fixed number. It depends on the ship's
- crew maximum allowable immersion at the relevant season, which will include the
navigation equipment capacity (in ton) of fuel, spares, provisions and drinking water.
- the propulsion equipment (partly) For a long voyage a large quantity of fuel has to be taken, which reduces the
- workshops cargo capacity. If, on the other hand, the ship refuels (bunkers) during the voy
- ballast age, the cargo capacity is larger upon departure. The choice of the amount of
fuel on board and the location for refuelling depends on many factors, but in the
The NT may not be less than 30% of end the master has final responsibility for the choices made.
the GT.
Cargo capacity (ton) = deadweight (tons) - ballast, fuel, provisions (ton).

2 Form coefficients
Form coefficients define the characteristics of the

vessel's shape below the design waterline.
This makes it possible to get an impression of the
shape of the underwater body of a ship without
extensive use of any data. However, the form
coefficients do not contain any information on the
dimensions of the ship.
They are non-dimensional figures.
2.1 Waterplane coefficient, Cw (a)
Aw
Waterplane coefficient (Cw) =
Lpp x Bmid
The waterplane coefficient gives the ratio of the

area of the waterplane (Aw) and the rectangular
plane bounded by Lpp and breadth moulded (BmW).
A large waterplane coefficient in combination with
a small block coefficient (or coefficient of fineness)
is favourable for stability in both transverse and
longitudinal directions.
2.2 Midship section coefficient, Cm (P)
Am
Midship coefficient (Cm)
®mld X T
The midship coefficient gives the ratio of the area

of the midship section (Am) and the area bounded
by Bmld and T.
The cargo capacity largely determines the amount of money a A ship with a large midship coefficient and a large
ship generates. block coefficient.
2.3 Block coefficient, coefficient of fineness, Cb. (S)
The block coefficient gives the ratio of the volume of the underwater body (V)
and the rectangular block bounded by Lpp, Bm|d and draught (T).
A vessel with a small block coefficient is referred to as 'fine'.
In general, fast ships have small block coefficients.
Customary values for the block coefficient of several types of vessels:
Ship type Block coefficient Cb Appr. ship speed

Lighter 0.90 5-10 knots
Bulk carrier 0.80 - 0.85 12 - 17 knots
Tanker 0.80 - 0.85 12 - 16 knots
General cargo 0.55 - 0.75 13 - 22 knots
Container ship 0.50 - 0.70 14 - 26 knots
Ferry 0.50 - 0.70 15-26 knots
A ship with a small block-coefficient and a

midship section coefficient
A ship with a large block-coefficient and a

midship section and prismatic coefficient
2.4 Prismatic coefficient, Cp. (phi)
The prismatic coefficient gives the ratio of the volume of the underwater body
and the block formed by the area of the mid ship section (Am) and Lpp.
The Cp is important for the resistance and hence for the necessary propulsive
power (if the Cp decreases, the necessary propulsive power also becomes
smaller).
The maximum value of all these coefficients is reached in the case of a rectan
gular block, and equals 1. The minimum value is theoretically 0.
V = Lpp x B x T x Cb Cb H
P Lpp x A Lpp x B x T x Cm Cm Water lines, ordinates, verticals, diagonals

3 Hull form (Lines
plan)
When the principal dimensions, dis

placement and hull form coefficients
are known, one has an impressive
amount of design information, but not
yet a clear image of the exact geo
metric shape of the ship. The shape
is given by the lines plan.
The shape of a ship can vary in

height, length and breadth. In order
to represent this complex shape on
paper, transverse sections of the hull
are combined with two longitudinal
sets of parallel planes, each one per
pendicular to the others.
Ordinates
Evenly spaced vertical cross-sections
in transverse direction are called ordi
nates. Usually the ship is divided
into 20 ordinates, from the centre of
the rudder stock (ordinate 0) to the
intersection of the water line and the
mould side of the stem (ordinate 20).
The boundaries of these distances are
numbered 0 to 20, called the ordinate
numbers. A projection of all ordinates
into one view is called a frame plan.
Water lines
Horizontal sections of the hull are
called water lines. One of these
is the design water line. This is the
water line of the fully-loaded ship.
Usually 3 to 4 other water lines are
drawn between the design waterline
and the base line, numbered upwards
from 0 at the baseline.
The construction water line, or the
scantling water line, can be higher.
When the water lines are projected
and drawn into one view from above,
the result is called a water line model.
Verticals / Buttocks Diagonals
Vertical sections in longitudinal direc The diagonals are longitudinal sec
tion are called verticals or buttock tions that intersect with the hull sur
lines. These longitudinal sections are face at a certain angle. On the longi
parallel to the plane of symmetry of tudinal plan they show up as curves.
the ship. The curvature of the frames (ordi
When the buttocks are projected and nates), water lines and buttocks are
drawn into one particular view, the compared to each other and modified
result is called a sheer plan. until they are consistent, and develop
Apart from the rectangular sections, smoothly in all directions.
sometimes planes are used, in longi When this procedure is executed, the
tudinal direction, but at an angle to results can be checked using the diag
the mid ship plane. They are called onals. The most common diagonal is
Verticals, diagonals diagonals, or sent-lines. called the bilge diagonal.

Today the lines plans are made with Ferry
the aid of computer programs that
have the capability to transform Lpp 146,40 m
the shape of the vessel automati &mld 27,60 m
cally when modifications in the ship's 7~mld 6,20 m
design require this. Volume 15263
When the lines plan is ready, the Cb 0,568
program is used to calculate, among cm 0,946
other things, the volume, displace cp 0,600
ment and stability of the ship, set LCB -1,77 %
against draught. KM 15,16 m
As shown in the lines plans, both the

water lines and the verticals/buttocks
are drawn in one half of the ship.
In the body plan, the frames aft of
midships are drawn on the left and
the forward frames are drawn on the Navy Combatant
right.
The lines plan is a moulded plan i.e. at Lpp 114,40 m
the outside of the frames, thus inside &mld 15,56 m
the shell plating. Tmid 7,40 m
The lines plans shown are of vessels Volume 4427 m3
that have underwater bodies that dif- cb 0,339
fer quite drastically. cm 0,521
The reader can tell from these plans Cp 0,652
that a ship will be finer with smaller LCB -7,77 %
coefficients when the water lines, KM 10,12 m
ordinates and buttocks are more
widely spaced. For instance, a
rectangular pontoon has only one
water line, one ordinate and one but
tock, the coefficients are 1.
Abbreviations:
Lpp = length between perpendicu- Research vessel
lars
Bmid = breadth moulded ^-pp 27,89 m
Tmid = draught moulded Bmld 8,53 m
Cb = block coefficient or coefficient Tmid 2,13 m
of fineness Volume 228 m3
Cm = mid ship section coefficient cb 0,500
Cp = prismatic coefficient cm 0,759
LCB = longitudinal position of the cp 0,659
resultant of all upward buoy- LCB -1,16 %
ancy forces; KM 4,68 m
Longitudinal centre of buoy
ancy (forward or aft of ordi
nate 10) in % of Lpp
KM = height of metacentre above
the keel (metre).

O 1700 3400 5100 6800 85
Classification requirements: The Flag State requires:

4 Drawings
- general arrangement - general arrangement
- lines plan - capacity plan,
4.1 Drawing list - construction plan(s) profile and decks - safety equipment plan,
- transverse sections, incl. midship - stability calculations,
To build a ship, hundreds of drawings section - all class-approved drawings.
are often needed. A selected number - double bottom construction
of drawings are submitted for approv - fore and aft ship The above very much depends on
al by the Flag State and the relevant - rudder, stern frame the flag the ship will carry. There
classification society. - engine foundations are completely different requirements
The construction drawings have to - crane foundations, if applicable from one Flag State to another, and
be approved by the classification - deck house they can all be delegated to Class.
society, and the drawings concerning - capacity plan
safety in general by the Flag State. - loading manual for longitudinal
Which drawings have to be submitted strength
depends on the type of ship. - pumping and piping
- shafting
- etc.

The general arrangement of this ship is shown on the next pages.

MAIN PARTICULARS
Length over all_______________________________________ 111,700______ m
Length between perpendiculars_____________________ 102,000 tn
Breadth moulded______________________________ 16,800______ m
Depth Main Deck_____________________________________ 9,300________m
Depth Upper Deck____________________________________ 12,700_______ m
Draught at summer freeboard_________________________ 5,940_______ m
Corresponding deadweight_____________________________ 4.400_______ T
Draught open top_____________________________________ 5,360________m
Corresponding deadweight_____________________________ 3.500________ T
Trail speed at ballast draught approx._________________ 17,00________ kts
Engine output__________________________________ 4.000_______ kW
~~ZZZ CAPACITIES
Hold _____________________________________________ 240.000 cuft

Ballast water 3.497 m*
Potable water 35 mJ
H.F.O, bunkers 529 m3
M.G.0. bunkers 65 m3
Containers________________________________ in hold: 124________ TEU
_________________________________________ on deck: 137_________ TEU
totals 261 TEU
Crane capacity____________________________________ 2 x 150 t
Maximum outreach 28,00 m
K GENERAL UPDATE MvH 20130502
J CHANGE DIVISION PROVISION STORE ANO GALLEY JJvT 20121126
I MAJOR UPDATE. OUTFITTING AND JOINERY JJ/TV 20121031
H GENERAL UPDATE U 2012-10-01
G GENERAL UPDATE JJ 2012-08-29
GENERAL UPDATE JJ 2012-08-03
GENERAL UPDATE JJ 2012-07-16
D GENERAL UPDATE PK 2012-06-15
REMARKS CLIENT JJ 2012-04-18
Bl REMARKS CLIENT JJ 2012-04-11
B REMARKS CLIENT JJ 2012-03-29
REMARKS CLIENT TV 2012-03-23
FIRST ISSUE PK 2012-03-16
REV DESCRIPTION DRAWN DATE
DIM. UNIT: mm CLIENT: SHIPKITS - BN 120
SCALE: 1:150 PROJECT NUMBER: 12.002 / BV 22715 S
DATE. 1322012 DRAWING NUMBER: 000-001 REV.: K
c-job DRAWN: BF
TITLE:
CHECKED: BJB/TV | APPROVED: TV
SHEET: FORMAT
Braek«me«s<raM its
213! dB HMAMOtb SI GENERAL ARRANGEMENT PLAN 1/1 A0
T:*31(0)33 SS M 763
3:931 W> 33 56 75 299 PROJECTION I'»'*»'' ” ’*• «««
19 I jsfc,,,I 1 21 I 22

SHELL E
Fr 187+150
4.2 General arrangement
The general arrangement plan shows the

division and arrangement of the ship. The
following views are displayed:
- a (SB) side-view of the ship
- the plan views of the most important decks
- sometimes cross-sections, or a bow and
stern view are included.
Views and cross-sections mentioned above,
display among other things:
- the division into the different compartments
(for example: tanks, engine room, holds)
- location of bulkheads
- location and arrangement of the super
structures
- major equipment (for example: winches,
loading gear, bow thruster, lifeboat).
In addition to these, some basic data are
included in the drawing such as:
- principal dimensions
- volumes of the holds
- tonnage
- deadweight
- engine power
- speed 115 120 125 130 135 140
- class.
Shell expansion of a multi-purpose vessel.
4.3 Scantling plan /
construction plan
This drawing shows the longitudinal centre

line section (CL) and the plan views of the
most important decks. Sometimes the draw
ing also includes the watertight and other
important bulkheads.
It indicates their locations and the dimen
sions of the structural members (including
the plate thickness).
Sometimes the bulkheads are shown on the
midship section drawing.
4.4 Shell expansion
A shell expansion is drawn in order to have

information about the distribution of the
different shell plates and other details (for
example hull openings) in the complete hull.
The quality and thickness of the shell plating
is shown at each level and frame number.
This is very important when repairs have to
be carried out. It is usually drawn with the
scaled centre line of the ship's bottom as the
base. Each frame is shown at its scale spac
ing and girth (length from centreline to top of
the uppermost plate).
The seams and butts of shell plates are SHELL VIEW PS
drawn, shell openings like sea chests, lon
gitudinal internals, tank boundaries, decks,
etc. are indicated by different symbols.
ZN FORE SHIP
Fr 140-150
■ ~ SB
F rone 3b
4.5 Midship Section
This cross-section shows one or more

transverse sections of the ship.
In the case of a freighter it is always
a cross-section of the hold amidships.
It shows the principal dimensions,
quality and thickness of shell plating,
deck plating, all longitudinal stiff
ening, transverse frames and web
frames, if applicable, and important
equipment data:
principal dimensions
- engine power and speed
- classification data
- equipment numbers and anchor
and chain cable details
- maximum longitudinal bending
moment.
4.6 Various other drawings
- Double Bottom
The height and the length of the
double bottom can be found on the
construction plan, and the midship
ssection. Where the tank top meets
the shell can be seen on the Shell
Expansion. The forward part, vulner
able to the impact forces due to the
pitching movement of the ship, has
increased scantlings.
- Decks
The decks are important for class,
as they are part of the longitudinal
strength calculation. The midship sec
tion gives most of the information,
supplemented by the construction
plan. Decks in way of the neutral
plane are less important.
- Construction aft I Engine room Frane 105
and foundations
The engine room construction is
important, including the foundations
for the various machinery, in con
nection with propulsion forces and
vibration. Special drawings, normally
labelled construction aft, show the
web frames and vertical structure of
this part of the ship.
- Safety Plan
The safety plan is a general arrange
ment plan on which all the safety
devices such as lifeboats, liferafts,
lifebuoys, hydrants, fire-hose boxes,
escape routes, fire extinguishers are
shown. See also under Chapter 15,
Safety.

- Docking Plan 4.7 Bulkheads
The docking plan is a mixed version of the general
arrangement and the capacity plan. It shows where Every ship has to be provided with watertight bulkheads.
the ship can be supported by the blocks in drydock. Minimum required:
Important information is the location of: - the forepeak bulkhead (collision bulkhead),
longitudinal and transverse bulkheads, - the after-peak bulkhead,
- rise of floor, - engine room bulkhead(s).
- positions of shell openings, The required minimum number of bulkheads of a ship is given
- drainplugs, in the following table, printed in the rules of the classification
- echo-sounder, log, etc. societies.
Ships are usually docked using a standard block Alternative arrangements can be considered, depending on
arrangement. However, sometimes it is necessary to operational restrictions and adequate constructional compensa
modify the arrangement for a specific ship. tion.
- Capacity plan
This is also a version of the general arrangement.
All tanks and holds are shown with their volumes Length Engine room Engine room
and centre of gravity. [m] midships aft
Together with the stability and 'light ship weight' < 65 4 3
particulars, this forms the basis on which stability 65 - 85 4 4
calculations are performed. Normally this drawing 85 - 90 5 5
goes together with the deadweight scale, which 90 - 105 5 5
shows the relationship between draught, freeboard, 105 - 115 6 5
displacement, immersion per centimetre and dead 115 - 125 6 6
weight in fresh and salt water. 125 - 145 7 6
- Navigation light arrangement The navigation 145 - 165 8 7
lights have to be installed in accordance with the 165 - 190 9 8
International Regulations for Preventing of Collisions > 190 To be decided To be decided
at Sea (lights and shapes). The arrangement has to upon upon
be approved by Flag State.
Ship-to-ship discharge from bulk carrier to coaster

5 Important data on various ships
Ship owners have an interest in pro Or to put it in another way: how they The abbreviations and other informa
moting their ships as much as possi can earn money. The tables on the fol tion are explained, unless they have
ble, especially the types of cargo their lowing pages contain data of a number previously been explained in the text.
ships can transport. of ships which significantly differ in the
type of cargo they can carry.
5.1 Freezer (Handy size reefer vessel of 323,000cbft)
MAIN PARTICULARS:
Flag: Netherlands Antilles
Home port: Curacao
Call Sign: PJDE
IMO Nr.: 9795995 (1)
Delivered: 2019
Deadweight: 7737t
GT/NT: 6088/3470 (2)
Length O.A.: 115.1m
Length B.P.: 109.5m
Breadth (moulded): 18.0m
Depth to main deck (moulded): 10.3m
Design draught (moulded): 6.3m
Scantling draught (moulded): 7.83m
Classification society: Bureau Veritas
Class Notation: (3) BV + * + HULL + MACH, + AUT-UMS, + SYS-NEQ-1,
+ REF-Cargo, + REFCONT (E),
Refrigerated cargo ship - equipped for the carriage of containers,
Unrestricted navigation, .
MON-SHAFT, GREEN PASSPORT*, BWT*, CLEANSHIP*, SEEMP,
INWATERSURVEY, ICE
REEFER CARGO HOLDS
Holds/Hatches/Compartments: 4/12/4
Minimum deck height: 2.40m
Temperature zones: 4 (each cargo hold is one temperature zone + an insulated deck for part loads)
Cooling sections: 1ABC, 2ABC, 3ABC, 4ABC
Hold volume: 322,828cbft
Floor area: 3367m2
Air circulations: 60/h (4)
Air renewals: 1.5/h (4)
Temperature range: -25/+13°C
Cargo holds cooling system: Primary-Ammonia (NH3), Secondary-Brine (CaCI2) (5)
USDA equipped: Yes (6)
Container capacity (ISO standard) 130 TEU
on deck:
Reefer container capacity on deck: 65 HC FEU
Number of electric reefer plugs: 52
MAIN ENGINE: MAN B&W 5S35ME-B9.5 Tier II
MCR: 4350 kW (7.1)
SMCR: 3325 kW (7.2)
CSR: 2711 kW (7.3)
Service speed at design draught & CSR: 14.2 knots
FOUR AUXILIARY ENGINES

Type: Yanmar 6EY22LW
MCR: 745kW each BOW THRUSTER: 750kW
RPM: 720 COMPLEMENT: 16 Persons (8)
TANK CAPACITIES:
FOUR DERRICKS Ballast tanks: 1071m3
Gear outreach: 18 m Fuel tanks: 756m3
Gear maximum load: 7 MT Fresh water: 267m3

Explanation of the specification GREEN PASSPORT = ship for which requirements intended
(1) The IMO-registration number of the ship. Even after to facilitate ship recycling have been applied, encompassing
a change of ownership, this identification number stays with the identification, quantification and localization of materi
the vessel for the full lifetime. als which may cause harm to the environment and people
(2) Gross Tonnage / Nett Tonnage when the fittings or equipment containing such materials are
(3) The class notation = The various letters give details of removed, or when the ship is recycled.
the properties and quality of the vessel. Every classification soci BWT = ship fitted with a Ballast Water Treatment plant
ety has its own abbreviations. The mark has been assigned CLEANSHIP = ships designed and equipped to control and
as vessel has been surveyed by the BV Society during its limit the emission of polluting substances in the sea and the air.
construction in compliance with the new building procedure. SEEMP = The additional class notation SEEMP aim of giving
Aut-UMS = The additional class notation AUT-UMS assigned to the company an Energy Management method as per struc
to the vessel fitted with automated installations enabling ture from ISO 50001. The requirements for the assignment
machinery spaces to remain periodically unattended in all of this notation are given in NR586 Ship Energy Efficiency
sailing conditions including manoeuvring. Management Plan.
SYS-NEQ-1 = The additional class notation REF-CARGO The additional class notation INWATERSURVEY is assigned,
assigned to the vessel fitted with refrigerating plants and to the vessel provided with suitable arrangements to facilitate
holds intended to carry cargoes, with the condition that the the in-water surveys.
number and the power of the refrigerating units are such that ICE = The additional class notation ICE is assigned, to the
the specified temperatures can be maintained with one unit vessel whose reinforcements for navigation in ice are similar,
on standby. when this has been specially considered by the classification
REF-Cargo = The additional class notation REF-CARGO society
assigned to the vessel fitted with refrigerating plants and holds (4) 60/h / 1.5/h times empty hold volume unobstructed =
intended to carry cargoes, with the condition thatthenumberand Maximum number of air circulation rate base on empty hold
the power of the refrigerating units are such that the specified volume. Maximum number of air renewals rate base on empty
temperatures can be maintained with one unit on standby. hold volume.
REFCONT (E) = Refrigerated cargo ship - equipped for the (5) Primary-Ammonia (NH3), Secondary-Brine (CaCI2) =
carriage of containers. The additional class notation Ammonia-brine indirect reefer holds cooling system.
REF-CONT (E) assigned to the vessel fitted with electrical (6) USDA equipped = The vessel fitted with cargo equipment
power supply to self-refrigerated containers. as per United States Department of Agriculture regulations.
Unrestricted navigation The navigation notation unrestrict (7.1) MCR = Maximum Continuous Rating of the engine type
ed navigation is assigned to the vessel intended to operate in (7.2) SMCR = Specified Maximum Continuous Rating. The
any area and any period of the year. auxiliary equipment (turbocharger, pumps, coolers, etc) is
MON-SHAFT = The additional class notation MON-SHAFT designed and adapted to the SMCR.
is assigned, to the vessel fitted with oil or water lubericated (7.3) CSR = Continuous Service Rating.
systems for tailshaft bearings complying with the require (8) Complement = maximum number of crew personnel
ments of this section (this notation allows a reduced scope for allowed on board.
complete tailshaft surveys).

5.2 General cargo ship
CLASS S-TYPE LLOYD'S + 100 Al + LMC UMS LA NAVI

(1)
strengthened for heavy cargoes
Ice Class Finnish/Swedish 1A (2)
PRINCIPAL DIMENSIONS
(3)
Length overall 168.14 m
Breadth moulded 25.20/25.30 m
Height in hold as SID 14.30 m
Height in lower hold as TWD 3 height 3.30, 7.00 or 10.25 m
Height in tween deck as TWD 3 heights 9.90, 6.20 or 2.95 m
Design draught 10.00 m
Max summer draught 10.65 m
GT abt 16800 (4)
NT abt 6900
DEADWEIGHT all told design draught abt 18900/18,275 mt (excl/incl TWD) (5)
max summer draught abt 21150/20525 mt (excl/incl TWD)
CAPACITY grain = bale hold 0 14000 cbft 400 m’ (6)
hold 1 179000 cbft 5050 m’
hold 2/3 662000 cbft 18750 rrP
total 855000 cbft 24200 rrP
if tween deck installed 63,000 cbft/1,780 m3 less in holds
FLOOR SPACE tank top total 1625 (no 0: 50 m2, no 1: 340 m2, no 2/3: 1235 m2) (7)
tween deck total 1,840 m2 (no 1: 425 m2, no 2/3: 1415 m2)
weather deck total 2800 m2 (no 0: 50 m2, no 1: 425 m2, no 2: 685 m2, no 3: 650 m2'
AIR CHANGE (basis empty holds) abt 20 x per hour (8)
CONTAINER INTAKE (9)
Hold units 478 TEU
Deck units 632 TEU
Total units 1110 TEU
Max size height up to 9'6', width up to 2500 mm
limited quantity alternative dimensions such as length 45 ft
Power available for reefer connection. up to 800/900 kW
SIDEPORTS 5 side shifters, each 16t SWL, 500t capacity per hour
HATCHES weather deck no 0: 6.50 x 7.50 m no 1: 25.60 x 17.80/15.20 m
no 2: 38.40 x 17.80 m no 3: 25.60 x 20.40 m
steel, end folding type
tween deck no 1: 25.60 x 17.80/15.20/10.10 m no 2: 38.40 x 17.80 m
under crossbeam: 4.20 x 17.80 m no 3: 25.60 x 20.40 m
consisting of 18 steel pontoons;
Bulkheads/compartments removable pontoons up to 14 compartments at TEU interval
MAXIMUM LOAD (10)
Weather deck hatch covers 1.75 t/m2 weatherload, 2.00 t/m2 payload
Tween deck hatch covers hold 1: 7.5 t/m2, hold 2: 5,5 t/m2, hold 3: 5.0 t/m2
Tank top 20.0 t/m2
DECK CRANES combinable di)
Tons/reach 3 of 120 mt SWL/14m and 50 mt SWL/30m
Position 2 x PS (aft and mid) and 1 x SB (forward)
MAIN ENGINE Wartsila 16,400 HP/12,060 kW Bowthruster 1,155 HP/850 kW (12)
Speed design draught abt 19.6 knots
Fuel consumption per day abt 45 mt IFO 380 cSt, no MIDO at sea, except for manoeuvring
3UNKER CAPACITY
Intermediate Fuel Oil 1700 m3
Marine Diesel Oil 180 m3
BALLAST CAPACITY 7200 m3
Explanation of the numbers on page 46
Lloyd's = The classification society (1)

+ 100A1 = Built according to and under supervision of the rules of this Class.
+ LMC = Lloyd's Machinery Class. All machinery has been built in accordance with the specifications.
UMS = Unmanned Machinery Space. The engine room does not have to be manned permanently.
LA = Lifting Appliances. The cargo gear has been approved as classed.
NAVI = Permission for a single bridge watch control, although SOLAS-rules only permit this in
favourable circumstances.
The vessel has been reinforced to carry heavy cargoes.
1A = Finnish/Swedish Ice-class. (2)
Length overall
Width / Beam Moulded (3)
Height in hold as SID = Height in hold as single decker (no tween deck)
Height in lower deck as TWD = Height in lower hold as a tweendecker
Height in tween deck as TWD = Height in the tweendeck as a tweendecker.
Gross Tonnage (4)
Net Tonnage
Deadweight all told = Deadweight at design draught. (5)
Approximately 18900/18275 metric tons (excluding/including tween decks).
Capacity = Grain or Bale space. Because the hold is box shaped, the total m3 of bulk cargo (6)
equals the total m3 of general cargo.
Cbft = Cubic feet. If all the tween decks are installed in the hold, the capacity of the
hold decreases by 63000 ft3 or 1780 m3.
Floor Space = Deck area of the tank top, tween deck and weather deck overall and perhold. (7)
Ventilation: = Number of air-changes per hour, with empty hold. (8)
Container intake = The number of containers with a length of 20'that can be loaded. (9)
Maximum height = The inside measurements of the cargo hold are, if practicable, based on a
and breadth. number of times the size of a container in length and width, with a little oversize.
Maximum load = Minimum strength of the hatches (also according to class) as determined by the Load-line (10)
Convention. The criteria are based on the maximum height of a water column on the hatch,
which is 1.8 metres. This figure is under discussion, the hatch covers of bulk carriers are
required to be made stronger.
Deck cranes = The deck cranes can be combined (in twins). All three cranes can lift up to 120 (combin- (11)
able) tons if the jibs are topped to a reach of 14 metres.
If they are lowered to a range of 30 metres, they can lift up to 50 tons.
Position of the cranes: 2 on port side, one on starboard (fore).
Main engine = 45mt IFO 380 cst (centistoke) = 45 tons intermediate fuel oil 380 centistoke (12)

5.3 Chemical tanker
IMO Type II, Marpol - Annex I & II (1) Explanation of the specifications
Built: 2000
(1) Marpol requirements, Annex I: oil products,
Dwt m. tons: 6430 mt
Annex II: liquid chemicals.
GT: 4670
(2) The tanks are constructed of duplex stain
NT: 1679
Speed: less steel, which means that the steel plate
15.5 knots
L.o.a. 118.00 metre of the tank surroundings is rolled in two
Breadth: 17.00 metre layers: ordinary steel at the outside, and
Draught: 6.45 metre stainless steel on the tankside.
Cargo cap. 98.5 %: 6871 cbm (3) Sloptanks are tanks that collect the wash
Type steel: duplex stainless steel (2) ing water.
Ice class: 1A
Exterior heating of cargo tanks up to 80 °C
2 sloptanks cap. 206 m3 total (3)
5.4 Gas tanker (Explanation of the numbers on page 49)
Ship type Ethylene carrier S.P. 6.0 bar/ F.R. -104°C 2G (1)
Flag: Dutch
Built: 2014
Cubic capacity: 4700 cbm
DWT (ethylene) 3 lOOt
L.o.a: 99.95m
Beam: 17.20m
Summer draught: 6.85m
Ethylene draught: 6.50m (2)
Speed: 14.5kn (5)
Tanks: 2 type C tanks, S.P. 6.0 bar/ F.R. -104°C 2G
Class notation: BV I «HULL «MACH Liquefied gas carrier Type 2G Unrestricted navigation, CPS(WBT) ;
AVM-APS; AUT-UMS; SYS-NEQ 1 ; MON-SHAFT ; GREEN PASSPORT ; NDO-4 days ;
CLEANSHIP : ICE CLASS IC; INWATERSURVEY
Propulsion system: 6L34DF with gear box, and controllable pitch propeller (3)
Auxiliary power: 6L20DF gen set (4)
Cooling down capacity : Ethylene from -98°C upto -102°C 35 hours (6)
Typical cargoes: S.G. [t/m3], at temp. [°C] (7)

Ammonia 0,681 - 33,4
Butane 0,600 - 0,5
Butadiene 0,653 - 4,5
Ethylene 0,569 - 104,0
Propane 0,582 - 42,8
1. Ethylene / LPG carrier: The ves 4. The average speed of the ves
sel is capable of transporting sel is 14.5 knots when carrying
liquefied ethylene gas (LEG), a cargo of ethylene and at the
and LPG gases like propane, same time keeping the cargo
butane, propylene and buta at a temperature of -102°C.
diene. Keeping the temperature, or
2. The vessel is capable of trans better pressure maintaining,
porting various products. These requires electrical energy.
products have dissimilar specific 5. The electrical energy comes
weights (7). The tank capacity from the main engine, with
(volume) is fixed, but the mass help of a shaft generator.
depends on the volume and When the shaft generator is
the specific gravity. Therefore, running, this power cannot be
the cargo capacity, and con used for propulsion. A gas
sequently the draught of the tanker has a relatively large
vessel depends on the product capacity installed, precisely to
on board. The draught and the be able to handle the load.
cargo capacity as given is valid 6. Not every cargo is loaded at the
for a cargo of ethylene. same condition (tempera
3. The vessel is sailing on LNG, ture) as the receiving termi
although she cannot transport nal requires. The vessels are
LNG as cargo. The LNG sys capable of providing additional
tem is located on the deck, as service, like cooling down a
two cylindrical bunker tanks. cargo to the required tempera
The square box on the end is ture. The time to cool down a
the valve box containing the cargo is a measure of the siz
necessary gas equipment for ing of the gas plant.
engines. The engine itself is 7. The specific gravity (S.G.)
a 6L34DF engine, with double shows the specific weight of
walled piping, which is installed certain cargoes. The specific
in a normal engine room. No gravity is expressed in tonnes
special gas safe engine room per cubic metre (t/m3). The
is required. Older gas tankers specific gravity is a charac
often still use fuel oil (HFO).The teristic of the product, and is Fuel gas system being loaded on the
electrical power comes from 2 valid for the given temper vessel. The fuel gas system consists
gen sets that are also DF type ature, expressed in degrees of a bunker tank (vacuum insulated)
(running on gas) or from a shaft Celcius (°C). and a valve box, each on port side
generator. Older gas tankers and starboard side. This fuel gas
often have generator sets on system is independent of the cargo
board that run on diesel. system.

TYPES OF SHIP
3 1 Classification of ships by type
This table categorises vessels by type.

It is by no means a complete overview. Some vessels can be placed in more than
one category.
Types of Ship
TYPES OF SHIP Dry Cargo Liquid cargo Passenger ships

(1) (2) (3)
1 Classification of ships 52
Multi-purpose ship Bulk cargo Crude carrier Passenger ship
by type Unitised cargo Bulk carrier Product tanker Car and passenger
Container vessel Ore carrier LPG/LNG carrier Ferries
2 Brief discussion of 52 Roll-on/Roll-off PCC (Pure Car
several types of ships Heavy-cargo vessel Carrier) Cruise ship
Refrigerated ships PTCC (Pure Car
3 Offshore equipment 74 Livestock carrier and Truck Car
rier.)
Naval vessels Fishing Dredgers etc. Work ships

(4) (5) (6) (7)
Trawlers Trailing hopper Crane vessels
Aircraft carriers
Other types of suction dredger Cable-layers
Amphibious sup
fishing vessels Buoy-layers
port vessels
Cutter suction Oil-recovery vessels
Logistic support
dredger Shear leg cranes
vessels
Platform Supply
Frigates
Rock-dumper Vessels (PSV)
etc.
Backhoe dredg Anchor Handling Tug
ers and Supply Vessels
(AHTS)
Auxiliary vessels Yachts Fast craft Offshore equip

(8) (9) (10) ment (11)
Seagoing tugs Motor yachts Catamarans Drilling rigs
Harbour tugs Sailing yachts Axe Bow Jack up
Icebreakers SWATH vessels Drill-ships
Pilot vessels Pipe layers
Coastguard vessels
Research vessels Floating Produc
tion Storage and
Offloading vessel
F(P)SO
2 Brief discussion of several types of ships
The discussion of the vessels below includes a general description, dimensions

and other characteristics.
For example, important features for a container vessel are the maximum num
ber of standard containers she can carry and the deadweight.
For a passenger ship, the deadweight is not important, but the number of pas
sengers is. A tug has to deliver a high bollard pull, whereas that is not impor
tant for a container feeder.
2.1 Dry Cargo a. Ships with cargo gear not more than 3.60 metres, a small air
Multipurpose ships with cargo gear draught of approximately 6.5 metres
are heavier than comparable vessels and, compared to other ships of the
2.1.1 Multi-purpose ships without cargo gear. As a result their same size, a large ballast tank capac
carrying capacity is less. ity. Like inland vessels, coastal trade
Multipurpose means that these ves The advantage of such a ship is that liners (also called sea-river ships)
sels can transport many types of she can work in ports and industrial have masts which can be lowered
cargo. zones where no cranes are available. and often a wheelhouse which can be
Possible cargo A disadvantage is the increased air adjusted in height. When the ship has
- containers draught which reduces the number of to pass under a bridge, the wheel
- general cargo ports the ship can enter. house can be lowered.
- dry bulk cargo such as grain b. Ships without cargo gear. These ships can carry out direct ser
- wood Ships without cargo gear are depend vices overseas, between inland ports
- heavy items (project cargo) ent on the presence of loading gear in without re-stowage of their cargo to
Characteristics the ports and are therefore limited in inland ships or lorries.
- deadweight (t) their employability. Additional characteristics:
- hold capacity (m3, ft3) c. Coastal trade liners - draught
- number of containers and their In order to navigate from the sea into - air-draught
dimensions (20ft and/or 40ft) the inland waterways, coastal trade - ballast-tank capacity
- maximum deck load (t/m2) liners have a small draught; usually
- maximum wheel-load (t)
- lifting capacity of cargo gear
A removable tweendeck is a normal

feature. Such a deck can be built up
from pontoons. The pontoons of the
tween-deck are used to change the
lay-out of the cargo hold in length
and in height in accordance with the
LADY AMVA
cargo. These pontoons can be fitted at
various positions and heights, have a
weight of approx. 20 tons and can be
used as tween deck or bulkhead. Usu
ally the hatchways and hatch coam
ings are of the same dimensions
Sea river vessel with a maximum draught of 4.90 m, and an air-draught of
as the holds, which makes loading
8.70 m. Deadweight is 3,700 t. Service speed is approximately 10 knots. The
and discharging easier. The holds are
main engine delivers less than 750 kW. Fuel consumption is 4 t/day.
closed with hatches. There is a variety
of systems. Cargo such as wood or
containers can be carried on top of
the hatches. Often the hatch coam
ings and bulwarks are heightened to
support the containers.
Multipurpose vessels can be sub

divided into:
- ships with cargo gear (up to 120
tons lifting capacity per crane)
- ships without cargo gear
- coastal trade liners
A multi-purpose vessel can also be

provided with one or more ramps on
the side of the ship.
Loading and discharging can then be
carried out over these ramps by fork
lifts. This is faster and less dependent
on the weather.
Geared multi-pupose dry cargo vessel.
3. TYPES OF SHIP
2.1.2 Container ships - Panamax ships Comparison: The 'Emma Maersk'
In 2016 the new Panama locks with (2006 / 15.500 TEU / service
Since the 1960s the transport of con their new size of 426 x 55 metres speed 25 knots) has one main
tainers has continued to grow. The were delivered. Ships with a maxi engine with 14 cylinders with a
specific advantage of the use of con mum length of 384 m. and 49 m. total power of approx. 85,000 kW.
tainers is that the cargo can be trans width can be handled by these locks. The 'Barzan' (2015 / 18,800 TEU
ported directly from and to house The carrying capacity of a single ship / service speed 18 knots) has one
or factory, and not just from port to to be handled will be, as now indi main engine with 10 cylinders with
port. Transport by water is just a link cated by the Panama Canal Authority, a total power of approx. 38,000
in the chain of transport. approx. 14,000/15,000 containers. kW. Both vessels have more or
Container vessels have grown from - Very Large Container Ships less the same outside dimensions
a capacity of 200 TEU (1966) to (VLCS) but a totally different design.
approximately 23,700 TEU (2020). Length approximately 300 - 350
Container ships usually feature an metres. Capacity 8,000 - 13,000 TEU.
anti heeling system. - Ultra Large Container Ships
(ULCS)
Possible Cargo This comprises all ships larger than The sizes of containers vary.
- containers (dry, liquid and reefer approximately 13,000 TEU. Length The ISO-standards distinguish the
containers) and beam of these ships are approxi TEU and the FEU, which differ in
Characteristics mately 400 x 59 m. The contain length.
- maximum amount of TEUs or FEUs er capacity usually varies between TEU = twenty feet equivalent
- amount of TEUs or FEUs below 15,500 and 23,700 TEUs. Those ships unit. The nominal length of these
the weather deck along with their are not able to enter the new Panama containers is:
heights Canal locks and are mainly deployed 20' = 20 * 0.305 = 6.10 metres.
- number of container tiers on the Asia-Europe trades. Most of The actual length is 1.5" (38mm)
- presence of cargo gear those ships were designed during the shorter, leaving some space
- open or closed ship peak of the oil prices (2010 - 2013) between the containers.
and were therefore focused on fuel FEU = forty feet equivalent unit.
a. Division of containerships consumption efficiency. The nominal length of these con
- Feeders Those vessels are equipped with a tainers is :
These are small containerships, spe smaller main engine with less power 40' = 40 * 0.305 = 12.20 metres.
cialised in the transport of containers resulting in a lower service speed
from small ports, the feeder ports, to (around 23 knots, due to hull design).
main ports and vice versa, or for use
in services which are not profitable for Some of the new generation ships
larger container vessels. are 'gas ready', which means they are
Feeders are sometimes equipped with able to sail on LNG which is cleaner
cargo gear. The capacity is approxi than heavy fuel oil.
mately 200 - 2,500 TEU.
54 3. TYPES OF SHIP
2.1.3 Roil-on / Roll- off
a. Ro-Ro carriers
To facilitate the transport of mobile
cargo, Ro-Ro vessels have continuous
decks over the entire length of the
ship. Due to the large area of these
decks, the vessel loses its stability
rapidly if a large quantity of water
floods the (lower) decks after a col
lision, in the case of a damaged side
door or by water due to fire fighting,
resulting in a huge free surface.
Therefore the safety regulations for
these vessels have been made more
stringent and refined in the last few
years by the requirement of trans
verse division doors dividing the deck
in compartments, where a free-water
Container feeder vessel surface on the largest of these com
partments is still not fatal for the
ship's stability.
The tween decks of these ships are
often adjustable in height.
Loading and discharging proceeds via
ramps in the side or stern which form
a watertight closure and also function
as the driveway for the mobile cargo.
During loading and unloading, the
ship lists easily, which, especially with
a stern ramp, twists the ramps.
To prevent this, a Ro-Ro vessel is
equipped with an anti-heeling system
which automatically distributes water
between two opposing ballast tanks,
keeping the ship upright.
During loading and discharging addi
tional ventilation is required to get rid
of the exhaust fumes of the diesel-
driven lorries and tractors.
b. Ro-Ro car and passenger
Pure Car Carrier (PCC) with quarter ramp and a side ramp.
ferries
Ferries transport passengers and
vehicles. The vessels usually shuttle
between two ports on a very tight
schedule. The passengers drive their
own cars on board via a ramp, which
is either part of the ship, a movable
ramp placed on the quay or a combi
nation of these two.
Possible cargo
- cars, trucks, trains and lorries
- passengers
- trailers (with containers)
Characteristics
- number of cars or trucks
- lane length
- height between decks
- number of passengers
- carrying capacity
3. TYPES OF SHIP
2.1.4 Heavy Lift ships
Heavy lift ships can be divided into:

- conventional heavy-lift ships
- dock-ships (semi-submersible)
The construction arrangement and stability allows them

to carry extremely large and heavy objects.
The semi-submersible heavy lift vessels can sink by
letting in water, till the main deck is sufficiently below
the waterline to take large floating objects like drilling
rigs on deck (float on / float off).
When the water is pumped out or discharged by means
of compressed air, the cargo is lifted and the ship sails
with the cargo as one unit. Lashing and securing the
cargo needs to be carefully calculated and carried out.
These vessels are also used for carrying out mainte
Semi-submersible heavy lift vessel
nance work on the project cargo during the transport.
The conventional heavy-cargo vessels are often fitted

with their own loading gear.
However, this does not necessarily mean that these ves
sels are able to lift all heavy objects themselves.
When there is no heavy cargo, the vessels can function
as multipurpose vessels.
Possible Cargo
- heavy or bulky objects
- complete parts of factories
- drilling rigs
- multi-purpose / general cargo
Characteristics
- carrying capacity
- maximum deck load per m2 and in total
- dimensions of holds and decks
- lifting capacity per crane and max. height above deck.
2.1.5 Refrigerated ships
Refrigerated ships (reefers) have refrigerated holds to

transport chilled fruit or vegetables, or frozen cargo.
Modern refrigerated ships increasingly carry cargo in
containers instead of on pallets. Refrigerated contain
ers have a built-in refrigeration system, which can be
plugged in to the ship's electricity system. Air is used to Geared heavy lift vessel, also suitable as multipurpose ship
remove the excess heat from the refrigeration units and
therefore the ventilation of the holds is very important.
Refrigerated containers can also be transported by a con
tainer vessel. Possible cargo
When fruit is carried, it is not only the temperature that - fruit, vegetables (cooled, chilled)
is being controlled, but also the composition of the air - meat, fish (frozen)
in the containers in order to control the ripening process - general cargo
of the fruit. - containers on deck and sometimes in the holds.
An increasing number of reefers are taking on general Characteristics
cargo such as cars and trucks, as return cargo. - carrying capacity (volume in Cft)
Compared to multipurpose vessels, reefers have: - temperature range
- smaller hatch openings (length, width and height) - cooling and freezing capacity
- more tweendecks - air circulations, air renewals, controlled atmosphere
- relatively high ship speed.
56 3. TYPES OF SHIP
2.1.6 Livestock Carriers - Fresh water, feed and fodder sup - Hull shape, trim and stability: The
plies: There are various distribution vessel's design has to have smooth
Livestock carriers are specially con systems possible ranging from fully rolling characteristics in order to
structed for the transport of livestock automated for large livestock ves prevent abrupt movements.
over water. Animal welfare is key. sels to manual watering and feed
There are only a few standards and ing on smaller vessels. The construction of the cargo holds is
regulatory requirements for the car - Water makers: Positioning, capac challenging for shipyards due to the
riage of livestock on board ships. ity and quantity. small tolerances required in order to
These standards and regulations focus - Power supply: The livestock sys meet regulatory requirements.
on: tems have a second source of
The design and layout of pens: power, which is independent from Characteristics:
The cargo holds, pens and fittings the ship's common system to - Total deck area
have to be durable and so manu ensure the animal welfare in case - Pen layout
factured, assembled or positioned of a black-out. - Ventilation system for the cargo
as to allow for the provision of - Lighting systems and light distribu holds
animal care and to protect the tion in the cargo holds. - Feed and fodder storage
livestock from injury, suffering and - Effluent removal systems: - Water makers and distribution sys
exposure to weather. Hygiene is very important and the tem
Ventilation of the cargo holds: effluent is collected manually or by - Drainage system
Animals produce heat when digest means of a drainage system and - Electric power supply and distribu
ing food and the ventilation system stored in tanks when operating tion system
is designed to ensure sufficient air in SECA areas and or within the
flow over each pen as well as suf twelve miles zones or discharged at
ficient air changes to allow for the sea according to strict regulations.
extraction of foul air.
Cattle ship
Geared reefer
3. TYPES OF SHIP
2.1.7 Bulk carriers Bulk carriers are usually discharged To prevent too much stability the
by grabs or by suction pipes. Feeding holds must not be situated too low or
Bulk carriers are specially designed is by a shooter or conveyor belt. too close to the sides of the ship.
ships that carry loose cargo in bulk. Bulk carriers have large upper and Some bulk carriers can also function
There are three types of bulk carriers: lower ballast tanks to shape the hold as tankers. This combination carrier is
a. Handy size, approx. 30,000 tons for automatic grain stowage (elimi called an Ore Bulk Oil (OBO) carrier.
deadweight, often with their own nate free surface) and to give the
cargo gear. Cargo: precious ore, empty vessel sufficient draught and Possible cargo
sand, scrap, (china)clay, grain and greater stability in transit. - coal
forest products Ships transporting ore have a special - ore
b. Panamax, approx. 80,000 tons design. Ore is very heavy (stowage - forest products
deadweight, seldom carry cargo factor is approximately 0.5 m3/t) and - grain and other agricultural prod
gear. Cargo: grain and ore thus ships only need small holds to be ucts
c. Capesize, approx. 160,000 to loaded completely. - fertilizer
350,000 tons load capacity, no - light minerals
cargo gear. Cargo: coal, ore. Characteristics
- carrying capacity (t)
- cargo volume (m3)
Bulk carriers with open side-rolling hatches at the quay ready for loading and unloading
58 3. TYPES OF SHIP
2.2 Liquid cargo The ballast tanks can contain suffi Crude oil tankers load their cargoes
cient ballast water to achieve a proper through pipelines, hoses or flexible
draught and trim even when there pipes, either at a shore facility or at a
2.2.1 Crude oil tankers is no cargo on board. They can be mooring buoy.
entered through manholes or hatches The hose(s) is/are temporarily con
Crude oil tankers are used to carry in the main deck. nected to transverse pipes on deck, at
crude oil from a loading port near an The two main hazards in relation to mid length, called the manifold.
oil field to a refinery. The carrying entering ballast tanks are: The oil is pumped on board by shore
capacity of crude oil tankers has risen - toxic and/or flammable atmos pumps. From the transverse lines, the
to as much as 500,000 tons. phere due to cargo residues (seep oil goes down vertically through drop
Crude oil tankers have a limited ing in from cracks) lines, into the ship's bottom lines.
number of tanks, usually 6-9 tank - lack of oxygen either due to delib
pairs which are normally served by erate inerting of the space or due Three or four longitudinal pipelines
three pumps. This means that a to rust (oxygen consumed in the with branches deliver the oil to any
crude oil tanker normally can carry a process) tank. At the end of each branch a
maximum of three different standard valve is installed.
quantities of cargo at the same time. The large crude oil tankers are subdi The bottom lines are connected to the
vided into the following classes: pumps in the pump room, a space
Tankers are built with double hull. - Ultra Large Crude Carrier (ULCC) between the cargo tanks and the
This means that the cargo tanks are > 320,000 dwt engine room.
surrounded by ballast tanks which - Very Large Crude Carrier (VLCC)
reduces the risk of cargo leaking 200,000 - 320,000 dwt To discharge the cargo, the ship's
into the sea in case of a collision or - Suez max (old max Suez draught) pumps draw the oil from the cargo
grounding. ca. 150,000 - 160,000 dwt tanks, pressing it upwards to the deck
- Aframax (Standard size tanker of lines, and then to the manifold.
The engine room bulkhead on tankers ca. 105,000 dwt.) The oil is pumped through hoses
is always separated from the cargo The deep draught of VLCCs and ULCCs ashore to the receiving facility, where
tanks by a cofferdam, mostly in the restricts the sailing routes and limits the cargo ends up in a shore tank.
form of the pump room. the number of ports that can be called Loading and discharging takes some
at for loading or discharging. 24 to 36 hours per operation.
Tankers in line (top to bottom): Panamax, ULCC, Suezmax, Aframax and a inland waterway bunker barge
3. TYPES OF SHIP 59
Apart from the cargo pipeline system there 2.2.2.1 Bitumen tankers Characteristics
are various other cargo related pipeline - carrying capacity (t)
systems on deck and in the tanks: They are normally categorised sepa - total volume and volume per tank (m3)
- Inert gas system (IG) fills empty rately due to the special requirements - number of cargoes which can be on
space created while discharging with a for this cargo (heating to 200-250°C) board simultaneously
gas which contains very little oxygen require significant insulation, special - coating or quality of internal tank
(normally 2 to 5%). IG will leave the design to allow for expansion and surface
engine room with 4% oxygen to main contraction, and general dangers as - number of tanks.
tain a saturation with a maximum of 8% sociated with such high temperatures.
oxygen in the cargo holds. Gas from the
oil will not ignite as long as the percent 2.2.2.2 Chemical tankers
age of oxygen stays below 8%.
- Tank-wash system used to remove Chemical tankers are basically prod MARPOL Annex II Regulations for
deposits from the inside tank wall before uct carriers with tanks of a higher the control of pollution by noxious liq
repairs, docking or reloading. During safety grade, which need to comply uid substances in bulk sets out a pollu
discharge, the tanks and cargo are with higher safety regulations regard tion categorization system for noxious
washed (agitated) with hot seawater to ing pollution i.e. a wider distance and liquid substances. The four catego
reduce sediment. Before dry docking, between tank and outer shell or ries are:
repairs or survey, tanks are washed bottom. A chemical tanker is only
with water, through the same system, allowed to carry specified cargoes. Category X: Noxious Liquid Sub
to clean the tanks for entry. Tank wash All cargo tanks are separated from: stances which, if discharged into the
ing sometimes needs to be done with - the outer-shell by a ballast tank sea from tank cleaning or deballasting
hot water. The atmosphere in the tanks - chemical tankers usually have sub operations, are deemed to present a
needs to be made safe for entry. merged cargo pumps. Cargo seg major hazard to either marine resourc
- Heating coil system in at least the slop regation is achieved by coffer es or human health and, therefore,
tanks. Usually crude does not need to be dams. justify the prohibition of the discharge
heated during the voyage but tanks do into the marine environment;
have heating coils for discharging, these This ensures that in case of leakage Category Y: Noxious Liquid Sub
heating coils are often arranged around from one of the tanks, the vulner stances which, if discharged into the
the suction pump well. ability of crew and environment is sea from tank cleaning or deballasting
- Ballast system is completely separated reduced. operations, are deemed to present a
from the cargo system. The deadweight of chemical tankers hazard to either marine resources or
- Vapour return system.To prevent air varies between 2,500 and 50,000. human health or cause harm to ameni
pollution during loading, the gas, driven The number of tanks in transverse ties or other legitimate uses of the sea
out by the cargo is led to the shore facil direction varies between 3 for tank and therefore justify a limitation on the
ity for cleaning. ers up to 6,000 tons and 6 for larger quality and quantity of the discharge
tankers. into the marine environment;
Possible cargo Category Z: Noxious Liquid Substances
- crude oil Vegetable oils (vegoils) are classified which, if discharged into the sea from
Characteristics as chemicals and must only be car tank cleaning or deballasting opera
- carrying capacity (tons) ried by chemical tankers. The same tions, are deemed to present a minor
- tank volume (m3) applies for wine and orange juice. hazard to either marine resources or
- discharging speed (m3/hour) human health and therefore justify less
- maximum laden draught (metre) The cargo which can be loaded in stringent restrictions on the quality
each tank is determined by the tank and quantity of the discharge into the
2.2.2 Product tankers internal surface. Stainless steel or marine environment; and
special paints like epoxy, phenol, Other Substances: substances which
'Product' refers to the products of refiner zinc, etc have been evaluated and found to fall
ies and the petrochemical industries, as outside Category X, Y or Z because
opposed to crude oil. These tankers trans Possible cargo they are considered to present no harm
port mainly oil containing products. Product - oil products like gasoline, kero to marine resources, human health,
tankers can carry a larger number of cargo sene, naphtha, diesel oil, lubricat amenities or other legitimate uses
parcels, typically 5-10 compared with the ing oil of the sea when discharged into the
three of a typical crude carrier with a total - acids sea from tank cleaning of deballast
carrying capacity of approximately 50,000 - alkalines ing operations. The discharge of bilge
tons. The piping systems on a product tank - alcohol or ballast water or other residues or
er are different from the systems in crude - edible oils mixtures containing these substances
oil tankers. Normally every tank or tank pair - chlorinated alkenes are not subject to any requirements of
has its own filling and discharge line to the - chemical substances MARPOL Annex II.
manifold and its own cargo pump.
60 3. TYPES OF SHIP
D-emical/product tankers moored at the loading/unloading jetty
Deck layout of a product carrier

Crude oil is the raw product as pumped
out of the earth, with the water and sand
Electrical motor of deepwell 6. Draw box removed.
cargo pump 7. Inert gas line
Cargo line 8. External stiffening
Stripping line 9. Pressure/vacuum (P/V) breaker A cofferdam is a narrow, empty space
Pump discharge line 10 Elevated walk way to create a safe division, provided with a
Electrical conduct pipe 11 P/V vents sounding pipe, a bilge connection and a
connection to the open air.
3. TYPES OF SHIP
2.2.3 LPG / LNG tankers The first category includes relatively Under atmospheric pressure methane
small ships: 500 to 6,000 m3 tank has a liquefying point of -161 °C and
Gas tankers are basically chemical capacity, and the second group can ethane of -88 °C.
tankers for cargoes which would be have as large as 190,000 m3 tank LNG ships are larger than LPG ships.
gas under ambient temperatures and capacity. Fully Pressurized (FP) Up to 266,000 m3 for a Q-max LNG
atmospheric pressure. ships are mostly used for Lique tanker.
These cargoes are liquid when: fied Petroleum Gas (LPG) transport Semi Pressurized I Semi Refriger
- pressurized between the smaller terminals. ated (SP/SR) ships are a hybrid type
- brought under low temperature. The largest ships are 10,000 m3. between Fully Pressurized and Fully
Fully pressurised means that the Refrigerated (FP/FR).
When the cargo is liquefied, the cargo is carried in closed cylindrical They were designed when materi
space a gas takes is many more tons tanks, at ambient temperature, with als became available which could
of cargo can be carried compared such pressure that the cargo is liq withstand low temperatures, the cry
to gaseous state. For example, for uid in the tank. In case of LPG, this ogenic steels. When a cargo that
LNG, liquefied natural gas occupies means a pressure of 8 Bar in moder would normally produce high pres
a space of only about 1/600 of the ate temperature up to 15 Bar in tropi sure at ambient temperature is kept
space needed under atmospheric cal circumstances. under cooled condition, the pressure
conditions. Fully Refrigerated (FR) ships carry it develops is much lower.
cargo at atmospheric pressure at a This makes it possible to carry a large
This type of cargo ship can be very low temperature. In case of LPG, number of different cargoes. The
divided in three main categories: this means - 42 °C , the boiling point cooling capacity determines which
- Pressurized ships, cargo under of propane. LPG is a mixture of pro cargoes are on the list of approved
pressure at ambient temperature pane and butane, with boiling points cargoes.
- Fully refrigerated ships (FR): cargo of -42 and +0.5 °C respectively. The development of this ship type
tanks fully insulated and the cargo LPG ships are up to 80,000 m3. started with Semi Pressurised / Semi
cooled to the boiling point of the A special type of fully refrigerated Refrigerated ships (SP/SR) later with
cargo. The pressure is then equal ship is the Liquefied Natural Gas Semi Pressurized / Fully Refrigerated
to that of the outside air (LNG) carrier. When carrying LNG at ships (SP/FR) up to 30,000 m3 and
- Semi-Pressurized ships (S/R), cargo atmospheric pressure, a temperature pressure up to 8 Bar.
at low temperature and under pres of - 162 °C is needed, as LNG is a Ethylene carriers are a development
sure. mixture of methane and ethane. of SP/FR tankers. The necessary
cargo temperature is -104 °C
LNG-tanker with an LNG cargo containment 1. Spherical cargo tank 4. Dome above tank
system consisting of insulated independent 2. Walkway 5. Main manifold (for loading
spherical tanks (Moss-Rosenberg Principle). 3. Cargo tank vent pipe and discharging cargo)
62 3. TYPES OF SHIP
In all gas tankers the tanks are kept - Type B - fully cooled, atmospheric. 2.3 Passenger ships
under, at least, a small positive pres Different-shaped tanks, for exam
sure to prevent air from entering the ple spherical steel tanks, which Except in some archipelago areas,
tank, which could create an explosive are placed in the hold, sometimes such as the Philippines and Indonesia,
mixture. Loading and unloading is hanging on an expansion ring at the traditional passenger liners have
carried out in a completely closed sys half height. A load colder than -48 disappeared.
tem, allowing no venting or vapours °C can be transported in these Fast ferries and passenger ferries still
to escape into the atmosphere. tanks, but the hold must in part carry out a lot of services specially for
be protected (the so-called partial holiday and road traffic.
During loading of LNG, a vapour secondary barrier). International and inter-continental
return line is used, the vapour is liq - Type C - pressure tanks. Often transport of passengers is now almost
uefied ashore and is not lost. When designed as cylindrical horizontal completely done by aircraft.
loading LPG, the vapour is re-liquefied tanks. Load cooled or at outside Modern cruise ships are used for mak
on board. The gas cargo is carried temperature, but with the possibil ing luxurious holiday trips to distant
in independent tanks. This means ity of transport under pressure, up countries and ports.
that the tanks are installed in a hold to 18 Bar. The tanks are insulated On board there is a whole range of
on supports that are mostly wood, to prevent the pressure from rising facilities for relaxation and entertain
with wooden supports for sideways as much as possible. This type of ment such as swimming pools, cin
forces. In case of leakages, the very tank is used on SP I FR. ships, on emas, bars, casinos, theatres, health
cold liquid should never come in con ethylene tankers and on small to clubes, etc.
tact with the primary construction. medium-sized LNG tankers.
Therefore, barriers are arranged, the Possible cargo
primary barrier being the tank itself or Because the load is transported at a - passengers
separate tanks are used. A secondary boiling point, part of the load evap- Characteristics
barrier is required in case of leakage ourates. This increases the pressure. - maximum number of passengers
from cargoes below -10 °C. Depend This is called the boil-off. - number of cabins according to size,
ing on the temperature and pressure In LPG and Ethylene tankers the'boil- luxury and location.
of the cargo, rules are stipulated. off is collected and by compress
ing and cooling in a condenser, re Without exception, these vessels are
The tanks are divided into 4 types, liquefied. By letting this condensa equipped with very good air condi
namely 3 types of freestanding tion expand above the cargo, the tioning systems.
(or independent) tanks and 1 type whole cargo is cooled and kept at Stabilizers or anti-rolling fins limit
of dependent tank. the desired temperature for trans the rolling to 2°, ultimately 4°.
port and discharge. This is the single Even modern cruise sailing ships have
Dependent tanks (tanks depending stage cooling cycle. A cascade cooling no noticeable list when sailing.
on the shape of the ship). These tanks process (a multiple- step process) is These ships are often highly manoeu-
are isolated in the tanks themselves, used to reach lower temperatures by verable due to azipod propulsion sys
for example by means of a membrane using cargo or another refrigerant, tems.
system. such as propylene, in a secondary
The membrane is made of very thin cooling cycle as a coolant in the initial The number of persons on board can
stainless steel, supported by a thick stage condenser. The cargo pumps be as high as appr. 6,400 (2020); the
layer of foam insulation. The whole is have to be deep well pumps. crew is approx. 25% percent of that
insulated in a steel tank. This again is number.
placed in the ship's hold on wooden Characteristics
supports. - Total tank capacity (m3)
- Maximum tank pressure
Independent or freestanding tanks - Minimum cargo temperature
are tanks that independently maintain - Maximum quantity in the tanks
their shape and are only supported - Time needed for loading and
and secured by saddles or founda discharging
tions. - Type of cargo tank
Here you can distinguish 3 types: - Cooling down time
- Type A - fully cooled, atmospheric. - Inerting capacity (Nitrogen)
The tank walls are flat. Suitable
for loads up to -42°C. If a gas is
transported with a temperature
lower than -48 °C, measures must
be taken to protect the hold (the
so-called secondary barrier)
A luxury cruise vessel seen from the aft
3. TYPES OF SHIP 63
2.4 Naval vessels 2.4.3 Logistic support vessels 2.4.5 Patrol vessels
A Joint Support Ship (JSS) is the Ocean-going Patrol Vessels (OPVs)

2.4.1 Aircraft carriers most modern version of this type of these designs were created to give sub
vessel and can best be compared to a stance to the maritime task package "at
Aircraft carriers come in various sizes. combination of a freighter, a supplier the bottom of the spectrum of violence"
They are made to enable helicopters and an LPD. The duties encompass activities like:
and fixed-wing aircraft to land on and The emphasis is on facilitating and - coast guard duties,
take off from. transportation of material for all - crime and terrorism fighting,
CTOL (Conventional Take Off and armed forces, (army, navy and air - piracy prevention,
Landing) aircraft carriers usually need force). This can range from fuel to - maritime presence,
a steam-driven catapult or a slightly ammunition and food, but also from - search and rescue,
heeling deck to enable the plane to tanks to helicopters, etc. and if appli - logistic support,
take off, and brake lines to catch cable to aid supplies. - emergency service,
landing planes. JSSs can discharge at sea or in port. - humanitarian aid,
STOVL (Short Take Off and Vertical Discharging at sea means using heli - maritime interception operations,
Landing) aircraft carriers are smaller copters or vessels or barges. In port, - evacuations and maintenance of law
than CTOLs. They employ a jump for ramps, lifts or cranes are used. and order in the broadest sense.
a more forceful lift during take-offs. OPVs have a helicopter and a FRISC to
2.4.4 Frigates perform these tasks properly.
2.4.2 Amphibious support
vessels Frigates are combat vessels with a 2.4.6 Mine counter-measure
wide range of usability. They can be vessels
Landing Platform Docks (LPDs) are used for air defence, fighting subma
amphibious transporters with a wide rines and surface combat. They have An MCMV is used to track and detonate
range of duties and the appropriate extensive communication equipment mines.
facilities. and sonars. They also have several The most common types are:
They can be employed to transport fully automatic tracking and weapon - Mine hunters. These vessels are
a full platoon of marines (app. 600 systems at their disposal that can be equipped with several mine detect
men) with equipment, cars, helicop employed from the command centre. ing sonar systems. They also have a
ters and landing craft. In order to Frigates combine command facilities diving team ROV (Remote Operated
fulfill this duty these vessels have a with air defence facilities and are Vehicle) at their disposal to research
deck that can harbour several heli able to defend a complete squadron a sonar signal, a blasting charge to
copters at the same time, a hangar, against air raids. Another outstand the mine or the explosive.
a car deck, one or several heavy duty ing feature is the incorporation of the - Mine sweepers. These vessels are
cargo lifts, davits for landing craft and stealth technology, which makes them capable of towing a sweeping instal
rhibs (rigged hull inflatable boat) and harder to detect on radar equipment lation behind them to blow up or
a landing dock which enables landing and explains the angular appearance clear magnetic, acoustic and contact
craft to sail into and out off. of these vessels. Extensive automa mines.
An LPD has ballast tanks to allow the tion enables these vessels, despite
stern to submerge several metres to their large proportions, to operate In the future, mine hunters will be
make this landing dock accessible. with approximately 170 crew, and, if replaced by vessels that operate
The dock is then flooded to allow the necessary, 40 (staff) officers. remotely ("over the horizon") with
craft to enter or leave the dock. unmanned and autonomous systems to
Furthermore, these vessels possess clear mines and explosives.
command facilities, facilities for con
tingency services, evacuation facili
ties, an extensive hospital unit with
operating theatres and intensive care
units, and they can be employed as
emergency hospitals for a large num
ber of casualties.
An LPD is the ultimate combination
of freighter, airport, port, hotel, hos
pital, command centre, crisis centre,
etc.
To enable them to remain stationary
for a long period of time, these ves
sels employ a Dynamic Positioning
System (DPS). Coast guard vessel
64 3. TYPES OF SHIP
2.4.7 Submarines
Submarines are hard to detect and,

therefore very popular with navies, all
over the world.
We recognize:
Ballistic Rocket nuclear subma
rines, large subs (120 to 170 metres)
A Conventional Take Off and Landing (CTOL) aircraft carrier
armed with ballistic rockets.
If necessary, they can remain under
water for months at a time.
Nuclear attack submarines.
Slightly less large subs (70 to 150
metres) armed with torpedoes against
both submarines and surface vessels,
underwater-to-surface missiles and
cruise missiles against land-based tar
gets.
General purpose diesel-electric
submarines.
Small to medium-sized submarines with
torpedoes and USMs (underwater-to-
surface missiles). Propelled by propel A JSS is able to load and discharge amphibious vehicles from the stern
lers powered by large accumulators.
To charge the batteries, with the diesel
driven generators these subs have to
sail at periscope/snorkel depth at a
regular basis.
2.4.8 Landing craft
Vessels designed to transport amphib

ian units, people and craft, to a coastal
zone. They are designed to sail onto
the beach and allow troops and craft to
disembark via a ramp.
Frigate
2.4.9 Support vessels
Examples of support vessels are:

- Rescue and salvage ships compa
rable to a sea-going tug boat but
equipped with extensive firefighting
equipment.
- Submarine support vessels
- Diving operation support vessels.
2.4.10 Small fast craft
These fast craft can achieve speeds of

up to 50 knots. They are also known
as Fast Rating and Intercepting Special
Forces Craft (FRISC).
Characteristics of these vessels are:
- Fast
- Very seaworthy
- Employable from ships (davits or
docking stations)
- Multi- usable
A mine countermeasure vessel A general purpose diesel-electric
submarine sea surfacing
3. TYPES OF SHIP 65
2.5 Fishing vessels
2.5.1 Preface.
The fishing methods used worldwide,

and the vessels in use for it, are
many. Mentioned below is only a lim
ited impression.
The various fishing methods can
be categorized as follows:
- Active method (pelagic): the fish
ing gear (net) is towed through the A beam trawler rinsing her nets in open sea
water, or over the seabed
- Passive method: the fishing gear Trawlers are like tug-boats. They have Non-trawling vessels can range from
(net or lines with hooks) is posi to pull the nets at relatively low speed a simple craft deploying crab / lob
tioned stationary in the water. over the seabed, which requires enor ster baskets, a net or a long-line with
mous power especially at the end of a floats and hooks, to fishing vessels
2.5.2.Ships with an active pull, when the net is full. which can lay out nets several kilo
method of fishing. These ships have diesel engines simi metres in length, waiting for the fish
lar in power to a tugboat. to swim in. Typical examples are:
Trawlers are fishing vessels which The only difference is that the tug seiners, tuna clippers, crab boats, etc.
drag their bag-shaped nets through boat can be shorter in length with
the water. In pelagic fishery, the nets the same power, as it does not need Possible cargo
are suspended between the water space for cargo. - See 5.2
surface and the seabed. In bottom The propeller is built in a Kort-nozzle Characteristics
fishery, the net is dragged over the (see chapter 12), boosting the propel - See 5.2
seabed, which requires a high pulling ler-performance by some 25 to 30 %,
power. The construction and equip and the bollard-pull accordingly.
ment of these fishing vessels strongly When two boats are pulling a net
depend on the fishing method and the between the ships, the combined pull
species of fish aimed at. ing force allows for a bigger net.
The fish is kept on board during the
fishing trip as refrigerated cargo. Possible cargo
- cooled fish (in crushed ice)
The beam trawler pulls its two nets, - frozen fish or shell-fish
one on either side, from the ends of Characteristics
two derricks, which are fitted low, at - engine power (bollard pull)
the double foremast. - volume of fish holds
Each net is kept open by a transverse - transport temperature
beam, provided with sliding shoes - freezing capacity
and waking-up chains. The waking-up - method of fish processing
chains are replaced more and more - method of refrigerating / chilling
by systems which do not disturb the - the fish winch and net drum
seabed. Also waking-up by electri - possible fishing methods
cal pulses is coming into use. The
derricks are lowered as close to the 2.5.3 Ships with a passive
water as possible during fishing, to fishing method
prevent stability problems when one
of the nets suddenly fills up with fish, This kind of fishing (non-trawling) can
or sand, or gets hooked at a wreck or be divided into:
suchlike. - anchored nets, anchored to the
seabed, such as:
The stern trawler has only one net, • vertical nets (screens) Trawler engaged in stern trawl fish
launched from a slipway at the stern. • floating long line with attached ing. Fishing speed is approximately 3
This net is kept open by two boards, many short ends with hooks knots. Free steaming speed can be
one on either side shearing away, by • fish-traps 12 knots. The length of the nets is
the ship's speed. Stern-trawlers are - floating nets, connected to the ship between 60 and 80 m and the lines
usually larger than derrick trawlers. • vertical screen nets can be extended to 300 - 600 m long.
• floating long line, as above.
66 3. TYPES OF SHIP
2.6 Dredgers millimetres thicker where in contact Possible cargo
with the cargo as wear and tear is - sand
Dredging is a special trade, dealing very high. Coating is of no use. - gravel
with the removal of sand, mud or Maximum suction depth varies from - stratum or clayish soil
other sediment from the seabed and some 20 metres for deepening of - unwanted port sediment
transporting it to some other location, harbours etc., to 135 metres for suc Characteristics
for deepening existing water, building tioning of sand to be used elsewhere. - pump capacity
up land, or to provide sand for other Diameters of the suction pipes is up - depth range
purposes. to 1,400 mm. Good manoeuvrability - hold volume (the largest is 46,000
Dredgers and associated vessels exist is ensured by two propellers and bow m3), (2020)
in many varieties, from the old fash and stern-thrusters. - carrying capacity
ioned bucket dredger, the straight
suction dredger, to the advanced hop
pers and cutter dredgers.
DP operated stone dumping vessels
are also part of the dredging industry.
2.6.1 Trailing suction hopper

dredger (TSHD)
The most multi-functional dredging

vessel is the TSHD. The main function
is to suck sand or mud from the sea
bed through a suction pipe, connected
to the ship.
That pipe can be lowered till the suc
tion mouth is resting at the seabed.
Huge pumps pump water mixed with
solids from the seabed into the hold
of the ship.
The surplus water flows back into the
sea, the sand settles in the hold. Trailing Suction Hopper Dredger (TSHD) Vasco da Gama excavating wellhead
The ship sails afterwards to the dis protection against iceberg scouring in Canada.
charge location where the cargo is
discharged through doors in the bot
tom.
Another possibility is to dilute the
cargo again with water by special jet
water lines, and to pump it ashore.
Another way is 'rainbowing', to simply
pump it ashore, over the bow, up to
100 metres away from the ship's bow.
The bow is provided with a bow cou
pler for the discharge hose and with a
huge jet nozzle for rainbowing.
The size of the TSHD is measured in
hopper hold size (m3). The present
maximum is 46,000 m3, which means
a ship of more than Panamax size.
The density of the cargo can amount
to 2 ton/m3. The installed power is
more than necessary for the transit
only.
Pumping ashore requires much more
power. During this process the propel
lers have to keep the ship in position.
The inside of the hold is a few
Trailing Suction Hopper Dredger (TSHD) pumping its cargo of dredged sand
ashore through the bow discharge connection using a floating discharge hose.
3. TYPES OF SHIP 67
2.6.2 Cutter dredgers
When the sea bottom is too hard to

be removed by suction it has to be
cut or crushed first. Cutter dredgers
have a very strong, hinged arm in
a slot in the midships plane of the
pontoon. An electric motor on the
arm drives a rotating cutter head at
the outer end. The head is fitted with
A backhoe dredger secured to the seabed by spud poles. For moving in the work
knives to cut and crush the soil.
area some dredgers are fitted with thrusters. Alongside a split hopper barge is
moored, which can drop its cargo by splitting over its length, due to hinges at
A pump in the dredger sucks the
deck level.
crushed material to the surface
through a suction pipe inside the arm.
The cutter arm with motor, shafting, The hinged arm is mounted on a
There is no hold. The water and soil cutter head, suction pipe, jet piping, pedestal, and the bucket at the end
mixture is pumped directly ashore etc., can weigh up to 2,000 tons. of the arm can contain up to 30 m3
through a flexible floating pipeline, or As well as pontoon cutter dredgers, of material.
to barges alongside. high powered self-propelled ship-type The bucket can descend to 25 -30
ones are being built. metres depth to dig, and then drop
The dredger performs a swinging the dredged material straight into a
movement through the water, pivot Characteristics barge or on the shore.
ing around a spud pole. The spud - pump capacity
pole is a heavy pile with pointed end - depth range 2.6.4 Barges
which is held vertically in a carriage, - presence of propulsion
which can move longitudinally. The - torque and cutter power There are many types of barges. They
pole is lowered until its end is well - length of the cutter arm and maxi may be small or large, have no self
into the sea bed. Two large anchors, mum working depth. discharging capability or have bottom
laid sideways from the cutter arm, or split-hull discharge.
and connected by wires to winches 2.6.3 Backhoe Dredgers They may be self-propelled or han
on board, provide the means to swing dled by tugs, may be manned or
the dredger. A backhoe dredger uses a back-hoe unmanned, and range in size from a
digger, similar to those used ashore. few hundred m3 to 10,000 m3.
The digger is permanently installed
on a pontoon.
Cutter-suction dredger (CSD), with only the suction and discharge line is indicated.
The whole pontoon rotates around the spud pole.
A tug towing a barge A cable layer or cable installation vessel
2.7 Work ships Should there be a failure in the cable Possible cargo
later on then this can be traced by - new cables
switching on these repeaters. - old cables
2.7.1 Cable laying ships. - repair equipment
Nowadays power cables and com Characteristics
Cable lay ships are specially designed munication cables of shorter lengths - carrying capacity (ton)
for their task. They can lay one or are stored in rotating baskets using - engine power
more cables on the seabed, simulta a mechanical loading arm, avoiding - details of DP/DT installation
neously. time-consuming manual labour. Some
existing cable vessels have these
The cables are stowed in large coils in baskets retrofitted into their tanks,
circular vertical drums with diameters despite the loss of capacity.
similar to the beam of the ship. They
are pulled out from the centre of a coil For very short lengths (offshore wind
at considerable speed by the cable in farms, connections between turbines 2.7.2 Buoy tenders
the water. and transformer station) the cables
If the laying distance exceeds the may also be coiled on reels (verti These vessels are used to install or
length of one cable, more are joined cal drums, horizontal axis), or even remove buoys, such as used for water
on board. Depending upon the depth loaded as pre-coiled units. way navigation.
of the sea and the likelihood of fisher The crane is often provided with a
men damaging it, it may be dug into Between the basket/reel/cable tank heaving compensator to keep control
seabed by a plough towed by the ship. and the 'whiskers' (slot in the stern of the load (buoy) on the crane due
or bow with a cable sheave) a cable to swell and rolling.
As well as laying cables, the ships are machine is arranged. This may be a
able to find, lift and repair broken or rotating drum or a linear unit with a
damaged cables. number of wheels (rubber or pneu
matic) or two opposing caterpillar
It is crucial that the actual positions tracks. This cable machine controls
of the cables on the seabed corre the tension in the cable and the speed
spond accurately with their positions of the laying process.
on the chart.
Modern cable ships are equipped with Two types of cable are identified:
very accurate position-fixing equip power cables and communication
ment, and multiple adjustable, often cables (usually fibre-optics).
azimuthing, propellers in conjunction
with dynamic positioning (DP) and In oil fields umbilicals are used that
dynamic tracking (DT) systems. provide power and data connections
Very long communication cables (i.e. to the various 'well heads' (valve
trans-Atlantic) are coiled by hand in systems over the well). Often these
fixed round tanks, integrated within are laid by a pipe lay vessel, since
the construction of the vessel. Devices that vessel will also provide the pipe
called 'repeaters', arranged every 20 connections in the field. Most pipe lay A multi-cat in use for the handling
to 40 kilometres are looped out of the vessels are also suited to lay cable, of buoys
tank and stored in specially ventilated only these lack the facilities to con
racks. nect two cable ends with each other.
3. TYPES OF SHIP 69
2.8 Auxiliary vessels The static force is produced by the Length, width, draught and bollard
tug's main machinery and can run up pull are primarily determined by the
to about 300 tonnes bollard pull for environmental conditions of the work
2.8.1 Tugs the most powerful tugs. The dynamic ing area. Port tugs often have omni
component is reckoned to be approxi directional propellers, also called azi
Tugs come in all kinds of shapes and mately 0.8 of the static pull, and muth rotatable propellers, instead of
sizes and the design varies as much comes on top of the static pull. conventional propellers. A shortlist of
as the tasks they have to fullfil. To get Dynamic forces are primarily created jobs they need to be able to perform
some understanding of the operation by the sea state and its relative angle is:
al capabilities of these work boats it is on the tow. To avoid the amplitude in - Towage/pushing assistance
necessary to take a closer look at the loads, the tug slacks the towing line to to incoming, shifting and depart
services they render. Primarily, they great length. The weight of the towing ing vessels
can be subdivided into two categories, line causes it to sink and subsequent - Transfer personnel, including pilots
the seagoing tug and the harbour tug. ly acts as a damping factor. A range
of 800 to 1,200 m is considered to be Nowadays operators are more per
The seagoing tug a normal towing line length for long formance focused and they tend to
The seagoing tug is purpose-built for distance towing. Sagging of the tow balance the fleet out, according to
long distance towing. The basic char ing line can run up to 40 to 50 m, and their core business. Another major
acteristics of this category of tug are: this can be even more so if the tug change in the industry is that nowa
- Large fuel capacity ensuring boat slows down with the same tow days tugs are built on stock or come
a practical towing range ing length so sufficient water depth is from a building kit, according to pre
- Relatively simple power plant required. arranged designs. Series production
and propulsion system It is of the utmost importance that the and a standardisation like this is a
- Conventionally driven (single or towing line is secured to the aft deck most welcome development, as this
double propeller) in such a way that it cannot fall over phenomenon has an improving effect
- High bollard pull either side of the tug. The weight of on the designs.
- High free-running speed to ena the towing line, in combination with We can still see only two significant
ble casualty support the static and dynamic forces exerted different types of tugs, namely the
- Fitted with double or triple tow on the towing line, could cause the conventional tug and the tractor tug.
ing gear, on separately control tug to capsize instantly. Therefore All other types of tugs are extracted
lable winches great care is taken to secure the tow in one-way or another from these two
- Unobstructed flat aft deck allow ing line in the arrangement. all-time originals.
ing the towing line to run freely The traditional seagoing tug is mainly
from one side of the ship to the used to transport large vessels or con Developments
other structions from one point to another. Technical developments are often go
- Fixed locking system for the tow The modern version of the seagoing hand-in-hand with operational devel
ing line fitted on the aft deck tug is much more versatile and can opments. The tractor way of working
The most important equipment on it be utilised for all kinds of work off is only made possible by invent
board of a tug is the towing arrange shore, without compromising on the ing steerable propulsion units, such
ment. long distance towing capabilities. The as the Voith Schneider System or
The towing winch is capable of cop tug is designed and equipped for: Azimuth propulsion unit. The latter
ing with all static and dynamic forces - Long distance towing - Salvage finally also lead to the introduction
which occur during towing operations. support - Offshore support - Anchor of the Azimuth Stern Drive tug. We
handling - Tandem mooring assis can still see only two significant dif
tance (hold back tug on single point ferent types of tugs, namely the
mooring systems) - Emergency and conventional tug and the tractor tug.
rescue operations - Environmental The type of tug you are dealing with
support - Fire-fighting support. is determined by the location of the
propulsion unit(s) and the location of
Harbour tugs the towing point. If the towing point
Harbour tugs are relatively small over is amidships, and the propulsion units
powered sturdy vessels that offer are placed at the stern of the tug,
escort services to merchant shipping we are talking about a conventional
in ports and coastal areas. The outfit driven tug. If we have the propulsion
ting depends greatly upon the scope units located on the forward section
of work that the tug needs to perform. of the tug and the towing point on
the after part, we are dealing with a
tractor-driven tug.
Seagoing tug
Conventional tugs
The conventional tug

The conventional driven tug is propelled and steered from
the stern. Therefore, this type of vessel is pushed through
the water whilst making headway. She features her towing
point at approximately 0.4/0.45 of the Load Line Length
from the aft perpendicular. If the tug is towing without
making speed through the water, the towing point is just
aft of the pivot point. These relative positions give the tug
just enough directional stability to remain controllable.
Once the speed increases, the pivot point moves forward
and an increased directional stability is the result. There
fore this type of tug is most effective when working in its
own heading. The tug suffers a lack of manoeuvrability Single propeller Double propeller
and performance whilst being towed astern by the assisted
vessel, even exposing herself to the danger of capsizing.
The Single propeller driven tug was up until the 1970s

one of the most popular tugs around. When the market
demanded increased manoeuvrability, this type of tug
slowly lost the competition with tugs driven by steerable
propulsion units.
The Twin propeller tug is regarded as an upgrade from
the single propeller tug. It has an increased manoeuvra
bility due to the torque it can create with the propellers
placed outside of the centre line of the ship.
The ASD tug is the only tug from the conventional series
that is capable of driving as a conventional tug as well as
ASD tug
a tractor tug. She has two towing points, one located at
the bow and one located amidships. When the tug uses the
bow towing point it acts as a tractor. This way of working is
called 'reverse tractor'. Nowadays most new build ASD tugs
are fitted with only a bow winch. Tractor tugs
The tractor tug

The tractor tug is propelled by steerable propulsion units
located directly beneath the bridge of the tug. She features
her towing point on the aft-deck. Where the conventional
tug is pushed through the water, the tractor tug is pulled
through the water. The tug is most easy to control whilst
driving her astern. The long arm between the pivot-point
(now located somewhere at the skeg under the aft-deck)
and the steering units provides adequate steering force to
control the tug. The advantage over conventional boats is
that with these boats at the back they are secured on the
ship to be assisted, they can hardly capsize if they provide
Azimuth tractor Reverse tug
brakes and / or steering power to the ship.
The Azimuth Tractor Drive tug, (ATD) tug has steerable

rudder propellers fitted under the bow area of the tug. They
protrude through the hull of the tug and therefore cause a
higher draught on the tug compared to the ASD tug.
The Reverse tractor tug (ASD tug working as a tractor tug)
using the towing point on her bow is regarded as the fast
est manoeuvring system around and is highly popular in
towage.
To increase manoeuvrability and bollard pull the Rotor tug
has one additional steerable propulsion unit fitted under
the stern area of the tug. In addition it is also fitted with
two towing points.
Voith Schneider tractor Rotor tug
2.8.2 Icebreakers 2.8.3 Pilot boats
Icebreakers are quite similar to tugs - There is hardly a paint strong enough Entering and departing from a port
high engine power fitted in a relatively to resist the forces involved in ice needs to be carried out safely.
small ship - and often fully equipped breaking operations. The wear resist The ship's crew often has limited
for towage and salvage. Their main ance of the steel of the hull plating knowledge of local conditions.
function is to create a shipping lane in and propeller is thus subject to high Dangers, recent changes, customs
ice-covered waters, in a port, a river or requirements. Ice is broken by mov and rules differ from port to port and
other waterways. Obviously they have ing the sloping bow on to the ice, until can change continuously.
to be able to cope with floating ice. the weight of the fore ship breaks the Therefore local knowledge is hired.
The hull plating of the bow area has ice. Some icebreakers feature nuclear Usually this involves a pilot coming
been strengthened and the steel used propulsion. on board just before entering the par
must have a very high impact value at ticular port. That pilot can be boarded
low temperatures (notch tough steel). Characteristics or disembarked by:
The hull plating is completely flush and - high engine power - a pilot boat (small fast boat) from
free of protrusions because floating ice - high bollard pull the actual port
would rip them off immediately. The - shape of the fore ship (important - a pilot boat on station at sea, close
bow often has nozzles connected to a for the method of ice breaking) to port, with small launches
piping system discharging compressed - ship's tonnage (total mass, impor- - a helicopter (often only for very
air, which is blown under the ice-layer, tant for the ability to penetrate large ships)
breaking it upwards. the ice)
Characteristics:
- speed
- number of seats and beds for pilots
- seaworthiness
Alternatively, a ship can get direc

tives about how to manoeuvre from
a Vessel Traffic Service (VTS). A VTS
controls the shipping using a shore
radar system and radio communica
tion. A shore-based controller informs
the ship's crew and/or the pilot about
possible hazards and other traffic.
Pilot Station Vessel (PSV), in the

Cargo vessel with icebreaker stem background a pilot tender.
72 3. TYPES OF SHIP
2.9 Yachts 2.10 Fast craft 2.10.2 The Axe bow
*achts come in a great range of sizes. From The Axe bow is a further development
small motor- or sailing yachts for inland trips 2.10.1 Catamaran of the Enlarged Ship Concept (ESC).
to ocean-going mega yachts of 120 metres or The principle of the ESC is based
even more, with the widest range of leisure A catamaran is a vessel with two on significant lengthening the hull,
equipment one can think of. hulls, each with a very large L/B without increasing the functionality of
~he building of yachts is very similar to that ratio, creating a low wave resist the ship. The extra length leads to a
of a commercial ship. The hull is often pro ance. major improvement of:
duced by a normal yard, where after that hull The two hulls are connected at deck - the seakeeping characteristics
is transported to a specialised yard, where level by a rectangular platform. The (lower vertical peak accelerations)
the accommodation with all luxury features combination of the two hulls results - less resistance.
s done under supervision of designers and in great stability.
artists and by specialised craftsmen. The The waterline area and displace
Minting quality is superb. ment is low, restricting the cargo
-eisure equipment such as water scooters capacity. The result is a ship that
and speedboats are located in a separate can only carry light cargoes, like
cosed part, with a large shell door. Separated passengers over short distances in
A60) from the accommodation because of protected waters between islands,
the highly flammable petrol. Helicopter facili- in rivers, canals, river deltas etc.
es are provided. Navigation equipment is A variation is the trimaran, having
normal, but many yachts are provided with three hulls, where the middle hull
DP, as anchoring in remote tropical locations is bigger than the two outer ones.
s often not allowed. The Load line Conven Its maximum length is 126 metres.
ten requires sufficient freeboard from a Catamarans and trimaran vessels
ength of 24 metres. Classification has Rules are also called multi-hull vessels.
and Regulations for yachts also from 24 On many inland waters regulations
—etres. When the Gross Tonnage exceeds have come into force regarding
500, SOLAS is also applicable. The engine maximum wave height produced
-oom is simple, with only the minimal, nec by passing craft. The term 'low
essary and obligatory equipment. When high wash ship' has been introduced for
eoeed is not required, the propulsion and catamarans producing waves with
cower generation is not more than required a maximum height of 0.5 metres.
to sail from one port to another. The maximum wave height a nor
mal catamaran produces is approxi
= ossible cargo mately 1 metre.
- owner and guests
- passengers Possible cargo
Characteristics - passengers
- total sail area and nature of the rigging - light cargo
- motor power Characteristics
- number of cabins and number of berths - speed
- luxury level - maximum wave height produced
- seaworthiness
Fast crew supplier, a catamaran with

axe bows, also known as Twin-Axe.
Hydrofoil fast ferry
3. TYPES OF SHIP 73
3 Offshore equipment 3.2 Stages of Offshore From search to delivery, the sequence
activities is as follows:
- search
3.1 Definition of 'Offshore' The table below briefly highlights the - evaluation of seismic information
main activities of the Offshore indus - exploration drilling
The word 'Offshore' in the Oil and Gas try and of the vessels/units in use to - production drilling
Industry refers to industrial activities facilitate the production of offshore oil - platform installation with crane
in the open sea, starting from the and gas. barge
search (exploration) for oil and gas to The order in which ships are described - production platform
production (exploitation) and trans in the following pages and units, is - FPSO / FSO (Floating production
portation to shore. in accordance with the sequence of and storage)
The Offshore industry designs, builds development of production. - shuttle tanker or pipeline
and operates the offshore structures - support activities
and equipment to allow the execution
of offshore activities.
Item Activity Vessel/unit in operation

a Searching for oil or gas Seismic surveying Seismic survey vessels
b Confirming the prospect Exploration Jack-up drilling rigs, see note 1

Drilling vessels (ship shape), see note 1
Semi-submersible drilling units
c Building the production facilities Construction and installation of 1. Crane vessels
the production platform/unit 2. Offshore barges
3. Heavy lift carrier
d Developing the field Drilling and completing the pro 1. Jack-up drilling rigs
duction wells and interconnecting 2. Semi-submersible drilling units
the production wells with the 3. Pipe laying barges or pipe laying ves
production facility sels
e Getting the hydrocarbons to the - Production 1. Fixed platforms
surface and processing at the - Depressurization and separa 2. Tension leg platforms
surface tion into oil, gas and water 3. FPSOs (Floating Production Storage
fractions and Offloading Vessel)
4. FSOs (Floating Storage and Offloading
Vessel)
5. Production jack-ups or semi-subs
6. Subsea installations
7. Others, see note 2
f Bringing the 'product' to shore Transportation 1. Shuttle tankers
2. Pipelines, laid on the seabed by pipe
laying vessels, see note 3
g Support - Supply and services 1. Suppliers, crew boats, anchor handlers

- Maintenance and repair 2. Diving and Multipurpose support vessels
- Watch keeping 3. Standby and chase vessels
74 3. TYPES OF SHIP
3.3 Brief description of The information is the result of the Notes:
offshore units evaluation of the reflected sound 1. The type of vessel / unit to be
waves in the sea floor. used depends on the water depth.
a. Seismic Survey vessel To obtain these results sound waves Due to the limited length of the
The purpose of a Seismic Survey Ves are initiated by a vessel by means of legs of the jack-up drilling rigs,
sel is to produce detailed information air guns; the reflections are collected these rigs are limited in their
for oil companies as a basis for actual by a number of hydrophones within drilling operations to a maximum
exploration drilling. long cables (streamers) towed by the of 120 to 150 m. water depth;
survey vessel. in general preferred because of
their stable work platform.
Within and above the operational
limitations of the jack-ups the
semi-submersible drilling rigs
may be used. Depending on the
distance to the shore base and
the expected sea conditions, the
ship-shaped drilling vessel is a
good alternative.
2. The technique to get the hydro
carbons to the surface has been
rapidly expanding over the last
decades, resulting in all kinds
of different types of production
facilities such as:
• SALM (Self Anchoring Leg
Mooring system)
• SALS (Self Anchoring Leg
System)
• Spar (A very large spar buoy
with production and storage
facility)
• SPM (Single Point Mooring
system)
• Satellite Platform (Unmanned)
3. The technique of laying pipes on
the seabed in extended water
depth has drastically improved
and as a consequence, more and
more 'high-tech' pipe laying units
have been built and are success
fully operating.
To allow the installation of pipe
lines in the open sea the following
pipe laying vessels are used:
• S-lay pipe laying vessels (shal
low and deep water)
• J-lay pipe laying vessels (deep
water)
• Reel-lay pipe laying vessels
Seismic survey vessel (small diameter).
Certification aspects
Technical aspects
Based on the applicable specific tasks,
All the technical aspects, such as
Classification Societies and National
strength, stability, hydro-dynamical
Authorities have imposed additional
behaviour, freeboard, safety etc., in
Rules, Regulations and Requirements
the design and engineering process
as a basis for certification and safe
of ordinary ships are also applicable
working conditions.
to offshore craft augmented by the
See also chapter 6.
specific technical requirements within
the offshore application.
3. TYPES OF SHIP 75
b.1 Jack-Ups b.2 Drilling Ship b.3 Semi-Submersible
The Jack-Up drilling rig is used for A ship-shaped drilling unit used for Drilling Unit
exploration drilling from approx. drilling, exploration and production A semi-submersible drilling unit is
10 metres to max. 150 metres water wells in medium to deep water (from used for drilling exploration and pro
depth. 150 to 3,600 metre water depth). duction wells in 150 - 2,500 metre
The Jack-Up barge is a triangle water depth.
or rectangle-shaped barge which is A modern drill ship can obtain an Anchored units can operate in up to
towed to the work location. average speed of 14 knots in transit 1,500 metre water depth.
At the location the barge lowers its with a high drilling equipment storage Dynamically positioned vessels can
legs till they are on the seabed and capacity. operate independent of water depth
afterwards climbs into the legs, lifting The vessel is ideal for drilling con (up to around the year 2010 drilling
itself to a working height, safe above secutive wells in different parts of was performed in up to 2,800 metre
the waves. the world. water depth).
Jack-Up barges are mainly used for To maintain position during drilling
exploration drilling (usually 3 legged) operations the ships are either anchor An important advantage of the Semi
and as a work barge for construction moored with 8 or 12 anchors on long submersible type is the improved
work (typically 4-legged). wires and chain, or rely on Dynamic motion behaviour of the platform in
Long distance transport of Jack-ups is Positioning (DP), depending on the harsh environments, which gives a
by towing with a tug (wet tow) or by water depth. larger working window
heavy-lift transport ship.
Semi-submersible drilling unit in dry-dock
1. Drilling derrick 7. Anchor winches (on corner

2. Deck edges)
3. Columns 8. Lifeboat station
4. Cross brace 9. Deck cranes
5. Diagonal brace 10. Floater
6. Anchor racks
1. Derrick A Dynamically Positioned (D.P.)

2. Helideck vessel uses its propellers, rud
3. Drill floor and wind ders, tunnel thrusters and/or
wall azimuthing thrusters to stay in
4. Leg position.
5. Deck cranes A control system continuously
6. Deck house or determines the required thrust
accommodation vector based on information from
7. Monkey platform a position reference system, like
8. Deck, tanks and radio or hydro-acoustic beacons
work spaces or GPS.
Jackup rigs
3. TYPES OF SHIP
1. Drilling derrick 4. Supply handling crane
Module:
2. Drill floor 5. Accommodation / helideck
On top of a jacket, various items
3. Riser and pipe storage 6. Lifeboat stations
are to be fitted and intercon
nected.
c.1 Crane Vessels Crane vessels are used for lifting and
These parts are prefabricated
These are ship-shape and semi-sub installation of large modules (weigh
as much as practicable, and as
mersible barges or vessels, equipped ing over 12,000 metric tons) even for
squarely as possible, so that when
with one or two heavy-duty offshore fixed offshore platforms, from trans
placed on top of the jacket, and
cranes. port barges onto the fixed platform.
after fixing them permanently to
The largest crane vessels are the Recently crane vessels have come
the structure of the jacket, only
Semi-Submersible Crane Vessels into use for the removal of offshore
connections between these items
(SSCV). The maximum hoisting capa platforms when the oil/gas reservoirs
have to be made. These prefabri
city is 7,100 metric tons per crane, are depleted. Some crane vessels also
cated structures, often box-shaped
with two cranes on one unit. have pipe laying facilities.
are called Modules.
The weight of each module is lim
ited by the weight the available
offshore crane unit can handle.
The base of the platform (called

jacket) is either launched from a
barge or lifted onto the sea-bed by
the crane vessel prior to installa
tion of the topside modules.
After installation of the jacket it is
firmly connected to the seabed by
steel piles, that are driven down
by large hydraulic hammers sus
pended from the offshore cranes.
In some cases the base of the plat

form (the substructure) is made of
concrete. Such a concrete gravity
Heavy-lift pipe laying vessel. This is a The pipe lay installation is fitted below
based structure stays on the sea
combination of a pipe-layer and a ship decks. This can be seen from the
bed and remains on location by
for offshore installations in general. stinger, which is fitted low at the
its own weight only. These gravity
The ship is provided with equipment stern. This reduces the pipe move
based structures are installed by
for pipe laying and with a crane with ments when the ship is rolling.
floating them in place.
a lifting capacity of 3,000 tons.
3. TYPES OF SHIP
200 m
400 m
The depths, indicated in this picture,

are for guidance only.
Designers and developers are con
stantly trying to adapt a certain
type of 'rig' for deeper locations.
Equipment is altered and added for
each project and sometimes even
displacement is enlarged to enable
the fitting of the edditional gear.
2,000 m
Various types of offshore struc
1. Fixed Platform, jacket type, 5. Floating Platform, Semi-sub type
tures (fixed and floating off
(deepest water depth 420 metre.) (deepest water depth 2,500
shore structures)
2. Fixed Platform, Compliant Tower metre)
type (deepest water depth 540 6. Floating Platform, Four Column
e.1 Fixed Production Platforms
metre) TLP type (deepest water depth
Production Platforms provide a work
3. Floating Platform, Mono Column 1,500 m.)
ing platform for production drilling,
TLP type (deepest water depth 7. Single Well Oil Production Sys
production and the starting point of
1,400 m.) tems (SWOPS) (water depth
the pipeline to the collecting unit.
4. Floating Platform, SPAR type 1,850 metre)
They are prefabricated ashore.
(deepest water depth. 2,400 m.)
After construction the jacket is trans

The platform can be subdivided e.2 Tension Leg Platform (TLP)
ported lying on its side on a barge
into the following main compo The Tension Leg Platform is used for
to the production location at sea
nents: drilling and production purposes.
and launched from the barge into
- steel jacket or concrete substruc The unit resembles a semi-submers
a vertical position on the seabed.
ture ible drilling unit and is attached to
Afterwards it is fixed to the seabed
- deck the sea floor with vertically tensioned
by piles, with the help of a floating
- modules steel cables. The buoyancy of the
offshore crane.
- drilling derrick platform applies tension to the cables.
Modules are afterwards lifted onto the
- helideck The advantage of the TLP is its econo
platform, and interconnected.
- flare boom mical aspect in comparison with the
A drilling derrick and a flare boom
Most platforms stand in water depths fixed platforms, specifically for deeper
are installed. After commissioning the
varying from approx. 20 m. to 150 m. water. When the production in a par
drilling can start. After installing well
The highest jacket built so far was for ticular field ends, this type of platform
heads with the necessary pipeline
a water depth of 412 metres. can be moved to other locations.
connections, the production can start.
3. TYPES OF SHIP
Fixed platform with subsea infra 1. Fixed Platform 5. Subsea wellhead and X-mas tree
structure and semi-sub conducting 2. Semi Submersible Drilling Unit 6. In-field flow lines
subsea well work-over operations 3. Marine Drilling Riser 7. Pipeline End Manifold (PLEM)
4. Blow Out Preventer (BOP) 8. Diving Support Vessel (DSV)
Tension Leg Platform (TLP) with a 1. Tension leg platform 6. Tendons (taut mooring lines)
FPSO field development 2. FPSO 7. Gravity Actuated Pipe (GAP),
3. Calm buoy export line
4. Shuttle Tanker 8. Flowlines
5. Risers 9. Catenary mooring lines
3. TYPES OF SHIP 79
Schematic view of the processing plant and storage facilities on board an FPSO with external turret
e.3 Floating Production Storage

and Offloading (FPSO)
A FPSO vessel produces crude oil

from fluids pumped up from the oil
wells. On the vessel the fluids are
processed to separate the crude oil
from water and the gas and oil are
temporarily stored on board until the
oil is offloaded to a shuttle tanker.
Conventionally an FPSO is kept on
position by a spread anchor moor
ing system. In deep water an anchor
mooring system is no longer feasible.
The DP-FPSO is a recent development
whereby the FPSO is kept on position
by means of a Dynamic Positioning
(DP) system using azimuthing thrust
ers.
The FPSO vessel weather vanes
around the turret to keep the drift
forces and the roll motion as small
as possible by turning its bow into
the waves or current. The turret is
a vertical tube, going through the
ship, from above deck to below the
flat bottom, around which the whole
An FPSO measuring a length of 343 m, a beam of 52 m and a depth of 21 m.
FPSO can turn freely. The flexible
Crude storage capacity is 1,600,000 barrels (approx. 252,800 m3)
pipelines (called risers) that bring
the fluid to the surface are connected
1. External Turret (Pivot point) 4. Crude separation modules
to the turret from below. The oil is
2. Flare tower (100 metre high) 5. Power generation modules
produced from several oil wells in the
3. Gas lift compression modules 6. Water injection treatment module
field and transported to the risers by
in-field pipelines. Oil wells are drilled
by a drilling vessel like the dynami
cally positioned drilling ship.
80 3. TYPES OF SHIP
f.1 Shuttle tankers
In the absence of a pipeline from the
production facility to the shore termi
nal a shuttle tanker can be used to
load the oil from the FPSO or FSO and
transport this as cargo to the shore
terminal.
The shuttle tanker comes into posi
tion astern of the FPSO and connects
by a special adapter in the bow, the
bow-coupler, to a hose.
The shuttle tanker can be connected

with mooring lines from the FPSO,
keeping its engine in astern mode to
stay free from the FPSO, but most
shuttle-tankers today are dynamically
positioned, without any connection
apart from the hose. FPSO discharging to a shuttle tanker positioned aft.
Weathervaning is the behaviour, 1. Flare stack 3. Heli deck

deliberate or not, of a ship, when 2. Proces equipment 4. Shuttle tanker
moored from a single anchor or
mooring line, to position itself in
the direction of the resultant of
wind, waves and current so that
the energy needed to stay in that
position is minimised.
For DP ships this influences the
fuel consumption.
SEAJACKS KffAKE#
Shuttle tanker in dry-dock

Jack-up maintenance platform during The jack-up platform can be used
1. Bow loading station
jacking trials. This jack-up barge can for maintenance, commissioning of
2. Cargo lines
maintain its position with DP. Subse permanent oil platforms or for the
3. Heli-deck
quently the barge is lifted above the installation of wind farms.
4. Accommodation
surface out of reach of the waves.
3. TYPES OF SHIP 81
f.2 Pipe laying barges / semi subs
For the installation of sub-sea oil and
gas pipelines various barges and vessels
are used:
- anchor-moored or dynamically posi
tioned flat bottom barges,
- semi-submersibles
- ship-shaped vessels
Many of these pipe laying vessels also

have a heavy-duty crane for construction
and/or installation work.
Combined S-Lay and J-Lay pipe laying vessel with reel.
On the main deck of the ship, the pipe
pieces (joints) can be welded together to 1. J-lay tower / Reeling ramp 4. Crane, 400 ton capacity
larger lengths; double joints - 24 metres 2. Storage reels for flexibles / rigid 5. Accommodation/heli-deck/ lifeboat
or quads - 48 metres. For this purpose reeled pipe line station
a complete pipe joining/welding and 3. Pipe rack for rigid pipe sections
coating factory is installed on deck. After
welding the pipe joints, Non-Destructive They moor alongside the pipe layer at J-lay
Testing (NDT) is carried out before the sea, open their hatch and the pipes For combinations of very large depths
pipe is moved aft, length by length, hori are discharged from the cargo hold by and pipe diameters (tension capacity
zontally, in the 'firing line' and outboard the pipe layer's cranes onto storage above 1,000 tons) generally a J lay
via the pipe stinger. racks in the pipe layer. method is adopted, having the curve
The stinger is a guidance beam, pre in the pipe to the bottom according
venting the pipe from buckling directly S-lay the letter J.
behind the barge, guiding the pipeline In this method the double joints The double joints and quads are
into the water, and to the seabed. The or quads are assembled horizontally joined according to the same welding
stinger extends out-board over the stern after which the pipe is launched over procedures as for S lay, however they
of the pipe laying barge and functions the firing line to the sea bottom. Pipes are now transported to a tower that is
as an articulated outrigger that allows are laid this way to a depth of 1,000 either vertical or inclined.
for the lowering of the pipe line onto the metres. Because there is less room for various
seabed. A few very large S-lay pipe laying ves welding, coating and NDT stations to
This process is controlled by means of sels are equipped with a long stinger be stacked on top of each other on
pipe tensioners (varying in capacity from of approximately 150 metres. It can the tower than in a S lay method, the
40-500 tons), taking the weight of the be curved downwards, guiding the speed of the lay process is about half
hanging pipe and allowing some move pipe over an accurately positioned that of S lay.
ment due to waves, etc. roller system until it hangs vertically,
Pipes are supplied to the pipe laying ves very alike the J-lay. This arrangement
sel by PSVs or by pipe-supply carriers, allows 1,000 mm pipes to be laid to a
multi-purpose ships, where the pipes are depth of 2,500 metres.
on board as cargo.
Dynamic positoned S-lay pipelaying vessel able to work up to water depths of 2,500 meter with a stinger at the bow.
3. TYPES OF SHIP
Flex lay
For connections within an oilfield the
pipes are generally pre-fabricated in
larger lengths onshore.
Mostly these are so-called flex pipes,
a metal reinforced plastic casing con
taining a number of pipes as well as
power and communication cables.
From shore they are horizontal
ly coiled on board in large rotating
drums (baskets or carousels), or ver
tically on reels. On location the pipe
is laid through a vertical or inclined
tower through the moon pool or over
the side of the vessel, to a depth of up
to 3,000 metres at a tension capacity
of up to 650 tons.
Some vessels have a horizontal lay
Maintenance Jack-up near a production platform. Supplier and a stand by ves
system where the pipe is launched
sel are near by.
over a 90° bend over the stern. This
is generally for small to medium water
depths at tension capacities up to 300 The AHT often looks similar to a PSV, g.2b Multipurpose Support Vessel
tons. but has a shorter aft deck and an (MSV)
(Rigid) reel lay open stern with a stern roll and large A MSV or subsea construction ves
For larger distances within a field a winches to be able to pull anchors on sel is somewhat similar to a diving
steel pipe is a cheaper alternative. the deck. support vessel. Without diving opera
This pipe is coiled on a large reel at If the anchor handler can also func tions, the DP requirements are less
high tension. On location the pipe tion as a supplier it is called an Anchor stringent. MSVs can be used for a
is laid through a vertical tower. This Handling Tug Supplier (AHTS). large variety of tasks like:
is used in water depths up to 3,000 (see illustration chapter 1, section 7) - survey work (e.g. seabed, pipeline,
metres. sub-sea structure);
g.2a Diving Support Vessel (DSV) - (sub-sea) construction, installation
g.la Platform Supply Vessel Diving support vessels are used to and maintenance or repair work;
(PSV) support divers doing inspections, con - trenching of cables or pipelines;
Supply vessels combine many func struction or repair work on sub-sea - installation of flexibles;
tions and are used for the supply of structures. - well intervention and workover
fuel, drilling mud, fresh water, drill To facilitate the diving operations services.
ing equipment and pipes to or from DSVs have diving bell(s) and decom
offshore platforms or other vessels pression chambers for the divers. g.3 Crew boat
(e.g. supply of pipes to pipe lay A moon pool (a hole in the middle Used for crew changes for drilling rigs
ing vessels). During these supply of the ship, allowing vertical transport or other craft in benign waters.
operations DP is often used to stay of diving equipment) is used to lower They are fast boats of approx. 20
in position. Another function besides divers or sub-sea tools. metres in length, with an accom
supply, is fire fighting. Suppliers are Such a sub-sea tool is the Remotely modation for some 24 passengers in
characterized by a superstructure and Operated Vehicle (ROV), a self-pro chairs, and an open aft deck to take
deck-house forward and a long flat pelled underwater remote controlled some spares and sufficient place to
aft deck. robot for inspection or construction embark or disembark the crewmem
They have no helideck, no cranes and and repair work. bers using a crew-basket, suspended
no winches for anchor handling. Usually the ROV is connected by an from the crane of the rig or ship.
The offshore platform or vessel uses umbilical cord (a cable for power In some areas (e.g. North Sea) heli
its own cranes to lift cargo from the and controls) to the support vessel. copters are used for crew changes.
PSV deck. The difference from an AHT DSVs are anchor moored or dynami
is that a PSV has a long aft deck and cally positioned. When working with g.4 Standby - and chase vessels
below-deck storage tanks. divers, very strict requirements apply Standby vessels stay in the neigh
to the anchor mooring or DP system, bourhood of platforms or offshore
g.lb Anchor Handling Tug (AHT) as a drift-off of the DSV could put the operations to perform rescue opera
An anchor handling tug is used to divers in danger. tions in case of emergencies.
set and retrieve anchors of moored Therefore DSVs have to comply with Chase vessels are used to chase ships
offshore units and for towing these the highest DP standards (class 3). away from platforms, offshore opera
units. tions or seismic survey vessels.
3. TYPES OF SHIP 83
THE BUILDING OF A SHIP
4 1 Pre-contractual work
Prior to the signing of the contract between shipyard and ship-owner for the
actual construction of the ship, the shipping company, financer and future own
ers have already completed a long road of negotiations and considerations.
Unlike a car, most cargo ships are not ready for delivery in a wide range of pre
constructed models. Most new ships are designed and constructed following the
specific requirements of the shipping company.
THE BUILDING However, more and more ships are built in larger series from a standard
OF A SHIP design, with a limited number of ship types, like tankers and bulk carriers. This
makes series production possible for many shipowners, enabling a shipyard to
1 Pre-contractual work 86 increase its production efficiency.
2 Design and 89 The advantages of a standardised 1.1 Owners' requirements

ship are:
construction
- The clients know what they can Most shipping companies first define
3 Delivery 99 expect. formal owners' requirements, in
The design is already proven and particular if the ship will be newly
details can be optimised during the designed and optimised for the ship
series. ping company.
- The cost of construction is known
and construction planning has The owners' requirements specify
been done. several characteristics of the new
- The almost complete absence of ship, such as:
the design and engineering period - the desired carrying capacity and
shortens the delivery period of tonnage;
later ships in the series. - desired service speed and trial
- The costs for design and engineer speed;
ing of the ship are spread over - types of cargo the ship must be able
multiple ships, so the overall costs to transport;
per ship are lower. - type(s) of fuel to consider: low
sulpher HFO, MDO, MGO, LNG, etc.
The disadvantages of a - cargo-hold lay-out;
standardised ship are: - system of hatches/hatch covers
- The design may not be entirely - cargo gear required and its type,
suitable for the requirements of the capacity and safe working load;
shipping company. - number of crew and passengers,
- The involvement of the shipping to determine the number of cabins
company is limited to details only. - composition of the crew, levels of
- More competitors may operate comfort and dimensions of the cab
almost identical ships, which are ins and general accommodation;
not optimised for a particular trade - operational areas;
or shipping company and there is - operational range to determine the
no competitive advantage in the size of the fuel tanks and storage
ship(-design) itself. compartments;
- The level of innovations and cost - limitations to the size in respect to
saving prospects for the future are the routes it will navigate (bridges,
lower. Innovative solutions cannot locks, water depth etc.);
be fully utilised on standard ships. - special requirements like strength
ening for navigation in ice (ice
In spite of the disadvantages, ship class) or ramps in the side of the
yards have introduced good and ver ship;
satile standardised ships in recent - the ultimate completion date if
years. freight contracts have already been
Some shipping companies are now made;
ordering whole series of these ships - required certification, classification
with sometimes only a few modifica society and flag notations of reg
tions to the design. istration.
However, each modification costs
extra.
86 4. THE BUILDING OF A SHIP

There are various procedures to get 1.2 The preliminary the shipyard for arrangement of the
from design requirements to a ship design relevant spaces in the vessel. On the
building contract. The ship owner basis of a comparison of the offers, a
determines the preferred proce The offer subject to contract is the shipping company will continue nego
dure; the most common procedure is response of the shipyard to the invita tiations with two or three shipyards.
described here. tion to tender. This offer may initially The preliminary design for the tender
The ship owner then prepares a consist of a preliminary design. This is prepared in the project department
bid request package, which contains consists of an outline specification, (or Design department) of the ship
the ship drawings and specifications a preliminary General Arrangement yard. This requires a lot of calcula
(often referred to as the 'Owner's and an estimate of the price to get tions and design work, especially if
specifications'), and submits it to sev in contact, start discussions and get the design is entirely new, because
eral shipyards for quotes. The ship feedback of the shipowner. The out in case the design is chosen and the
yards will then inform the ship owner line specification is a brief technical shipyards wins the order, the design
if they are interested in preparing a description and the General Arrange should fulfil all requirements and reg
tender/quotation for design and ment is a side and top view of the ulations, within the contract price.
construction of the required ship(s). ship, which shows the proposal of
In a growing number of cases the
shipowner contracts a design office The vessel including its hull, machinery and equipment to be built under the special
to develop its own initial design and survey of Lloyd's Register of Shipping and to be classed and registered as +100 A1
specification. This will then be the
+LMC, UMS. IWS. PCWBT. SCM, LA, NAV I, Iceclass 1A 'Strengthened for heavy
basis to ask shipyards for tenders/
cargoes' Timber deck Cargoes. Container cargoes in hold and on upperdeck’,
quotations.
strengthened for regular discharge by grabs.
The level of interest from the ship
yard depends on:
The vessel to be registered under the flag of the Netherlands
- the technical capability of the ship
yard and experience with the ship
type; The following maritime Rules and Regulations, those coming into effect as of the date of
- the capacity and earliest delivery execution of the contract to be complied with, including rules and regulations known at
time that the shipyard can offer; the day of execution of the contract, coming into force and being applicable to the vessel
- the amount of material and man before actual delivery:
power that is required in the avail
able time; Rules and regulation of Classification Society
- special interest of the shipyard to
International convention for the safety of life at sea, 1992 and latest amendments
build such a type of ship;
International convention on load lines, 1966
- expected price level;
Regulations for the Measurement of Vessel (London. 1969)
- expected competition.
Convention on the International Regulations for preventing collisions at sea, 1972
After informative talks the ship owner - Convention on the International Regulations for preventing pollutions at sea 1973,
sets a time period in which the ship 1978 (Annex I, IV, V) and latest amendments
yards can submit an offer (tender, - Acts of Internationa' Telecommunication and Radio Conference (GMDSS Area III)
quotation) subject to contract. Of Suez Canal navigation rule
course, the ship owner does not pay - Panama Canal navigation rule
to receive shipyard bids, and also,
- USCG rules for foreign flag ship visiting US harbour (+ USDPH)
the shipyard does not know if it will
Maritime rules of the Netherlands (NSI), including NSI Noise Regulations
be awarded the ship construction
- Regulations of Unattended Machinery Space by NSI
contract.
Sometimes the shipping company Rule of Australian Waterside Worker's Federation (AWWF), Australian Navigation
already has a preference for a par and Pilot Rule

ticular shipyard, and then the offers - Reg-54 of Solas 1981 for the carriage of dangerous goods DHI (Partial application)
are used in the negotiations with the - St Lawrence Seaway and Great Lakes requirements
preferred yard.
Legal part of new building specification
which the power to be installed can the design and construct the ship(s).
be derived. From these calcula This procedure is called a tender, and
tions the 'speed - power curves' participating in it is called 'to tender'.
are derived. In these curves the For state owned companies the Euro
required engine power is plotted pean Union (EU) sometimes requires
against a range of speeds, usually an 'open tender' in which other ship
both for 'trial conditions' (smooth yards, if they are from the EU, can
seas and no wind) and for 'ser partake.
vice conditions' (realistic practical Sometimes it can take months for the
conditions including fouling, wind shipyards to detail the design and the
and waves, to be accounted for in specification of systems in the ship to
a 'sea margin', an extra required be built and to calculate an accurate
A section on a screen power of 10, 15 or 20% over the price for the tender, but they still do
'trial condition'). Often the trial not receive any money and are still
The demands on naval architects, speed is a contractual requirement under no obligation.
Computer Aided Design (CAD) pro and underperformance in speed
grams and designers are quite heavy during sea trials means the ship The financing scheme has to be
and if the shipyard is too small to yard must pay penalties to the agreed upon, often together with the
carry out such design and calculation ship owner. The ship's behaviour shipyard's bank, to negotiate progress
work in a short period, it may subcon at sea and its manoeuvrability in payment periods and sums with the
tracted to a specialised design office different conditions of loading can ship owner.
and/or other shipyards. be predicted. Some shipyards may offer financing
- To check whether the outline schemes in which the shipowner only
At an early stage of the design, a specification satisfies all the legal pays 10% at the signing of the con
steel plan has to be made, especially requirements. tract and 90% on delivery.
when high tensile steel has to be - The design information is the basis This can be more attractive to the
used. This is an important part of for the calculation of the building owner than a payment scheme that
the lightweight calculation, and has cost of the ship, that will be stated requires advance payments to the
consequences for deadweight and in the offer to the ship owner. yard before building is started.
displacement. Finally the order will be given to one
Limited time is available to provide of the shipyards.
Various CAD computer programs are the tender/quotation to the client. On In this process, not only the contract
used for the following activities (first the other hand the more subjects are price is taken into consideration, but
in the preliminary design then in the covered by calculations and reliable also other factors like the delivery
contract design phase and later on in estimations, the lower the risk for the date, financing scheme (during build
the final design): yard and the more competitive the ing period and some shipyards can
The design and optimisation of price. So yards invest in good design also arrange financing for the ship
the hull form, General Arrange tools and key figures to speed up the owner during the lifetime of the ves
ment of hull, decks and super tender process and calculate a more sel, for 15 or 20 years), the reputa
structures, maximum deck load accurate cost price. tion of the shipyard (working within
etc. are a compromise considering budget and time) and whether the
minimum resistance for a given 1.3 The tender shipyard has constructed a vessel for
displacement/dead weight, while the ship owner before.
fulfilling stability requirements. After having studied all the offers, the
Hydrostatic calculations, both ship owner can make a final choice 1.4 The contract
for trim and stability of the ship in for a particular design and start nego specification
various loading conditions and for tiations with one or two shipyards to
checking stability in case of dam finalise the contract price and specifi After the preparation, sometimes last
age to determine the chance of cation, resulting in a contract for the ing up to a year, the parties involved
survival. This stability has to fulfil building of the ship between the ship sign the final building contract.
the requirements of the IMO. Addi owner and yard. The terms and conditions of the ship
tionally the longitudinal strength of In other cases the shipping company construction contract specify all nec
the ship is checked for the same can elaborate upon its chosen design, essary details of the legal relationship
conditions. prepare a detailed building specifica between the ship owner, the shipyard,
Hydrodynamic calculations, tion of the ship and a preliminary cost and the financial institution. The con
calculations that are performed estimation. This document may be as tract always refers to the contract
to estimate the resistance of the large as 200 pages. specification, including the general
ship, and to determine the char This detailed building specification can arrangement of the ship.
acteristics of the ship's propeller then be sent to two or three shipyards
and its propulsive efficiency, from for a more detailed offer to complete

When the building contract has In the figures the wave patterns of
been signed, all the parties have obli a ship at a certain speed before and
gations that start with the first down after optimisation are shown.
payment and end with the delivery After optimisation the ship makes
and final payment. fewer waves, so the optimisation pro
The shipyard assigns a 'hull number' cedure has reduced the wave resist
to the future ship, which is stated on ance.
all the drawings and documentation. The bulbous bow has already
Upon signing the contract the clock to reduced this resistance because the
build the ship starts ticking. wave produced by the bulbous bow
Any changed specifications and the counteracts the bow wave. However,
price to make them happen are speci this is only one effect that is account
fied and agreed upon in a 'change ed for in the optimisation process,
order' signed by both sides. there are many other effects that can
For any alterations or additional com further minimise wave resistance.
ponents, the additional price should
be estimated, negotiated and fixed. 2 Design and Wave pattern before Wave pattern after
This differs for various yards and construction optimisation optimisation
various cultures. The payment will
be settled at a later date in accord The building time, as agreed in the
ance with the provisions of the con contract, comprises the design
tract. For all commercial vessels, the phase and the building phase.
primary investments as well as the The design period varies from 6 to 18
operational costs and revenues are months depending on the complexity
relevant. For other ships like mega of the ship. The building period varies
yachts the quality is important for the between 6 and 24 months.
prospects of selling in the future. A building team may be formed by the
ship owner and the shipyard. They
1.5 Specialist knowledge both appoint project managers who
are responsible for the entire building
For certain difficult areas of design, process up to the delivery.
specialised research and engineering
firms are consulted. These firms can 2.1 Drawing office
advise shipyards in:
the optimisation of the shape of Most shipyards have a 'Project- 'or
the ship 'Design Department' in which pre
calculations on noise and vibra liminary designs are prepared and
tions where the final design calculations
the optimisation of the propellers, are made for the ship designs that
ducts and rudders. become ship contracts. These final
Research on the hull is done both designs will be futher developed in
by computer calculations and results every detail of the construction and
of model testing in a model tank. systems in the Engineering Depart
The resistance curves are obtained ment. This department used to be
by measuring the required propul called the 'Drawing office', but now
sion power at different draughts and adays in most shipyards the engineer
speeds. In addition to this, research ing is prepared behind workstations
is done on the influence of waves by engineers using Computer Aided
on speed, the necessary propulsion Engineering systems. There is not a
power, navigability, rolling and pitch single drawing table to be found. The
ing behaviour and manoeuvrability. ship is developed in detail in construc
With very large ships research is done tion drawings. The diagrams of all
on the extreme forces and bending the mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic,
moments that arise in the ship in and electrical systems including the
large waves/heavy seas. accommodation, are detailed.
The optimisation of the ship's shape is
a very laborious task where measur Wave pattern around tug; computer
ing and calculating go hand in hand. ized (1), model test (2) and under real
condition (3)
1. Wheelhouse deck
2. Wheelhouse

21. Double bottom sections
22. Side tank block
23. Ring section
Panels (blocks) and sections of a ship

Most relevant drawings have to be sub 2.2 Work preparation 2.3 Production of double
mitted to the: curved plates
- Classification society with which the The production department pre
ship is to be classed pares the drawings from the techni The production of the flat hull plat
- Regulating Body of the country where cal office for the production process: ing is relatively simple. On the other
the ship is to be registered (Flag they will put the correct drawings hand, a considerable part of the hull
State). In most cases the classification together at the correct workplace. plating has to be double curved.
society also represents the Flag State All steel parts are also coded there. Consider above all the front and
of the country where the ship is to be A coordinator prepares the nesting stern and the transition between
registered. of steel plates with the help of a hull plating and flat plating.
computer program. The production of double curved
Even though people from the ship owner It is important to figure out how plates can take place in two ways:
are on the building team, some drawings the required steel components are - cold forming
still need approval from the management cut out of the steel plates as effi - line-heating
of the ship owner. ciently as possible with a minimum The maximum size of a steel plate
Furthermore, every detail of the engi of residual waste or drop. The nest to be curved varies from 3,5 metres
neered construction or system has to ing program automatically or semi wide and 12 metres long and 6-40
comply with the rules of the classification automatically generates a marking mm thickness.
society, which regularly sends inspectors and cutting sequence in the form To curve these plates, it requires a
to the shipyard to assure that the actual of a CNC file (Computer Numerical lot of energy and / or power (see
construction of the vessel complies with Control). This file controls the (fire) the photo of a 275 ton press).
approved drawings. Some shipyards cutting machine so that the marking
have a small engineering department, lines can be printed on the plate and 2.3.1 Cold forming versus
mostly focusing on project management. the inner and outer contours can be line-heating for
They will sub-contract the engineering cut successively. Depending on the (double)curved plates
package to an independent marine engi type of material, thickness, permit
neering office, to their co-makers for the ted heat input and dimensional accu In the shipbuilding industry the
electrical installation, engine room instal racy, a choice will be made between forming of double curved hull plates
lation, air conditioning installation, etc., the cutting processes; autogenous, is a lasting challenge which leads to
or they will co-operate with other ship plasma, laser or water jet cutting. worldwide surveys and discussions.
yards. The detailed engineering of a ship On the one hand, you want to make
design to a complete and approved set of The cutting machines can also be the hull plates as large as pos
drawings takes tens of thousands or even equipped with a print head for print sible in order to limit the welding
hundreds of thousands of man hours. This ing numbers and texts on the plate. work, on the other hand the hull
can be a relevant cost component for the With the plasma cutting process you plates have to become smaller as
ship to be built, as a rule of thumb up to can not only cut steel, but because the deformation and thereby the
10% of the total building price. of the high temperatures stretch / butt increase.
(> 18,000 ° C) also non-iron (non The longitudinal welds in the hull
In many countries there is good co-opera ferrous) metals. The cutting speed is are known as weld seams, while
tion between the different shipyards, and considerably higher than with autog the transverse welds (vertical and
standardisation has led to a better match enous cutting. horizontal) are known as butts (also
of products and computer-programs. This weld butts).
makes it increasingly easy for shipyards
to build parts for each other.

The first welding seams that are 2.3.2 Characteristics of line The line heating process is:
determined are the section seams and heating - a time consuming process that can
the seams in the straight / prismatic take days for just one plate
mid ship, and also the welding seams Although IACS (International Associa - difficult to learn, it takes years to
at the location of thickness transi tion of Classification Societies) Stand become a professional
tions are determined. The remaining ard NO.47 allows heating tempera - consuming a lot of natural gas or
welding seams are then added to the tures up to 650 °C, followed by rapid propane and oxygen.
stern and fore bow. The factors which water cooling, higher temperatures - unpredictable, so it requires extra
influence, inter alia, the division of a are noticed in daily practice to speed material ('over length') on all sides
ship's hull into several hull plates are: up this process, (material colors red to which has to be cut and bevelled
- Strength of the curvature. (In the bright red = 704 °C - 816 °C). on the job during construction.
case of double curved skin plates, Risk: above 727 °C the microstruc - not suitable for Extra High Ten
the stretch increases as the plates ture of carbon steel will transform to sile Steel because these mate
become larger.) The average elon an Austenitic microstructure. Due to rials are often delivered in the
gation applied in these cases is the rapid cooling with water after Quenched and Tempered condi
about 1 mm elongation at a length wards this structure may transform to tion. The mechanical properties of
of 250 mm. Martensite (hard and brittle structure these materials will be negated by
Available plate size with low ductility), an unwelcome the line heating process.
Capacity of the press. situation. Risk of Martensite formation
increases with increasing Carbon con
Once the layout has been made, the tent, which is the case for High Strength
welding edge pre-treatment between and Extra High Strength steels.
the hull plates is established. The
choice depends on, among other
things, the thickness of the hull plate
and the construction method.
Subsequently, the hull plates that
have been classified in the 3d model
must be converted to a flattened
shape (rash) that can be cut with the
aid of a (fire) cutting machine.
Key issues are the differences in two

reverse technologies and the impact
they have on the overall performance
of shipyards.
Let us summarise the two technolo
gies first:
Classical line heating is based on
shrinking certain areas of a plate,
causing the plate to get shape.
Shrinking is incurred by heating 1. Gas Flame
and cooling down (actually quench 2. Water hose
Une heating and its effect
ing) certain areas of the plate. 3. Line heated plate, where the (typ
Modern cold forming is based on ical for) local rust formation and
stretching certain areas of the surface disturbance are visible.
plate by means of a rolling unit
which rolls along designated lines
on the plate.
The areas which will shrink during line

heating are exactly those areas which
are not affected during cold forming,
hence 'reverse technologies'.

2.3.3 Cold forming
The process of cold forming is:

- slightly strengthening the mate
rial locally because of deforma
tion above the material's yield
strength.
- a fast process which is about 5-8
times more efficient than line heat
ing
- easier to accomplish
- saving energy because no gas and
oxygen are needed; only limited
electric power is required for pow
ering the hydraulic power unit.
- definite. The first cut of the plate
will be the final cut, including bev
eling, because the process is so
predictable and no overlength is
needed. Cold forming by rolling 1. Rolling unit: interchangeable with bending
and its result below tools (1) in the shipbuilding press
2D and 3D
2. Saddle shaped panel in process
The hull plates have 3-dimen
sional shape (x-y-z direction). The
frames are 2 dimensional (x-y
direction), they are bent in a flat
plane and are thus 2 dimensional,
according to the drawings.
Frames are easier to form in 2
dimensions, in a flat plane, than
forming hull plates in 3 directions,
in 3 dimensions.
Typical bulbous panel with centre stretch
An example of a bulbous bow and one of its plates. Various flat

plates must be curved to eventually obtain the bulb as the final
product, (see chapter 2.3)

2.3.4 Clarification on the cold
forming process
Typical presses for shipbuilding are

designed to shape hull plates with
compound curvatures by means of
the application of hydraulic bending
and rolling tools.
Apart from compound curvature (3D)

plates, the ship's hull requires 2D
shapes as well, namely the frames.
These frames, most commonly are
the flat bulbs, can easily be processed
on a frame bending machine.
The frame bending machine is easy
to operate because frames have
two dimensional shapes only. The
inversed curve method for checking
the required radius is the most adapt
ed production support tool. Actually,
the required curve is marked on the
straight frame, either with template
or during the cutting process on the
web of the frame. After bending,
the curved line will be a straight line Shipbuilding press 275 ton 1. Bending tools mounted on a press
which can be checked by the opera pressing force 2. Double-curved plate forming process
tor. The double curvature plates (3D)
however, need more skills and a
trained operator. For basic applica
tions in cold forming, the panels 1-3
can be shaped on any conventional
press brake.
Please note that the panels 1-3 are
so called 'unwindable panels' which
implicates that the panels don't need
to be stretched in order to achieve
the required shape. Bending only will
be adequate.
However, the key issue when shap

ing plates like no. 4-7 is that certain
lines need to be stretched by rolling
in order to achieve the required com
pound curvatures. These panels are
also called 'non- unwindable panels'.
These panels (4-7) need the combi

nation of stretching (by rolling) and
bending. This can be achieved by one
single shipbuilding press with bending
toad rolling tools.
«ending on plate thickness and
■Bpe, the operator will set the
Bydraulic force.
Generally, a maximum force of 13-14
tonnes per mm plate thickness will be
adequate for a suitable shipbuilding
press. Frame bending machine with HP profiles (Flat bulbs) in process

Cylindrical panel
Saddle shape panel

These panels represert
basic forms that you
make without streti
(the unwindable panels
single curved plates —:
1,2,3) and with stret
(the non-unwindable pa
double curved plates—
4,5,6,7.
Stern block being installed

2.4 The production phases Because access to the different blocks The launching of a ship can be lon
is much more restricted when they gitudinal or transverse (side launch
A ship is constructed in various stag are joined together, the ship's sys ing), depending on the lay-out of the
es, which can sometimes overlap: tems are pre-outfitted in the sections shipyard and the slipway. It is always
- pre-fabrication of steel parts as far as possible, prior to the joining. an exciting moment because at the
building of flat panels (plates with This means that piping systems, moment the ship is launched, there is
stiffeners) tanks, filters and other small aux no going back.
- building of block-sections 3D parts iliaries are all placed in the section
that can still be moved from a before the joining of all the blocks. 2.5 Launching and fitting
workshop to the slipway) out
assembling of hull and deck house The building of a ship used to begin
on a slipway or in a building dock with the placing of a keel plate. The In longitudinal launches from a slip
- installation and outfitting of sys rest of the construction was then con way, the ship acquires so much speed
tems and components nected to this first item. that it takes a lot of effort to reduce
- painting of individual parts Today, laying the keel means that this speed. This is done by water
final paint layers on the outside hull the first bottom block is placed in brakes and drag chains or ropes.
- launching of the ship the assembly hall or on the building In side launches, from a transverse
outfitting alongside a quay and berth. Subsequently, the other blocks slipway, the ship can bounce back
subsequent completion of the ship are then built onto this. against the wharf, especially when the
system trials at the shipyard At this stage, the production is well water level is high.
- sea trial. underway. Some modern shipyards The ship does not gain much speed,
do the actual building in large indoor but instead produces very high waves.
Automation of the construction has assembly halls where they use pre
led to more efficiency. Furthermore, painted steel plates. After the launch, the final items such
the sections are engineered in such a After welding the plates, the joints are as masts, hatches, engines, funnel,
way that as much assembly welding immediately painted. ventilation shafts, cranes etc. are
as possible can be done by semi added to the ship at the fitting out
automatic welding and robots. Several factors determine where the berth. Finally, the cabins and other
Building by block-section enables ship will be finished. spaces are furnished and the inven
parts of the double bottom, the fore The finishing is either done in the tory is brought on board.
ship and the aft ship to be welded assembly hall or at the outfitting (Inventory is not a yard supply, apart
whilst lying upside down in the work dock. from some basics, they are normally
place. In some cases the deck house cannot supplied by owners).
This manner of welding produces a physically fit into the assembly hall.
uniform quality of the weld in less If the vessel is going to be launched
time. longitudinally, she should have mini
mum weight on board. A side launch
4. THE BUILDING OF A SHIP

2.6 Commissioning Next is the first, technical, sea trial, 2.7 Production logistics
which can take from a few hours to
When the ship's electrical systems several days. This is the first time More and more shipyards advertise
are ready, the switchboard is con that the ship leaves the shore and is shorter delivery periods, and more
nected to the shore supply to get completely self-reliant. The ship as a and more shipping companies stipu
power. whole and all of its parts are exten late it. In order to facilitate this trend,
After careful checking, one of the sively tested and all the results are many shipyards sub-contract other
ship's generators is started, and elec carefully recorded. shipyards to build parts of the ship.
tric power from the generator is sup The classification society and the It is also common that the hull of the
plied to the switchboard and the ship National Shipping Inspectorate (Flag ship is constructed in low-wage coun
can then begin to function indepen State) are also present to see if all tries and that the hull is outfitted and
dently from the shore power. requirements are met. completed at another shipyard in a
Upon completion of the vessel in different country.
the shipyard the final testing of all In general, these trials are successful, But even without these measures, all
systems will be conducted at the but there are always small imperfec semi-finished parts must be ready
shipyard with the exception of items tions which can be corrected during or for the next phase of construction to
which can only be tested during sea after the trial. The exact behaviour of commence.
trials. the ship in open sea will become clear
Final testing at the shipyard is related when the ship is in use; however, the For standard ships, the yard layout is
to electrical systems, engines, gen speed and fuel consumption of the optimised for the flow of its particular
erators, pumps, technical equipment empty ship can only be measured section blocks and turnaround time.
and life-saving equipment. during sea trials. Yards that produce custom built ves
Afterwards the light ship weight sels focus on the turnaround of spe
measurement and the inclining During commissioning a very cific logistic units of standardised size.
experiment (the stability test) can important item is the lightweight Each unit will have more or less the
be carried out. measurement and the inclina same lead time so the waiting hours
In principle all these tests will be tion test. The inclination test is and temporary storage in the process
carried out in the presence of the carried out to find the height of will be minimised. Handling of these
owner's representative(s), classifica the centre of gravity of the ship. units can be automated, while the
tion surveyor(s) and, if applicable, Moving a known weight from parts are totally different or unique.
National Authority representative(s). midships to both sides alternately For example, plates are joined and
(Final testing in open sea is mainly and measuring list very accu stiffeners are added to form bulk
related to final testing of machin rately during the various steps in heads and decks on a so called 'panel
ery under working conditions, fuel that procedure make it possible line'.
consumption, vessel's speed, rudder to calculate the position of 'G'. All panels arrive at the right time at
tests and anchor tests.) This is a very important figure for the section building area, to be fitted
stability calculations. in the block. JIT (Just In Time) is one
of the tools in Lean Manufacturing.
Additionally, all the purchased parts

must be ready in time, but not too
early because of the costs of storage
and interest.
Keeping the construction process
manageable requires that a proper
overview of the project in terms of
technicalities, logistics and finance
should be available any time.
Such a management system inte
grates and controls data from the
preparation, design, purchase, stocks,
production, administration and pro
ject management.
Large diesel generator ready to be installed
4. THE BUILDING OF A SHIP

3 Delivery 3.2 Period of guarantee This condition protects the shipyards
against excessive bills if there is a
3.1 Sea trials The guarantee conditions are an inte deal between the ship owner and the
gral part of the building contract. repair yard.
The ship owner and certifying authori In general, the guarantee period is 12
ties will finally accept the ship subject months from delivery of the vessel. Repairs of components and equip
to the issue of the relevant certificates The shipyard almost always takes ment are almost exclusively done by
and successful sea trial tests. over the guarantee conditions and local service agents, especially when
During a short voyage the protocol of periods of the companies supplying the parts are of a well-known brand.
consignment is signed, the shipyard's the different ship components and This is always done in consultation
flag will be exchanged for the flag of transfers them to the ship owner at with the shipyard or the supplier.
the ship owner and the financier pays delivery. The crew is prohibited from conduct
the last instalment. Because there is If the ship needs repairing within the ing repairs during the period of guar
usually a 12-month period of guar period of guarantee, the vessel's loca antee unless the repairs are abso
antee on the ship, the ship owner tion and the urgency of the repair jobs lutely necessary. In this case, the
usually requires a bank guarantee determines who will repair the vessel shipyard has to be consulted first.
from the shipyard. This is called upon and where it will be done. Sometimes suppliers have two peri
when the shipyard cannot, or refuses If the ship cannot be repaired at or by ods of guarantee for their product.
to comply with the guarantee. the shipyard, for instance, because The first period covers a period of
It is normal that a guarantee engineer the ship is in another country, the ship months after delivery from the fac
from the shipyard is on board during owner / operator is allowed to have tory; the second, after the product is
the first months of a ship's life. the ship repaired by a third party, but put into operation.
only if the costs of repairing the ship The reason for this is, that there
are not more than the price the ship sometimes is a long period between
yard would ask. delivery to the shipyard and the time
the component is put into operation.
Manoeuvring test during sea trials

1 General
When a ship is moving through the

water, there are many forces acting
on it.
How they act is largely determined
by the purpose the ship was built for.
Forces on a tugboat will be different
FORCES ON A SHIP from the forces acting on a container
ship.
1 General 102 The types of forces that occur in
2 Longitudinal strength 102 waves are the same for every ship
A ship with heel in an unstable situ
but the magnitudes and points of
3 Torsion of the hull 113 ation.
action depend on the shape of the
ship below and immediately above
4 Local stresses 113
the waterline. These and other forces cause the ship
5 Stiffening 114 to flex. When the force disappears,
The pattern of forces on a ship is the ship will regain its original shape.
very complicated and largely depends Every ship is different and will have
on the following parametres: more or less flexibility. If, however,
the weight of the empty ship (light the forces exceed a certain limit, per
ship weight) manent deformation can result.
- the weight and distribution of the
cargo, fuel, ballast, provisions, etc 2 Longitudinal
hydrostatic* pressure on the hull strength
applied by the water
- hydrodynamic* forces resulting 2.1 Shearing forces
from the movement of the ship in
the waves When a ship is in calm water the
- vibrations caused by engines, pro total downward force of her weight
peller, pitching equals the total upward force of her
- incidental forces caused by dock buoyancy. This equilibrium does not
ing, collisions exist throughout her length. Local dif
- ice ferences in weight and shape give rise
to shearing forces resulting in vertical
stresses.
♦Static and dynamic forces Examples of dynamic forces:

The concepts static and dynamic - The same swing is pushed for
are widely used in this and other ward suddenly.
chapters. The weight of the swing cannot
Static means that the force exerted absorb this sudden burst of force
on an object is absorbed immedi and loses control.
ately. This is a dynamic motion.
Dynamic means the force is absorbed - The same crane has lifted the
gradually. weight several metres.
The cable suddenly snaps and the
Examples of static forces: weight falls on the quay.
- A swing with a child is slowly This causes the ship to list vio
pushed forwards. lently to the other side.
This is a static movement because The ship is unable to absorb the
the force exerted on the swing is sudden change in weight and,
absorbed instantaneously. as a result, acquires a dynamic
- A crane on a ship is loading cargo. motion.
As the cargo runner is stiffened,
the ship lists slowly.
This is a static movement because
the ship absorbs the force that
lifts the weight instantaneously.
102 5. FORCES ON A SHIP

The shearing force is the force that The shearing force at the bulkhead is
shifts the transverse plane from one 400 - 200 = 200 tons. The downward
part of the ship to another. force causes a hogging moment of
The submerged part of the ship clear 400 tons x 6 metres = 2,400 tm.
ly shows the difference in volume The upward force causes a sagging
between midship, fore and aft; this moment of 200 t x 3m. = 600 tm
is the reason for the difference in The bending moment at the bulkhead
upward force. In the drawing on the is: 2,400 tm - 600tm = l,800tm
right of this page a part of the aft ship (hogging).
is shown along with the shearing force
near a bulkhead.
200 tons shearing force at this

bulkhead
The submerged part of this ship clearly shows the difference in volume between
the midships section and the aft ship.
This explains the difference in upward pressure force.
The blue vectors represent the upward pressure and the red vectors the weight of the ship.
This is how the separate compartments would float. The dashed line indicates their actual draught.
2.2 Explanation of The upward and downward forces per The shearing force curve has an
bending moments compartment are shown as vectors. extreme value at the points where the
The mean resultant per compartment direction of the force changes.
Below is an explanation of how bend is given as a vector on the line below. Converting the load curve to a shear
ing moments and shearing forces are The load curve indicates the differ force curve is called summing.
continuously changing. ence of the up and downward forces The sum of the areas above the base
As an example a rectangular vessel per metre at each point on the base line has to equal the sum of the areas
is used which is divided into three line. below the baseline.
compartments (A, B and C). The sum of the areas above the base The shearing forces are expressed in
In figures 1, 2 and 3 both outer com line and of the areas below the base tons.
partments are filled with cargo. line should be equal. The bending moment is determined
In fig. 4, 5 and 6 the inner compart The shearing force curve indicates by summing the shearing forces from
ment (B) is filled with cargo. a sum of the shearing forces on the left to right.
In fig. 2 and 5 the vessel is on a wave right part produced by the left side,
crest and in fig. 3 and 6 the vessel is going from left to right. The bending moment is expressed in
in a trough. If the direction of the force changes ton-metres (tm).
The upward pressures keep changing (from upward to downward or vice If the shearing force curve descends
because the wave is moving along the versa), the shearing force curve will or vice versa, the bending moment
vessel. The downward forces, how either descent or ascend. will bend from 'hollow' to 'round' or
ever, stay the same. vice versa.
fig-1 fig-2 fig-3

Calm water Wavetop Trough
Resultant
Load curve
Shearing
force curve
Bending
moment
5. FORCES ON A SHIP
When the shearing force curve crosses On the diagram of the bend Stress distribution in a beam, during
the baseline, the bending moment line ing moment, the maximum bend bending. The neutral axis is at the
will descend or ascend. ing moment is at half length, (VzL), level of the centre of gravity of the
The ship will take the shape of the decreasing to zero (0) at the ends. sections.
bending moment line if this has only In a ship we find a similar stress dis
one extreme (maximum) value. tribution.
The situation in figures 1 and 2 is
called a hogging condition and the Hogging:
situation in figures 3, 4, 5 and 6 is The vertical deflection of a ship's
called a sagging condition. hull, in longitudinal direction,
Around mid-height of the rectangu where the hull is bent upwards
lar cross-section of the barge vessel amidships, as a result of cargo dis
there is a 'neutral zone'. tribution and/or the way the ship is
At that level there are no tension or supported by a wave.
compression stresses.
Further above or below the stresses Sagging:
have a higher value, as can be seen The vertical deflection of a ship's
from Hooke's Law stress distribution. hull in longitudinal direction, where
the hull is bent downward amid
ships, as a result of cargo distri
bution and/or the way the ship is Hooke's law
supported at sea.
fig. 4
Calm water
Shearing

The upper graph shows
the forces which are work
ing on a ship.
The red line represents the
weight of the ship at each
section.
Cut the ship's body in
slices of for instance one
metres. Each slice has its
own weight, working as a
vertical downward force.
The blue line represents
the upward force of the
displaced water, found in
the same manner.
The middle graph is the

sum at each section of
both graphs from the
upper picture.
It shows the shear force at
each location.
The third graph shows the

shear force and the bend
ing moment.
The red line is the sum
mation of the shear forc
es at each position, from
left, the shear force in
each position added to the
shear force of the former
position.
The ends are zero.
When this procedure is
repeated with the graph of
the shear force, the graph
of the bending moments
is found.
5. FORCES ON A SHIP
When a thick plate has to be welded to a thin plate
thickness reduction has to be carried out. See
items 1 and 3 from the picture beside.
1. Upper strake of side bulkhead

(22 mm)
2. Main deck (14 mm)
3. Longitudinal orside bulkhead (9 mm)
4. Deck longitudinal, Holland-Profile(HP
profile)
5. Deck longitudinal (flat bar)
6. Longitudinal (HP-profile)
7. Web frame with plate stiffeners
Feeder in heavy weather. The ship is partially on a wave crest; hogging around manhole
8. Inner side of the shell with stringer
9. Longitudinals on the side bulkhead.
When a ship's officer has entered the

weight of all the items into the load
ing instrument, (this is normally done
before they are actually loaded on
board), the computer can calculate
shearing forces, bending moments
The ship is partially in a trough. In this case the fore-ship will experience a
and stability.
large sagging moment while the aft ship experiences a large hogging moment.
The program compares the load

2.3 Longitudinal The pictures above clearly show the entered with the requirements and
reinforcements difference in plate thickness between regulations of the Classification
the upper strake of the side bulkhead Bureau and the Flag State.
At mid-length the longitudinal stress and the side bulkhead below it. Two calculations are made:
es in the extreme top deck and bot In this ship (container feeder) the - harbour condition
tom area are maximum (see page upper strake of the side bulkhead is - sea condition.
98-99). To keep the stresses in these about 2.5 times as thick as the con
areas below the maximum allowed, tinuous side bulkhead. In port, higher stresses are allowed,
increased material is needed. The place where the plate thickness as the influence of waves is absent.
This can be achieved by installing changes (from 22 mm to 9 mm) is This permits higher stresses during
thicker deck plates, sheer strake, bot called the taper. loading and unloading sequences to
tom plating and bilge strake, including adapt to these higher stresses.
the longitudinal stiffening attached to 2.4 The loading program Upon completion of cargo the ship has
that plating. to meet sea requirements.
The tank top with its stiffening in the To judge if stresses are within limits,
double bottom also has to be con there is a Classification Rule that each Page 108 contains an example of a
sidered. ship over 65 metres in length has on stress calculation with the related
Using material that can withstand board a loading instrument, a com curves.
higher stresses (high tensile steel) puter with a program that calculates Of the total loading program, only a
can reduce the weight in those areas. the stresses in the ship, according to few examples are shown on the next
the cargo on board. page.

35 31 27 23 19 15 11 07 03
-Weights
34 30 26 22 18 14 10 06 02
Displacement 32794
33 29 25 21 17 13 09 05 01 Dead weight 204501
Cargo weight 16158
Ballast weight 1909
Fuel weight 1809
Mise, weight 574
Draft FP 8.82
Draft AP 9.11
Draft mean 8.97
11 10 Total 9 8 7 6 S 4 3 2 1 Hatch no. Trim 0.29
0 0 458 65 18 109 32 52 46 33 51 52 No of 20's Heel Port 0.04
14 20 333 46 20 10 59 54 32 37 29 12 No of 40's
14 20 791 111 38 119 91 106 78 70 80 64 Total No
0 0 8184 1196 402 2007 644 987 881 225 908 932 Wgt of 20's G'M 2.17
203 78 7975 1297 87 271 1683 1452 823 951 783 346 Wgt of 40's GM Req 0.60
203 78 16158 2493 490 2279 2327 2439 1704 1176 1690 1279 Total Wgt
4 0 284 46 4 58 35 64 33 5 33 2 Live reefers -Limits: Sea Condition-----
SF 41.2
BM 78.3
TM 45.3
Seawater Dens 1.023
-Vessel Center of Gravity-

LCG 91.90
TCG 0.00
VCG 11.79
SF 41 % BM 78 % 45%
Abbreviations
GZ, GM see chapter 16
SF = Shear Force
BM = Bending Moment
TM = Torsion Moment
LCG = Longitudinal Centre of Gra. ’
TCG = Transverse Centre of Gravity
VCG = Vertical Centre of Gravity
FSM = Free Surface Moment
FP = Forward Perpendicular
AP = Aft Perpendicular
tm = ton-metres
rad = radial
Dens = Density
Wgt of 20's = Weight of 20 feet containe-

2.5 Stress distribution waves, can be simulated in computer to the ship, simulated in a computer,
and deflection models. The following pages show the is a tool for ship managers giving
simulation exaggerated stress distribution in col advice - when to change course or
ours, and the consequent deflection. slow down - to ship masters, in order
Stresses in and deflections of the to prevent damages.
ship's hull, due to the various forces This technique, using the various These computer simulation outcomes
working on ships encountering heavy speeds and wave patterns in relation can be translated into clear written
This figure shows the deformation and the stress
es in the bottom plating under hogging condition
This figure shows the torsional deflection of the same container vessel together with the stresses.
Here the detail view into the forward cargo hold is of special interest.
The torsional loads cause a considerably high stress level in the partial stringer decks at the positions of changing width.

This is a finite ele
ment model of a
multipurpose vessel
with heavy lift cranes
installed at port side.
The deflections are
caused by an oblique
sea
Same as above. Deflections in sagging condition.

No stress distribution.
The different colours represent the plate thickness.
Torsional deflection
in heeled condition
to starboard, with
the crane columns
bending inwards
View of left middle case load from side
Torsional deflection
in heeled condition
to portside, with
the crane columns
bending outwards
View of the left load case from side

3 Torsion of the hull 4 Local stresses 4.4 Vibration stresses
Torsion occurs in a seaway and when 4.1 Panting stresses These can be caused by:
there is an asymmetry in the mass - vibration induced by the main
distribution over the horizontal plane. These occur in the fore-ship dur engine,
ing pitching. The constantly changing - forces on the aft ship caused by the
For example, if there is a weight of water pressure increases the stress in rotation of the propeller.
100 tons on the starboard side of the the skin and frames. - wave impact
fore ship which is compensated by an Panting stress is not a result of hydro
equivalent weight on the port side of static pressure, but a result of hydro Vibration occurs when resonant fre
the aft ship, there will be torsion (or dynamic pressure. quency is equal to the first, second or
torque). To reduce the panting stress effect, third order of an induction source: the
If both weights are 10 metres from panting beams in transverse direc main engine, the propeller, etc. Adding
the centre line, the torsion moment tion and stringers against the ship's weight and structure, and so changing
will be: shell are added to the forepeak, the the resonant frequency or local stiffen
area aft of the forepeak and aft peak ing are remedies.
100 ton x 10 metres = 1000 tm. structure. Vibration is a growing concern, as ships
are built lighter and lighter, due to the
In adverse weather, especially when use of high tensile steel, which allows
the waves come at an angle, the tor thinner construction for the same
sion can increase as a consequence strength, and the application of bet
of the asymmetric distribution of ter paints, which eliminate the need of
the upward pressure exerted by the corrosion surplus. Vibration can result
water on the submerged part of the in fatigue defects, noise, and discom
hull. fort for the crew. Vibration can also be
Forces on the fore-ship if the ship
Torsion causes a ship to be subject eliminated by inducing another vibra
is on a wave top (left) and in a
to extra stresses and deformations. tion source, with contra-pulses.
trough(right).
This can result in leaking hatches and
defects in hatch-coaming corners. 4.5 Dry docking loads
Especially 'open ships', i.e. ships with 4.2 Pounding
large deck openings, tend to be tor These forces are the result of verti
sionally weak and are sensitive to When pitching becomes so heavy cal upward forces to the keel and to a
this. A good example are container that the entire bow comes above the lesser extent side blocks.
ships and modern box-hold general water, pounding or slamming can Keel blocks are supposed to take the
cargo ships. occur. total weight of the ship.
Large bulk carriers (capesize) with Especially with a flat fore-ship, such Side blocks are put in dry dock to
large hatch openings and enormous as in bulk carriers and tankers, the keep the ship upright, but also to take
torsional forces when ocean-waves dynamic forces on the flat bottom, weight. When calculating block loads,
approach at an angle, are specially can result in damage to plating and only the keel blocks are taken into
strengthened at hatch coaming cor internals. consideration.
ners. To prevent this kind of damage,
thicker plates and more internals, are
inserted at smaller intervals, such
as floors at every frame and more
keelsons.
4.3 Diagonal loads
These occur when the ship is asym

metrically laden and during rolling of
the ship in waves.
The effect of the diagonal loads is
reduced by the addition of frame
brackets, deck beam brackets, cross
frames and transverse bulkheads.
Damage caused by panting strain.

Entire forepeak tank torn off. Diagonal loads due to rolling in
Ship size 100,000 ton deadweight. waves
5. FORCES ON A SHIP
5 Stiffening 5.2 Shell plating
5.1 Purpose of stiffeners The shell plating's primary task is to

keep the sea water outside the ship.
To prevent the plate areas (or plate On the outside of the shell there is
fields) of a ship from distorting under water and on the inside air, water, fuel
the influence of the shearing loads, or cargo. The result of the above is
bending moments and local loads, different pressure outside and inside.
they have to be stiffened. The shell plating has to withstand
Deformation of plate areas can be bending forces. The pressure on the
prevented by welding stiffeners in the shell from outside depends on the
direction of the forces. draught The distribution of pressure
can be seen in the drawing.
5.5 Tank top
The tank top, the closing plate of the

double bottom, can be under pres
sure from below from liquids and
above from cargo resting on it.
Pressure from underneath is caused
by liquid in the double-bottom tank,
and the height of the overflow / air
pipes which allow the liquid to fill high
in the pipe, or even to overflow.
The height of the liquid column caus
Compression forces on a plate result 5.3 Decks es pressure on the tank top.
in plate buckling. See drawing below.
The weather deck will flex under the
load of water on deck, ice or deck
cargo.
The tweendeck will be flexed by the
weight of the cargo on deck, and the
h
apparent increase of weight due to
pitching and rolling.
5.4 Bulkheads
Bulkheads have to withstand bending

forces when they border a tank or a
hold with bulk cargo. tank pressure
When the height of liquid or bulk
cargo is different on either side of a buoyancy pressure
bulkhead, there is a pressure differ

ence, causing bending of the bulk
head.
At sea, these forces can be multiplied 5.6 Panel
by the ship's movement and by slosh
ing. For the strength calculation of The water pressure results in forces
this kind of bulkhead it is assumed that on the plating, which are so large that
one side is empty, while the other side they cannot be absorbed by the plate
Compression forces on a stiffened without deformation or even fractur
is filled with liquid to the height of the
plate. Buckling requires extra force. overflow pipe on deck. ing. Therefore, the plates have to be
Parallel frames on a plate subjected
When a bulkhead has to function as a stiffened by stiffening profiles.
to bending moment
support for heavy deck constructions, A combination of plates with stiffen
there are also compression forces. ers is called a panel.
Examples of plate areas are: Bulkheads fitted against torsion of By adding stiffeners, the panel is
- the shell, the hull have to be stiffened keeping divided in strakes, the width of the
- decks, diagonal forces in mind. stiffener-spacing.
- bulkheads
- tank top.
5. FORCES ON A SHIP
The load on that area is transferred to the stiffener, which in itself has gained 5.7 Longitudinal framing
strength due to the fact that it is welded to the plate. and transverse
The thickness of the plating is determined by the stiffener spacing. In bulk framing system
heads, therefore, the lower plates are thicker than the upper plates.
Classification provides regulations for the maximum spacing of stiffeners, Longitudinal forces are present on
depending on their function (shell frames). all ships and play a larger role if the
Each stiffener takes a part of the total force working on a panel. ship is longer and/or has less depth.
The magnitude of the force is related to the pressure on the panel, the spacing Ships shorter than 70 metres (for
of the stiffeners and the (unsupported) length of the stiffener. example fishing boats and tug boats)
The drawing shows the part supported by the middle stiffener. are usually built in accordance with a
transverse stiffening system.
To determine the dimensions of the stiffener, a percentage of the width of the This is why ships with a length of
plate carried by the stiffener, is taken into the calculation of the required section more than 70 metres are usually
modules. The section modulus comprises stiffener plus plate. The effective part constructed in accordance with a lon
of the plate is called the contributing plate. gitudinal stiffening system.
This means that the primary stiffen
7 J.
ing of the shell plating, deck and bot
tom plating run fore and aft.
The decision to use either longitudinal
or transverse framing is also influ
enced by the shape.
If the parallel mid body is relatively
— long, for instance in ships for inland
Section modulus Constructed T-profile
navigation and in barges, longitudinal
When the unsupported length (span) of a stiffening is cheaper and easier.
stiffener is so long that it results in very This is also true with shorter ships.
heavy stiffeners, the stiffeners themselves
get support from even heavier stiffeners, the Lloyd's Register does not require a
so-called stringers or web frames. calculation for longitudinal strength
The spacing of horizontal webs and stringers if the ship is shorter than 65 metres.
Stringer
(flats), increases from a small spacing at the
bottom to a large spacing at the top of the
bulkhead, in connection with the triangular
liquid pressure on the bulkhead. The same
(vertical) profile section over the full height
of the bulkhead is then used. Stiffeners can
be chosen from a range of types.
The most commonly used are flat bars,
inverted angle bars and Holland-Profiles or
bulb-flats. These are hot-rolled sections.
Web frames and stringers can be made of
similar profiles, but this is impracticable.
Normally these beams are constructed from
plate with a flange or face bar.
Similar stiffeners have names in connection with the type of panel they support.
Planes Stiffening Support

shell (vertical) frames stringers (horizontal)
(horizontal) longitudinals web frames
bulkheads horizontal stiffening web girders
vertical stiffening stringers (horizontal)
decks deck beam or longitudinals deck girders or deep beams
flat bottom longitudinals (fore and aft) floors
frames (transverse) keelsons
tank top tanktop stiffener (fore and aft) floors
tanktop stiffener (transverse) keelsons
The table shows various panels with their specific stiffeners and supporting webs.
5. FORCES ON A SHIP
4,250 TEU container vessel with!
longitudinal framing
Bow Main deck Coaming top rail Double bottom tank
Web frames Tween deck Bulkhead Pipe duct or duct keel
Side longitudinals (alleyway) Double bottom Bottom longitudinals
Bulbous bow No. 1 hold Stringer Web frame
Floors in double bottom No. 2 hold Container hold Accommodation
|ShipConstructor^_irnage courtesyöfSinöpaaH^Group^^ina

A double hull tanker with longitudi
nal framing system_____________
ipConstructor/E image courtesy of Estaleiro Atlantico Sul, Brazi
Plating Stiffeners on the plating Plate-stiffeners Holds
Shell 7. Side longitudinals 12. Tie beam or cross-tie 19. Wing ballast tank
Longitudinal bulkhead 8. Bottom frame / 13. Stringer 20. Double bottom
(of the inner hull) longitudinal 14. Stringer deck 21. Cargo tank
Transverse bulkhead 9. Inner bottom 15. Watertight floor
Lower hopper longitudinal 16. Plate floor
Tank top 10. Bulkhead stiffener 17. Watertight side girder
Bottom 11. Stiffener with brackets 18. Web frame
5. FORCES ON A SHIP
A tug with transverse frames
1. Wheelhouse front windows

2. Wheelhouse rear windows
3. Portside funnel
4. Starboard side funnel
5. Mast
6. Bridge deck
7. Foredeck
8. Towing bitt
9. Centre lead
10. Location for the bow fender
11. Side bitts forward
12. Bilge keel
13. Towing bitt
14. Sideshell transverse frame
15. Deck bracket
16. Bilge bracket
17. Transverse full floor
18. Stringer
19. Stern fender

25. Deck beam
26. Transverse bulkhead
27. Location of towing winch
28. Steering engine room
29. Side bitts aft
30. Longitudinal bulkhead (Shaft tunnel)
31. Bilge plating
Bender Shipbuilding & Repair Co., Inc.

LAWS AND REGULATIONS
1 Preface
6
A Certificate of Class is issued with
a validity of 5 years, to be endorsed
Ship owners have to deal with every year upon completion of the
various national and international Annual Survey.
regulatory bodies. Every year, in a window of three
The main organisations include: months before the anniversary date
- Flag States or National Authorities to three months after, an Annual Sur
- Classification Societies vey has to be carried out, covering:
LAWS AND - Class,
The national authority provides - Safety Construction,
REGULATIONS
the registration and regulates the - Safety Equipment,
1 Preface 124 safety of the people on board, - Loadline,

and the interaction with the environ - Radio,
2 Classification 124 ment. Many governments incorporate - MARPOL,
in whole, in part, or by reference, - Ballast water Survey.
3 IMO 126
IMO conventions, codes and recom
4 MLC 138 mendations into national legislation Normally all are done at the same
or regulations. port of call.
5 Fishing 138 The national authority issues various
6 Documents 144 certificates. The Tonnage Certificate, If at the end of three months after the
for example, is issued after a meas 'Anniversary date', one of the Class
urement and calculation with the certificates has not been endorsed
ship's sizes as the parametres. by the relevant Class or Flag State
Most of the regulatory requirements the certificate is no longer valid so
and the issue of the relevant certifi the ship is not allowed to leave port.
cates has been delegated to classifi
cation societies. Since 1968, the main Classifcation
A classification society provides the societies have been grouped under
rules regarding various aspects of a IACS, the International Association
ship. This includes the design, quality of Classification Societies.
of materials and workmanship - all to Since 1970 they received the sta
assure the safety of the ship. tus of Non Governnental Organisa
Classification societies issue a Cer tion (INIGO) to IMO, contributing their
tificates of Classification. These expert technical knowledge.
certify that the ship has been entered
in their Register Book, which means Members of the IACS: (in alphabe
that the ship meets their require tical order)
ments. - American Bureau of Shipping
(ABS)
2 Classification - Bureau Veritas (BV)
- Croatian Register of Shipping
Ships are built in accordance within (CRS)
the rules of a classification society. - China Classification society (CCS)
The ship owner selects which classifi - DNV GL Group
cation society they want to use. - Indian Registry (IRS)
The classification society approves - Korea Register of Shipping (KR)
the relevant drawings and inspects - Lloyd's Register (LR)
the actual construction of the ship. - Nippon Kaiji Kyokai (NKK)
Upon completion of construction, the - Polish Register of Shipping (PRS)
classification society issues a Certifi - Registro Italiano Navala (RINA)
cate of Class for Hull and Machinery. - Russian Maritime Register of Ship
This is the basis for underwriters ping (RS).
to insure the ship.The Certificate of
Class is the basis for underwriters to
insure a ship.
Anniversary date:
The anniversary of the date on
which the certificates were first
issued after an initial survey.
124 6. LAWS AND REGULATIONS

Each of these Societies has a world The drawings are checked against 2.2 Regional authorities
wide network of surveyors, with the rules of the relevant classification
ABS, LR and DNV-GL the largest. society. During the actual construc EMSA
The surveyors are well educated and tion process, a surveyor will visit the Within the European Union, the IACS
trained technicians, often former ship to check if she is built according members are supervised by the Euro
ships' engineers, but also naval archi to the approved drawings. pean Maritime Safety Agency, EMSA,
tects and electrical engineers. If a When they are ready, the materials which has its headquarters in Lisbon.
problem arises, all classification soci and building blocks are also inspect The EMSA audits the classification
eties have a technical investigation ed, and later on the connections of Societies and visits ships during con
department to investigate and solve important welds with x-ray. The same struction and while in service, with
the problem. applies to the machinery. emphasis on ship and environmental
All important parts have to be fabri safety standards, and in coordina
Ship owners can decide to change cated from approved materials, which tion with Port State Control. They
Class. Ships can be built in China, are verified during all phases of fabri provide training, and also track and
Korea or Japan, for financial and lan cation. This verification is an on-going monitor the transportation of dan
guage reasons under the local Clas process. To make propeller shaft cou gerous goods via AIS. EMSA is also
sification, and at delivery, change to pling bolts, for instance, this includes the worldwide shore basis for Long
a classification society preferred by verifying the production in the steel Range Identification and Track
the owner. Changing class societies, mill, and cutting pieces from a raw ing (LRIT).
however, may have its challenges and certified shaft.
some owners avoid doing it. Different rules are drawn up for dif
Many Flag States delegate some of ferent kind of ships like: Cargo Ships,
their duties to classification societies Passenger Ships, Navy Ships, Off
of their choice. shore craft, Tankers, etc.
Therefore, on many ships, the statu
tory certificates are also issued by the FAT, HAT and SAT
classification society, however, only Equipment and machinery is tested in
on behalf of the Flag State adminis three steps:
tration. FAT: the factory acceptance test,
The validity of the certificates was - HAT: the harbour acceptance test
harmonised in 1999, with the IMO SAT: the sea acceptance test.
Assembly resolution HSSC (Harmo
nised System of Ship survey and For instance:
Certification). FAT: An auxiliary diesel generator is
Most certificates have a validity of 5 built of approved components,
years, starting from the new building and tested in the workshop,
date, and are renewed at each under the supervision of a sur
Special Survey, i.e. after 5 years. veyor, taking into account the
The anniversary date remains the various requirements.
same. HAT: After installation on board, the
auxiliary generator has to be
2.1 Working methods of proven to fulfill the require
the 'Class' ments of the ship system.
SAT: Finally, during sea trials, the
Classification societies produce rules generator must run at full
on strength and material quality. capacity without alarms for a
The IMO conventions and codes, as certain number of hours.
far as practicable, must be followed
during design and building of a ship. When the ship is built in accordance
During the design period of a ship, with approved drawings and from
the ship owner has to supply the approved materials, and all these
key drawings to the Plan Approval rules are followed, it will be supplied
department of the chosen classifica with many certificates which have to
tion society. be maintained throughout the life
time of the ship. Regular surveys are
The most important drawings are compulsory, in five-year cycles, with
mentioned in chapter 2, part 4.1. annual surveys in between.
Survey to verify freeboard marks on

the ship's side.
3 The International Maritime 3.2 Conventions, codes and certificates
Organization (IMO)
The conventions, protocols, codes and its amendments require that ships
International shipping, is subject to the are periodically surveyed to check that they comply with the require
stringent laws and regulations of inter ments.
national and national regulatory bodies. When they are found to comply they are issued with certificates that are
These bodies are united in the International accepted worldwide.
Maritime Organization, IMO, which is a Compulsory equipment has to be type-approved by the Flag State or
United Nations Agency. classification society.
Each of the Conventions is, where necessary, more detailed in Codes.
Established in 1948, the IMO's main objec However, some Codes are independent of a Convention.
tive is to improve and ensure the safety
and security of shipping operations in addi Before any certificate can be issued, a ship must be registered in a coun
tion to preventing marine and atmospheric try, known as the Flag State. The Flag State allows a ship to fly its flag
pollution. The IMO acheives this by creating and belong to its fleet.
a fair and effective regulatory framework For a certain fee, and taxation on the earnings, the authorities allow the
for the global shipping industry. ship to sail under their jurisdiction.
The port where the ship has been registered has to be marked on the
The first objective was to improve the stern.
safety of life at sea, SOLAS, followed by The certificates can be divided into certificates that every ship must have
the concern for oil pollution (OilPol 1954), on board. Certificates correspond to the type of cargo the ship is carries
finally resulting in the MARPOL-Conven- and the area where the ship is allowed to sail.
tion, (International Convention for the
prevention of pollution from ships). Below is a summary of a number of the IMO conventions which have
been adopted, the corresponding Codes and Certificates, starting with
As of 2020 there are 174 member states the 5 most important ones: (not all conventions have been implemented)
of the IMO.
SOLAS: International Convention for the Safety of Life
3.1 Assembly/Committees at Sea
Loadlines: The International Convention on Load Lines
The IMO consists of various elements: 1966
The Assembly: all member states who meet MARPOL International Convention for the Prevention
once every two years. of Pollution from Ships
The Council: elected by the Assembly for STCW: International Convention on Standards of
two-year terms, and is responsible for Training, Certification and Watch keeping for
supervising the work of the IMO. Seafarers
Five main Committees: Tonnage International Convention on Tonnage
MSC, the Maritime Safety Committee, Measurement of ships
governs the SOLAS Convention and COLREGS: Convention on the International Regulations
deals with safety matters, Codes and for Preventing Collisions at Sea.
Conventions.
MEPC, the Marine Environment Protec Flag State:
tion Committee, governs the: Flag State is the country in which the ship is registered.
• Marpol regulations, Each country is responsible for the laws and rules applicable to
• ballast water ships sailing under its flag. Often the control of the rules is del
• anti-fouling systems egated to the classification society of the relevant ship.
• ship recycling
LEGAL (Legal Matters)
- TC (Technical Co-operation) Port State Control:
- FAL (Facilitation of International Port State Control is the system of ship inspections relating to
Maritime Traffic). international regulations set up by Flag States around the North-
Atlantic and the Mediterranean Sea.
There are some 7 sub-committees. The target is to inspect 25% of the ships coming to ports for
compliance of regulations such as SOLAS, Loadline, MARPOL,
Over the years IMO has adopted many COLREGS etc.
conventions, protocols, codes and amend Deficiencies normally have to be rectified before departure from
ments. After a convention is adopted by port, or rectification must be verified in the next port of call.
IMO it must be ratified and implemented Serious deficiencies may result in the ship's detention, which
by individual governments. means that the ship is not allowed to depart before the deficien
cies are corrected.

ASSEMBLY COUNCIL SECRETARY
Facilitation Technical Co-operation Legal Marine Environmental Maritime Safety

Committee Committee Committee Protection Committee Committee
FAL TC LEG MEPC MSC
r > / \
Sub Sub Sub Sub Sub Sub Sub
committee committee committee committee committee committee committee
on on on on on on on
-olementation Pollution Carriage of Navigation Ship Human Ship Design
of IMO Prevention Cargoes and Communication Systems and Element, and
Instruments and Response Containers and Equipment Training and Construction
III PPR ccc Search and SSE Watchkeeping SDC
Rescue HTW
NCSR
\? <__________ J \> <__ __ 7
Basic structure of IMO
Issue raised
MSC/MEPC Sub-committees
soproved
: rculated by
secretary general
'■'SC/MEPC in its
ecpanded form
adoption
acceptance
Every ship is provided with a so-called IMO number, a unique 7-digit iden
entry into force
tification number. The number stays with the ship for its lifetime has to be
clearly visible and is printed on all certificates.
Brief flowchart of IMO processes

3.2.1 International Convention for the Safety of A few SOLAS chapters explained in
Life at Sea, SOLAS 1974 and protocol of more detail:
1988
Chapter V, Reg. 19-1
SOLAS goes back as far as 1912, but due to World War I, LRIT (Long Range Identification and Track
never came into force. ing system)
Many countries had unilateral regulations on safety, but Since the end of 2008, or from the first radio survey
as sea trade is of an international nature, the rules and thereafter, cargo ships, passenger ships and mobile
regulations needed to be international. IMO's theme is: Safe, offshore drilling units, above 300 GT, have to transmit
secure and efficient shipping on clean oceans. their position to a central database every six hours to
Overview of the index of SOLAS allow Flag States to know where ships, registered in
their administration, are, worldwide. These data have
Chapter I: General provisions to be transmitted automatically through a suitable
Chapter II-l: Construction - Subdivision and stability, transmission system, in accordance with the radio
machinery and electrical installations zones for which the ship is certified. The system has to
Chapter II-2: Construction - Fire protection, fire detection be type-approved.
and fire extinction —> FSC
Chapter III: Life-saving appliances and arrangements: Chapter VI
LSA Carriage of cargoes — > IMDG (International
Chapter IV: Radio communications Maritime Dangerous Goods Code)
Chapter V: Safety of navigation - International Maritime Solid Bulk Cargoes Code
Chapter VI: Carriage of cargoes --> IMDG (IMSBC)
Chapter VII: Carriage of dangerous goods - International Code for the Safe Carriage of Grain
Chapter VIII: Nuclear ships - Code of Safe Practice for Cargo Stowage and Secur
Chapter IX: Management for the safe operation of ships ing.
--> ISM Code
Chapter X: Safety measures for high-speed craft: > Chapter IX —> ISM code
HSCC - Introduction ISM
Chapter XI-1: Special measures to enhance maritime The International Safety Management (ISM) Code
safety is very important to a ship and her owner. This cer
Chapter XI-2: Special measures to enhance maritime tificate, for both ship and office, is a statement that
security —> ISPS owners/managers and the ship's staff are committed
Chapter XII: Additional safety measures for bulk carriers to maintaining the vessel as required, and to fulfill
Chapter XIII: Verification of Compliance (01-01-2016) obligations connected with safety and pollution.
Chapter XIV Safety measures for ships operating in The ISM code, applicable since 2002, is a list of
polar waters (01-01-2017) —> Polar code requirements for the organisation and management
Appendix: Certificates system of the ship.
Designed, approved and surveyed to withstand the roughest seas

The management system comprises: The SMC also remains valid for a Chapter XI - 2 + ISPS code
- Organisation on board ship five year period. During this peri The International Ship and Port Facil
Organisation ashore od there should be an inspection ity Security Code (ISPS Code) is part
- Organisation of the shipping between the second and third year. ly mandatory under SOLAS Chapter
company XI-2. The objective of the ISPS Code
- Communication between shore - Audits ISM is to minimise the risk of terrorist
and ship The SMS is inspected by means of activity on ships and in ports.
The importance of good management an audit. An audit is a prescribed
for safety in general is illustrated by survey to check whether the organi The ISPS Code acknowledges 3
the fact that 80% of all accidents sation ashore and on board comply threat-levels:
involve human element. with the SMS. Audits can be internal, - level 1: No specific threat: no addi
which means by somebody from tional measures needed.
- Objectives ISM the company itself or external by - level 2: Enhanced, general threat:
The objectives of the ISM-code a classification surveyor. The ISO- increased security.
are: organisation grants one certificate - level 3: Terrorist threat: further
To satisfy all relevant national and to the entire organisation, contrary increased measures.
international regulations such as to the ISM which has separate cer
SOLAS, MARPOL, ISM, Class and tificates for the organisation on and All ships over 500 GT (except fishing
ILO. off shore. vessels and naval ships) and relevant
- To create permanent awareness port facilities must comply with the
of safe behaviour by personnel on 1. Internal Audits ISPS Code. This involves completing a
board and ashore Internal audits are performed by the Ship Security Assessment (SSA) and
- To ensure a readiness to act effec company operating the ships and Ship Security Plan (SSP) before being
tively in emergencies handle matters such as: issued an International Ship Security
- To improve safety at sea - Following SMS requirements per Certificate (ISSC).
To prevent accidents and damage taining to safety and environmental
to environment protection. The ISPS Code requires deploy
The ISM-code is a standard of safety - Efficiency and ability to take ment of the following personnel:
consisting of 13 elements, each describ appropriate preventive and - Company Security Officers (CSO)
ing a business operation relevant to corrective actions. in the owner's office on shore;
safety and environment, such as: All relevant personnel must be - Ship Security Officer (SSO) on
- (Planned) maintenance informed of the results of these board;
- Office personnel and crew audits and the measures taken. - Port Facility Security Officer (PFSO)
The management must correct all in the port.
- How ISM works shortcomings. Internal audits are
a. The Shipping Companies usually performed annually, typi Their responsibility is:
Every shipping company must pos cally before the external audits. - To know who is on board or in the
sess a Document of Compliance facility;
(DOC). This document states that 2. External Audits - To control entrances and perform
the shipping company is found fit to External audits are performed by the visitor identity checks;
operate the ship in accordance with bureau of classification under super - To control loading and discharging
the ISM-code. One of the require vision of the Flag State. If the organi cargo and stores.
ments is that the shipping company sation lives up to the standards set,
must develop, execute and main the shore organisation receives the
tain a Safety Management Sys DOC and the ship the SMC.
tem (SMS). The Flag State issues
the DOC, but only after a classi
fication society has approved the
safety management system. The
ISO
DOC remains valid for a period of
International Organization for Standardisation has drawn up the:
five years, provided that the annual
- ISO 9001 (quality management standard)
surveys by the Classification society
- ISO 14001 (environmental management standard
yield satisfactory results.
- ISO 18001 (occupational health and safety management system standard)
b. The Ships
These standards guarantee quality.
Ships get a Safety Management
ISO standards are voluntary. The company draws up a Quality Manage
Certificate (SMC) if the DOC has
ment System (QMS), certified by a bureau of classification.
been issued to the shipping com
The implementation of the ISM code is similar to the implementation of the
pany and the ship passes the SMC
ISO 9001 standard, because every company draws up and executes its own
audit.
QMS or SMS based on the requirements.
Resolution MEPC 269 (68) (SOLAS) 3.2.2 The International Convention on Load Lines,
IHM - Inventarisation Hazardous Materi 1966
als
At the end of a ship's lifetime, ships are recycled at a The Load line Convention requires the International Load Line
breaker's yard. In order to protect the people working Certificate, which is evidence of meeting freeboard require
there and the environment against dangerous sub ments, as prescribed in the Convention, and in the relevant
stances, all ships over 500 GT with an EU registration Code. Load line requirements were initiated in the 1860s by UK
or coming into EU ports, must have an IHM certifi member of parliament Samuel Plimsoll.
cate. This is a list all hazardous materials in the ship. Since 1876 certificates have been issued by the classification
The IHM covers the whole life of the ship from con societies, when the Freeboard Mark or Plimsoll Mark became
struction and operations, to preparation for scrap compulsory.
ping. This rule comes into force at the end of 2020. The present regulations are laid down in the 1966 Load Line Con
For ships not navigating EU waters, the rules are vention. On the basis of a ship's length, size of openings on deck,
less strict. They have to follow the IMO Hong Kong sheer, door sill heights, etc., a minimum freeboard is calculated
Convention. and has to be marked on the ship's side. The regulations allow
However, the exact requirements differ per country. oil tankers, bulk carriers, hopper dredgers and ships which carry
The inventarisation is split in 3 parts: timber as deck cargo to have reduced freeboard.
Part I Structure and Equipment. To be
produced by the building yard, and 3.2.3 International Convention for the Prevention
in case of existing ships, by the of Pollution from Ships, 1973, (MARPOL)
owner.
Part II and III Operationally generated waste and In 1973 the IMO adopted the International Convention for
stores. the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, modified again
It is intended to be a reasonable listing of expected in 1978. The Marine Environment Protection Committee
or known hazards. This will be checked by the clas (MEPC) performs the daily work and provides clarification of the
sification surveyors during construction of the ship. convention.
For existing ships, the inventory must be complied by The regulations to prevent pollution by oil and other harmful
an approved specialist. substances are provided in the 'Annexes'.
The IHM is a five yearly certificate, with an annual Marpol has 6 technical Annexes, each specifying its applicable kind
verification during the ship's annual survey. of pollution:
The principle hazards are Asbestos, PCBs, TBT anti - Annex I mineral oil from cargo or engine room,
fouling and ozone-depleting substances such as CFCs - Annex II regulates the carriage of Noxious Liquids (NLS)
and Halon. However, many materials on board also cargo in bulk, in the Certificate of Fitness
contain hazards, such as paint and radio-active sen Annex III, deals with Harmful Substances in packaged form,
sors. Annex IV deals with Sewage,
- Annex V deals with Garbage,
- Annex VI deals with Air pollution.
Air pollution
6. LAWS AND REGULATIONS

Annex I (MARPOL) Annex II (MARPOL)
Annex I deals with regulations to prevent the pollu This Annex of Marpol regulates the prevention of pollution by Nox
tion of the seas by oil from ships. Oil is defined as ious Liquid Substances, not only chemicals but also for instance
petroleum in any form including crude oil, fuel oil, vegetable oils.
sludge and refined products. There are two basic The stringency of the regulations varies with the polluting proper
situations: ties of the substances.
- Oil and oily mixtures generated in Engine Rooms
and machinery spaces of all ships (>400GT) A special mandatory Code, issued by the IMO, the International
Oil and oily mixtures from Oil Tankers from cargo Bulk Chemical Code (IBC code) gives a list of requirements for
pump rooms, cargo handling, cargo tank clean ships that carry noxious liquid substances. Noxious liquid sub
ing, etc. stances are divided into four categories:
- X: major pollution hazard
All Engine Rooms and Machinery spaces gener - Y: limited pollution hazard
ate waste oil, sludge and oil-polluted bilge water. - Z: minor pollution hazard
Waste oil and sludge will be collected in waste oil Other Substances, products as deemed not posing any harm.
tanks and sludge tanks, and the bilge water via the If substances in any of these categories are discharged into the
bilge wells, in bilge water holding tanks. After set sea, for instance during tank cleaning or de-ballasting, they form a
tling, the water in the bilge water holding tank can greater or lesser hazard depending upon their category.
be pumped into the sea, via the bilge water filtering Depending on the cargo category, the ship's cargo tanks have to
equipment and 15 ppm alarm under the following meet special requirements, with regard to location, distance from
conditions: ship's side or bottom, i.e. double hull requirements. Therefore the
- the vessel is not in a Special Area ships are divided into Types 1, 2 and 3 for pollution purposes.
- the vessel is underway at sea and the oil content Pumping, piping and unloading arrangements are regulated. Slop
of the effluent without dilution does not exceed handling and mandatory pre-wash (tank cleaning and discharge of
15 parts per million (PPM). the washings ashore after unloading) are prescribed for all Cate
To be allowed to discharge oily water from engine gory X and high viscous or solidifying Y products. Stability in intact
rooms while sailing in a Special Area, filtering equip and damaged condition is also an important issue.
ment must be on board with an oil content metres Another important matter for all NLS tankers is the total quantity of
and a device that automatically stops the discharge residue on board after discharge. Special cargo pumps, or built-in
when the oil content exceeds 15 PPM. Special Areas, devices in the cargo pumps allow emptying of the tanks until only
such as the North-West European Waters, the Bal a minimum quantity (a few litres per tank and associated piping) is
tic Sea, the Mediterranean and the Gulfs Area and left behind; this is called the minimum stripping quantity.
the Antarctic can be found in regulation 1.11 of the The last drops are pumped out via a small pipe, via the normal
Annex. For the Arctic general prohibition is appli discharge line to the manifold.
cable. As with all other tankers, all cargo handling has to be accurately
All the equipment must be Type Approved. recorded in the Cargo Record Book, without delay. The relevant equip
All operations, such as fuel bunkering, transfer of ment required for NLS, and the required procedures, are described
waste oils and sludge, handling of bilge water, defec in a specific book, the Procedures and Arrangements Manual, the
tive filtering equipment and accidental discharges passport of the ship
must be recorded in the Oil Record Book (Part I). Every chemical tanker must be provided with an International
Every ship of 400 GT or more must have an IOPP Certificate of Fitness for the Carriage of Dangerous Chemicals
(International Oil Pollution Prevention) certificate. in Bulk, with an attached list of cargoes that the ship is fit to carry,
Ships of 400 GT or more must have a Shipboard oil pol a tank plan, tank groups, and a list of additional requirements. This
lution prevention plan (SOPEP) on board stating how to certificate has a validity of five years and runs parallel to the ship's
deal with an oil contamination. Special Survey cycle. Annual survey of the equipment is mandatory
after which the certificate is endorsed.
1. 1/5 breadth or 11.5 metres

(whichever is less, but no
where less than 760 mm).
2. 760 mm.
3. 1/15 breadth
4. cargo
Type 3
Type 2
Tank configuration
Tank configuration

Annex III (MARPOL)
This Annex regulates the pollution aspects of Packaged

Harmful substances. Special areas under MARPOL are as follows:
The carriage of harmful substances is prohibited, except Annex I: Oil
in accordance with the provisions of this Annex. Pack
Mediterranean Sea
ages must be durably labelled with the correct name and,
where appropriate, with the marine pollutant durable Baltic Sea
mark. The packing must be adequate. There are stowage Black Sea
requirements and quantity limitations.
Annex III has been revised per 1 January 2010. Red Sea
'Gulfs' area
Annex IV (MARPOL)
Gulf of Aden
This Annex regulates the Prevention of Pollution by Sew Antarctic area

age, applicable to ships over 400 GT and under 400 GT
North West European Waters
which are certified to carry more then 15 persons.
Every ship must be equipped with a sewage system, Oman area of the Arabian Sea
comminuting and disinfecting system or a holding tank. Southern South African waters
Two criteria:
- At least 12 miles off the coast when a ship has an Annex II: Noxious Liquid Substances
approved treatment system, sewage can be dis Antarctic area
charged.
Annex IV: Sewage
- Ships having a comminuting system can discharge
sewage 3 miles beyond the nearest land. Baltic Sea
The size of the holding tank depends on the ship's
Annex V: Garbage
normal operating schedule, and there must be ade
quate connections for discharge into a reception facility. Mediterranean Sea
The content of the holding tank can be discharged Baltic Sea

overboard at least 12 miles from shore and only when
Black Sea
moving at a speed of at least 4 knots.
Red Sea
Annex V (MARPOL)
'Gulfs' area
This Annex regulates the Prevention of Pollution by North Sea

Garbage. Garbage means all kinds of domestic and Antarctic area (south of latitude 60 degrees south)
operational waste, needing to be disposed of continu
Wider Caribbean region including the Gulf of Mexico and
ously or periodically, except substances defined under
the Caribbean Sea
other Annexes. Disposal into the sea of plastics is always
prohibited. Annex VI: Prevention of air pollution by ships
This includes ropes, fishing nets and plastic bags. (Emission Control Areas)
Floating waste like dunnage, lining and packing material, Baltic Sea (SOx) & (NOx)
is allowed to be disposed of into the sea at least 25 miles In effect from 1 Jan 2021
from the nearest land. North Sea (SOx) & (NOx)
Food waste, paper, rags, etc., may be disposed of into the In effect from 1 Jan 2021
sea at least 12 miles from shore. If the latter is ground
North American ECA
into small particles, max. 25 mm, 3 miles is sufficient.
(SOx and PM)
Ships operating in special areas have to comply with
(NOx)
stricter discharge standards. On ships intended for long
United States
voyages, waste from packages, i.e. wood, carton, plas
Caribbean Sea ECA
tics, etc., can be disposed in an incinerator. This is a
(SOx and PM)
simple stove, where the waste is put into the fire-space,
(NOx)
and a simple gas-oil burner ignites the waste and if nec
essary, keeps it burning.
Every ship of 400 GT of above and every ship which is
certified to carry 15 persons or more must have a Gar
bage management plan and a record must be kept,
similar to substances described under other Annexes.

Simplified overview of the discharge provisions of the revised
MARPOL Annex V which entered into force on 1 March 2018
DISCLAIMER: Additional requirements may apply.
(Note: The table below is intended as a summary reference. The provisions in MARPOL
Annex V and the Polar Code, not the table below, prevail.)
All ships except platforms4* Regulation 5

Offshore platforms
Regulation 6
Regulation 4 located more than 12 nm
Within special areas and
Outside special areas from nearest land and
Garbage type1 Arctic waters
and Arctic waters ships when alongside or
(Distances are from nearest
(Distances are from within 500 metres of
land, nearest ice-shelf or
the nearest land) such
nearest fast ice)
platforms4
Food waste
>3 nm, en route and as >12 nm, en route and as far as
comminuted or Discharge permitted
far as practicable practicable3
ground12
Food waste not
>12 nm, en route and
comminuted or as far as’practicable Discharge prohibited Discharge prohibited
ground
Cargo residues5,6
not contained in Discharge prohibited
washwater
>12 nm, en route and >12 nm, en route and as far
Discharge prohibited
Cargo residues5,6 as far as practicable as practicable (subject to
contained in conditions in regulation 6.1.2
washwater and paragraph 5.2.1.5 of part
Il-A of the Polar Code)
> 12 nm, en route and as far
Cleaning agents
as practicable (subject to
and additives6
conditions in regulation 6.1.2
contained in cargo
and paragraph 5.2.1.5 of part
hold washwater
Discharge permitted I l-A of the Polar Code) Discharge prohibited
Cleaning agents
and additives6 in
Discharge permitted
deck and external
surfaces washwater
Animal Carcasses Must be en route and
(should be split or as far from the nearest
otherwise treated to land as possible.
Discharge prohibited Discharge prohibited
ensure the Should be >100 nm
carcasses will sink and maximum water
immediately) depth
All other garbage
including plastics,
synthetic ropes,
fishing gear, plastic
garbage bags,
incinerator ashes,
clinkers, cooking oil, Discharge prohibited Discharge prohibited Discharge prohibited
floating dunnage,
lining and packing
materials, paper,
rags, glass, metal,
bottles, crockery
and similar refuse
1. When garbage is mixed with or contaminated by other 4. Offshore platforms located 12 nautical miles from
harmful substances prohibited from discharge or hav nearest land and associated ships include all fixed or
ing different discharge requirements, the more strin floating platforms engaged in exploration or exploi
gent requirements shall apply. tation or associated processing of seabed mineral
2. Comminuted or ground food wastes must be able to resources, and all ships alongside or within 500 m of
pass through a screen with mesh no larger than 25 mm. such platforms.
3. The discharge of introduced avian products in the Ant 5. Cargo residues means only those cargo residues that
arctic area is not permitted unless incinerated, auto cannot be recovered using commonly available meth
claved or otherwise treated to be made sterile. In polar ods for unloading.
waters, discharge shall be made as far as practicable 6. These substances must not be harmful to the marine
from areas of ice concentration exceeding 1/10; in any environment.
case food wastes shall not be discharged onto the ice.

Annex VI (MARPOL) SOx emission can be reduced by To fulfill the requirements of Tier I,
reducing the Sulphur content in the II and III, diesel installations had to
This Annex deals with air pollution, fuel. This has been regulated by IMO be changed drastically. Tier I could
and particularly about emissions from worldwide and by individual countries be met by the engine manufacturer
diesel engines. The main pollutants for certain special areas, the so called within the engine itself.
from diesel engines are nitrogen and SECA areas. Tier II levels could be reached by
sulphur oxides (NOx and SOx). Sulphur content in fuel used in SECAs using a catalytic process (urea).
In order to improve air quality by cannot be more than 0.1 %. Tier III is the strictest, reducing NOx
reducing SOx emissions, numerous More sulphur is allowed outside the emissions by 74% less than Tier II.
countries have decided to implement SECAs; until 1 January 2020: 3.5%. Therefore, Tier III requirements are
regulations to limit the amount of sul After 1 January 2020: 0.5 %. pushing new engine installations in
phur in fuel. This has led to the crea If fuel with a higher sulphur content is the direction of using LNG as fuel.
tion of Sulphur Emission Control Areas used, a scrubber is installed to clean Tier III does not apply for ships <500
(SECAs). SECAs are regulated by the the exhaust gases by 'washing' the GT or <24 m, purposely built prior to
IMO and by individual countries. SOx out. 2021, or for pleasure.
At present the SECA areas are: Diesel engines also produce NOx emis
- Baltic Sea, sions. NOx levels have been steadily Examples of Codes (MARPOL)
- North Sea, reduced by regular legislation from - International Code for the con
- USA: ECA (Emission Control Area) 1990. struction and equipment of ships
- Carib, Tier I: All installations after 1 carrying dangerous chemicals in
- Canada, January 1990 until 1 Janu bulk (IBC Code)
- Puerto Rico, ary 2000. International Code for the con
American Virgin Islands. Tier II: All installations after 1 Janu struction and equipment of ships
- Australia, ary 2011 carrying liquefied gases in bulk
- Japan Tier III: All installations after 1 Janu (IGC code)
- Singapore (also regulate SOx emis ary 2016 - NOx Technical Code (NOx Code, on
sions.) air pollution)
When danger of oil pollution exists, harbour authorities require precautions to prevent spreading of the oil.
Normally a 'flowboom' is laid around the ship.

International Convention for The ballast problem can be divid Chemical cleaning systems; dis
the Control and Management ed into a sediment and an organ infecting biocides, chlorine addition
of Ships' Ballast Water and ism problem. by electrolysis
Sediments (BWM Convention) Physical cleaning systems;
Apart from the environmental prob UV light, cavitation I ultrasound,
Ships need ballast water for many lem, the weight of the sediment also extraction of oxygen.
reasons; for achieving sufficient depth causes a decrease in cargo capacity.
and stability, to reduce structural This weight can vary from a few tons The most important regulations were
stresses, to correct trim and side, etc. in a small coastal operator to 2000 drawn up by the IMO and the US
Normally ships take ballast during or tons in a large tanker. Coast Guard. The so-called D2 stand
after unloading at the port of unload Normally, the amount of sediment ard is used.
ing. Mud and (micro) organisms come stabilises and becomes the largest The ballast water must be actively
on board with the ballast water. Dur component of the "ship constant". cleaned by means of an approved
ing the trip to the loading port the The "ship constant" is the difference system.
mud will sink and the organisms will between what the ship should be able This means that the manufacturer
multiply. to load and what the ship can actu and / or type must have the proper
In the loading port, part of the ballast ally load. ties as approved by the IMO and the
water is pumped overboard. Most US Coast Guard.
of the mud remains on board, but A ballast water journal must be kept. All these systems must ultimately
the organisms in the water are also Filling an empty ballast tank imme result in the water having to meet
pumped overboard. diately with 'clean' water is the ideal the following properties during the
These organisms can harm the local way to prevent sedimentation and ballasting:
environment in the loading port. In organism problems. - fewer than 10 visible organisms
this way, the transport of ballast Existing approved cleaning methods per m3 equal to or larger than 50
water around the world has created a all use one or more of the operating microns in size
major environmental problem. principles below. - fewer than 10 visible organisms
Microorganisms are sent to places per ml between 10 microns and
where they displace local organisms, IMO usually distinguishes between <50 microns in size
which is one in an ecosystem that systems that do or do not use active - less than 1 cfu Toxicogenic Vibrio
becomes unbalanced, or even threat ingredients such as: cholera per 100 ml or less than 1
ened. The IMO has adopted a con Mechanical cleaning systems; cfu per 1 gram of plankton samples
vention to combat the transport and being filtration, cyclonic separa - less than 250 cfu of Escherichia coli
spread of organisms. The aim is to tion, electro-mechanical separation per 100 ml
limit the spread of invasive species. - less than 100 cfu Intestinal Entero
The convention entered into force on cocci per 100 ml.
8 September 2017. From that date,
newly built ships with a gross tonnage
from 400 tonnes and above must
meet the D2 standard of the conven
tion. From 8 September 2019, all
existing ships must comply with the
D2 standard of the convention at the
next IOPP inspection.
In addition to the IMO, the US Coast
Guard has drawn up its own regula
tions in the Ballast Water Discharge
Rule. These rules apply to ships oper
ating in national waters in and around
the United States.
Sediment is the build-up of

(very) fine particles of all kinds
of solids, dispersed in river and
coastal water. Soil and mud are
two types of sediment.
In uncoated tanks, rust from

the tank construction will also
be part of the sediment.

Certificates in connection with the ship's trade Oil tankers
(MARPOL) Oil Tankers have, apart from engine-room gener
ated oils, another problem. When cargo tanks are
Mineral oil discharged, always some cargo remains in the tanks.
Annex I requires for every tanker (>150 GT) a valid 'Inter When the next cargo is compatible, this can be loaded
national Oil Pollution Prevention Certificate' (IOPP). in the same tanks without prior cleaning. This is
called load on top. However, when the next cargo is
Noxious Liquids (NLS) in bulk not compatible, tank cleaning is necessary. Normally,
International Certificate of Fitness for the Carriage of Dan this cleaning involves water washing. Washing is done
gerous Chemicals in Bulk (COF), accompanied by a Cargo with rotating water jets (tank washing machines) in
list, is issued when the ship complies with the regulations the tanks, generating an oily water mixture, which is
in the relevant Code and Annex II. pumped, during the washing process, to special col
NLS tankers have to carry equipment to minimise residues lecting tanks called the slop tank(s). There it is left to
in cargo tanks and its associated piping, various measure settle into oil and water.
ment tools and special equipment related to the cargo they After settling, the water content of the slop tank, below
transport. the oil layer, can be pumped into the sea, whilst con
The cargo list names the chemicals the tanks are suitable tinuously sampled for measuring of the oil content, by
for. a special measuring tool, the Oil Discharge Monitoring
This relates to closing appliances, cargo tank coating, gas and Control System ODMCS, which calculates the oil
ket materials, protective clothing, breathing apparatus, gas quantity per nautical mile. However, this is allowed
masks, etc. only under the following conditons:
- tanker is not in a (Marpol) special Area
Liquefied gases in bulk, Gas code - tanker is more than 50 nautical miles from the near
Gas tankers need to have on board the 'International Cer est land
tificate for the Carriage of Dangerous Goods' according to - ship is underway at sea
the 'International Gas Code'. For older vessels the 'Gas - total quantity of discharged oil does not exceed 30
Carrier Code' may be applicable. litres per nautical mile
total quantity of oil discharged into the sea does not
Solid Bulk Cargoes exceed 1/15,000 of the total of the particular cargo
The certificate 'Document of Compliance for the Carriage of for existing tankers. For new tankers, 1/30,000 of
Dangerous Goods' may be accompanied by a 'Statement of the total quantity of the particular cargo
Compliance' for the transport of solid bulk cargoes accord - The tanker has in operation Oil Discharge and
ing to the IMSBC Code (International Maritime Solid Bulk Monitoring Equipment and a slop tank arrange
Cargoes Code), which has been in force since 2009. ment as required by regulation 13 of this Annex.
The cargoes are divided in: The Oil Discharge and Monitoring Equipment (ODME)
Group A: contains cargoes which may liquefy when being must be type approved. Oil tankers over 150 GT must
shipped with a higher moisture content than the 'transport be equipped with an ODME.
limit'. Crude tankers, which are normally 100,000 tdwt and
Group B: contains cargoes with chemical aspects, which above, wash their tanks during unloading with their
could produce harm to the vessel. own cargo, to prevent the accumulation of sediment.
Groep C: contains cargoes which cannot liquefy, and/or The cargo oil is pumped through rotating jets, perma
have chemical aspects. nently fitted in the tanks, under high pressure, result
ing in the sediments being mixed with the cargo and
Dangerous Goods pumped ashore with the cargo. This is called Crude Oil
The certificate 'Dangerous Goods' concerns the transport of Washing (COW). The rotating jets are the same as
dangerous goods in all possible ways (in bulk or packed), used during tank washing with water.
on ships not particularly outfitted for this. The certificate A problem connected with high pressure water washing
clearly stipulates which dangerous cargoes may be trans and COW is that static electricity is generated.
ported. Crude Oil Washing and water washing is therefore only
allowed in an atmosphere with reduced oxygen (5%),
below the level that explosions or fire can occur.
COW is compulsory under the Marpol legislation. To
achieve an atmosphere of less than 5% oxygen above
the cargo or in an empty tank inert gas is used and
led into the tank(s) during unloading. A minor over
pressure is maintained. This inert gas, mainly carbon
dioxide, comes from the boiler exhaust, or is produced
in an inert gas generator, which basically burns diesel
oil into CO2 (and water).

At regular intervals tanks have to be entered by the ship's 3.2.5 International Convention on
crew for inspection or repairs. To prepare tanks for entry, they Tonnage Measurement
have to be made gas free. This also necessitated water wash
ing, and as this produces gases from the cargo remnants, also The Tonnage Convention requires every ship to be
has to be carried out under inerted condition. provided with an International Tonnage Certifi
After this washing and pumping away the slops (oily water cate.
mixture), the tank has to be re-inerted properly, after which It is issued by the Flag State or authorized classifica
the tank has to be ventilated with air until the oxygen content tion society on behalf of the Flag State.
is 21%. Following this procedure, an explosive mixture is pre It is accepted worldwide and provides the official
vented. It is, under no circumstances, allowed to transfer such details of the ship: main dimensions and volumes of
oily-residues to the engine room. the various spaces, in particular the spaces in con
Inert Gas installations are required for oil tankers of 20,000 nection with cargo, cargo holds, tanks, etc., all in
tons and above. accordance with regulations set out in the Tonnage
All operations must be recorded in the Oil Record Book (Part Convention. It shows Gross Tonnage (GT) and Net
II). All handling of oils and ballast water has to be accurately Tonnage (NT).
administrated and entries are to be kept on board for three Safety and evironmental requirements as well as
years. harbour dues and many other financial charges are
The remaining oil has to be retained in the slop tank and has often based on GT.
to be pumped ashore, or may, if compatible be mixed with Apart from the International Tonnage Certificate,
other cargo, (load-on-top-system). the Suez Canal and the Panama Canal have their
All tankers have their ballast water in completely separate own 'tonnage' requirements on which their fees are
tanks. These are called Segregated Ballast Tanks (SBT). based. Therefore, special tonnage certificates are
The minimum SBT capacity of a tanker is regulated to ensure issued for Suez Canal and Panama Canal.
sufficient ballast capacity for safe navigation.
3.2.6 Convention on the International
3.2.4 International Convention on Standards of Regulations for Preventing Colli
Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for sions at Sea
Seafarers (STCW)
The International Regulations for Preventing Colli
The main purpose of this Convention is to promote safety sions at Sea 1972 (COLREGs) are published by the
of life and property at sea and the protection of the marine International Maritime Organization (IMO) and set
environment by establishing in common agreement interna out, among other things, the 'rules of the road' or
tional standards of training, certification and watch keeping navigation rules to be followed by ships and other
for seafarers. vessels at sea to prevent collisions between two or
The Manila amendments to the STCW Convention and Code more vessels. The COLREG's are derived from a mul
were adopted on 25 June 2010, marking a major revision tilateral treaty called the Convention on the Interna
of the STCW Convention and Code. The 2010 amendments tional Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea.
entered force on 1 January 2012.

4 Maritime Labour 5 Fishing vessels
Convention (MLC)
Commercial shipping vessels have had to comply with SOLAS regulations for
The obligations of the ship owner/ many decades. However, fishing vessels are exempt from many of the rules
operator and the rights of the crew within SOLAS, despite the IMO's regular efforts to improve safety on fishing
are legalised in the Maritime Labour vessels.
Convention. The Convention was In 1977, the IMO adopted the Torremolinos International Convention for the
adopted in 2006 by the International Safety of Fishing Vessels. And then in 1993, the Torremolinos Protocol was
Labour Organisation (this is a United adopted. Because these two agreements never came into force, the IMO adopt
Nations organ similar to the IMO). ed the Cape Town Agreement in 2012.
The MLC came into force in August The Cape Town Agreement stipulates requirements for stability, construction
2013. The convention consists of six and seaworthiness of fishing vessels longer than 24 metres. It also includes
teen articles containing general provi requirements for life-saving and communications equipment and fire protection.
sions as well as the Code. However, the Cape Town Agreement has not yet been ratified by enough IMO
The Code consists of five Titles in members to make it come into effect.
which specific provisions are grouped Considering the dangerous nature of working on a fishing boat (there are an
by standard: estimated 24,000 deaths per year on fishing boats), this unresolved situation
Title 1: Minimum requirements for of safety in the fishing industry is very problematic.
seafarers to work on a ship
Title 2: Conditions of employment What is the current situation?
Title 3: Accommodation, recreational The IMO also works with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
facilities, food and catering Nations (FAO) and the International Labour Organization (ILO) to address the
Title 4: Health protection, medical issue of fishing vessel safety.
care, welfare and social secu
rity protection The following agreements have been made:
Title 5: Compliance and enforcement - IMO 2012 Cape Town Agreement (not yet in force)
- IMO STCW-F Convention on training of fishers: entered into force in 2012.
It concerns 16 subjects concerning - ILO Work in Fishing Convention 2007: entered into force on 16 November
the social life of seafarers: 2017 (refers to working conditions like rest, food, and minimum age)
1. Working hours in relation to age: - FAO Agreement on Port State Measures to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Ille
Minimum 16 years, night, or haz gal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing, 2009: entered into force in 2016.
ardous areas: 18 years. (uses Port States to stop illegal fishing).
2. Medical Fitness / Medical certifi
cation
3. Qualification and Training
4. Employment agreements
5. Recruitment of seafarers, other
than by shipowners
6. Rest hours
7. Manning levels for the ship
8. Accommodation
9. On-board recreation
10. Food and catering
11. Health, safety and accident pre
vention
12. On-board medical care
13. On-board complaint procedures
14. Payment of wages
15. Financial security for repatriation
due to abandonment
16. Financial security relating to ship
owners liability concerning com
pensation in case of seafarers
death of long term disability, due
to operational injury, illness or
hazard.
When this all is properly taken care

of, it results in the the issuance of the
obligatory MLC certificate.

Overview
Organization | Examples ] Instruments

I -
Examples Content
Conventions and Codes ] [ SOLAS, Marpol______ ] FSC,LSA

International IMO-ILO
Res. & Circ. ] [ A.1047(27) ] Safe Manning
Regional 1 [______ Directives______ ] [Maritime Equipment Directive] [ List of Appr. Equipment]

EU-EMSA
Report & Studies LNG as Fuel LNG Bunkering
Class. Soc. I DNVGL/LR

IACS Rules DNV Rules Sect 1 Part 1
1 Blue Books
\_______ ____________ 7
Unified Requirements
< A
Administrations I
Flag States National Law MAV / MLC
Ships Act + Ships Decree
1 Port States Circ. and Adv. Notes
L J Safe Manning
Industry ITF/ICS [______ Guidelines______ J [ ISCOTT ] Casualty Invest.
US Coastguard Polar Icebreakers waiting for the winter

WASTE MANAGEMENT Black water derives from toilets and - Tin and glass is crushed, shred
must be treated biologically and/ ded, cleaned, dried and split, for
Nearly everything coming on board is or chemically before discharge into collection and transport ashore,
packed, from meat to toilet paper, in the sea. and as far as possible, burnt in an
cartons and wooden boxes, plastics, Passenger ships cannot do this in incinerator.
foil, glass, tin, other metals, etc. port, so they have to store it and - Engine-room generated sludge is
Passenger ships, especially, are huge keep it on board until they are well also dealt with in the incinerator.
waste generators. out to sea.
The remains of food can usually be Some ships have advanced waste In the end, ashes and flue gas
dumped into the sea, but not in port. water treatment plants allowing dis remain. Ashes go ashore, as do com
Port authorities do not permit dump charge of end products at sea as pacted tin, plastics and glass.
ing of waste by ships and have strict well. The plants are certified and Incinerators are complex furnaces.
rules and penalties to prevent it, not audited by sampling. The initial heat in the furnace is
only for passenger ships, but for all Nowadays there are firms which sup generated by oil burners, the waste
ships. ply the whole package, as shown in to be burnt is dropped from above
Paper and cardboard can be incin the picture. The various problems are onto a travelling bed. The neces
erated or compacted for landing solved in the following ways: sary heat is partly produced by the
ashore. Other dry waste can aiso be - Liquid waste, grey and black waste itself. The end product is ashes
compacted for landing. water, undergoes biological treat and flue gas. Flue gas disappears
Sewage is treated according to its ment before going overboard. into the atmosphere and the ashes
category, grey water and black water. - Food and wet waste is collected are cooled, bagged and transferred
and water is removed by condens ashore.
Grey water is from wash basins and ing and drying. The water goes
showers which is piped to holding to the grey water system. The
tanks and then discharged overboard dry residue is bagged automati
as regulations permit. cally and burned.

1. Sludge and oil storage. The sea water continues to UV treatment where small
2. Incinerator system is a furnace designed for burning er organisms, bacteria and pathogens, are rendered
dry waste, wet waste, sludge oil, and most kinds of harmless before the water passes to the ballast tanks.
solid waste. During ballast discharge the sea water bypasses the
3. Briquetting unit is an advanced waste compaction sys filter unit and goes directly to the UV chambers where
tem for minimizing the storage volume of dry waste on it is treated for a second time. This avoids the risk of
board vessels. any contamination transfer of invasive species.
4. Compactors and densifiers. IMO MARPOL Annex V pro 8. Marine growth prevention system, designed to elimi
hibits the discharge of any dry waste into the sea, so it nate blockages in seawater cooling lines caused by
must be stored on board. Compactors, glass crushers barnacles and mussels.
and tin can densifiers reduce significantly the needed 9. Vacuum tanks are ideal for black and grey water col
space for dry waste storage. lection on board large vessels.
5. Sludge treatment units. Before black and grey water 10. Moving bed biofilm reactor, (MBBR), is a biological
enters the wastewater treatment plant, it needs to wastewater treatment system. The MBBR process
be pre-treated in order to remove harmful solids and can efficiently treat any blend of marine wastewater
liquids. Pre-treatment units include grease separators streams, including black and grey water streams from
and screening units for solids. cabins, galleys food waste reject water, and laundry
6. Food waste collection units. Food waste is macerated facilities.
in the galley area. A small amount of water is added to 11. Vacuum toilets are hygienic, durable and vacuum
create slurry, which is then collected in the food waste toilets offers up to 90% saving on flushing water com
tank. The slurry is mixed using a discharge or recycling pared to a standard toilet.
pump, and then pumped overboard or to a collecting 12. Vacuum generation units that collect black and grey
facility on shore, or further treated in a dewatering water and condensation by vacuum pumping it into a
process. wastewater treatment plant or collection tank.
7. Ballast water management system, based on a combi 13. Potable water treatment system filters and disinfects
nation of filtration and UV technology. During uptake the water, adjusts its hardness, and mineralizes fresh
the sea water passes through the filtration unit where water that has been created or stored.
the larger organisms and sediments are removed. 14. Desalination plants turn seawater into process and
service water.
15. Corrosion protection units for hull corrosion preven
tion.

Survey Intervals and Validity of Certificates
Certificate or Document Reference Restrictions

1. SOLAS 74
Passenger Ship Safety Certificate Reg. 1/12 Vessels carrying more than 12 Passengers
Cargo Ship Safety Construction Certificate Reg. 1/12 Cargo Vessels > 500 GT
Cargo Ship Safety Equipment Certificate Reg. 1/12 Cargo Vessels > 500 GT
Cargo Ship Safety Radio Certificate Reg. 1/12 Cargo Vessels > 300 GT
Cargo Ship Safety Certificate Protocol 88 Cargo Vessels > 500 GT
Reg. 1/12 Replaces: Cargo Ship Safety Construction / Equipment / Radio Certificate.
International Ship Security Certificate Reg. XI-2/1.12 Passenger Ships, MODUs

(1. July 2004) ISPS CodeA/19.2 Cargo Vessels > 500 GT
Safety Management Certificate (ISM) Reg. IX/4 Passenger Vessels
ISM Code Reg. 13.4 Cargo Vessels > 500 GT
MODUS > 500 GT --> Self propelled
Document of Compliance (ISM) Reg. IX/4 Companies operating
ISM Code Reg. 13.2 Companies operating Vessels > 500 GT
High Speed Craft Safety Certificate Reg.X/3 High-Speed Craft
HSC Code 1.8
International Certificate of Fitness for the Reg. VII/8 Vessels carrying Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk, built on or after 1 July 1986
Carriage of Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk IBC Code Sec. 1.5
International Certificate of Fitness for the Reg. VII/11 Vessels carrying Liquefied Gases in Bulk, built on or after 1 July 1986
Carriage of Liquefied Gases in Bulk IGC Code Sec. 1.5
Document of Compliance with the special Reg. 11-2/19.4 Vessels carrying Dangerous Goods
Requirements for Ships carrying Danger (former 54.3)
ous Goods
HSC Code 7.1.2.5.
Minimum Safe Manning Certificate Reg. V/14.2 Cargo Vessels > 500 GT
(former 13 (b)) Passenger Vessels
Document of Authorization for the Car Reg. VI/9 Vessels carrying Grain in Bulk
riage of Grain
International Certificate of Fitness for the Reg. VII/16 Vessels carrying Packaged Irradiated Nuclear Fuel, Plutonium and High-Level
Carriage of INF Cargo INF Code Reg. 1.3.4 Radioactive Wastes
2. MARPOL 73 / 78 Annex I
International Oil Pollution Prevention Reg. 7 Oil Tankers > 150 GT
Certificate (IOPP Certificate) Other Vessels >400 GT
3. MARPOL 73 / 78 Annex II
International Certificate of Fitness for the Reg. 7 A Chemical Tankers, incl. NLS
Carriage of Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk
International Pollution Prevention Certifi Reg. 9 Other Vessels certified to carry Noxious Liquid Substances in Bulk
cate for the Carriage of Noxious Liquid
Substances in Bulk (NLS Certificate)
4. MARPOL 73/78 Annex IV
International Sewage Pollution Prevention Reg. 5 Vessels > 400 GT and/or carrying more than 15 Persons
Certificate
6. MARPOL 73 I 78 Annex VI (Entry into Force 19 May 2005)
International Energy Efficiency Certificate Chapter 4 Vessels > 400 GT
Platforms and Drilling Rigs
Engine International Air Pollution Preven NOX Technical Code Marine Diesel Engines
tion Certificate Reg. 2.2.9 > 130 Kw
7. Load Line 1966

International Load Line Certificate Art. 16, ILLC Protocol 88 Vessels > 24 metre in Length
Art. 18
8. International Tonnage Convention 69
International Tonnage Certificate Art. 7 Vessels > 24 metre in Length

Flag State has accepted HSSC Surveys
1 2 3 4 5
Jvatioin 3 | 6 | 9 \12 15 | 18 | 21 | 24 27 | 30 | 33 36 39 | 42 | 45 48 51 54 57 | 60 An Initial Survey - is a com
plete inspection before a ship is
put into service of all the items
R R R R R relating to a particular certifici-
shears A A or IM A or IM A R cate to ensure that the relevant
requirements are complied with
A AorP AorP A R
and that these items are satis
: «ars P P P P R factory for the service for which
see individual certificates (HSSC) the ship is intended.
i years
A - Annual Survey: An annual
survey is a general inspection of
[«ears IM R
the items relevant to the particu
lar certificate to ensure that they
have been maintained and re
iftars IM R main satisfactory for the service
for which the ship is intended.
f «a's A A A A R IM - Intermediate Survey: An

intermediate survey is an inspec
tion of specified items relevant
A A A A R to the particular certificate to
ensure that they are in a satis
(pars A A or IM A or IM A R factory condition and fit for the
service for which the ship is in
tended.
-r S A A or IM A or IM A R
P - Periodical Survey: A peri
odical survey is an inspection of
f tears R the items relating to the particu
lar certificate to ensure that they
are in a satisfactory condition
No surveys. Document issued following examination of the appropriate documentation and fit for the service for which
the ship is intended.
~:ed, if no No surveys. Document issued following examination of the appropriate documentation
R - Renewal Survey: A renewal
r.'ons
survey is the same as a periodi
cal survey but also leads to the
issue of a new certificate.
An Additonal survey - is an in

A A or IM A or IM A R spection, either general or partial
according to the circumstances,
to be made after a repair result
■e SOLAS ing from investigations or when
ever any important repairs or re
newals are made.
■■ s A A or IM A or IM A R Reg. - Regulation
ISPS - International Ship and

Port facility Security
R code
ISM - International Safety

Management
A A or IM A or IM A R
HSC - High Speed Craft
&-:e1ifica- Pre-certification Survey of Marine Diesel Engines - Concerning Regulation 13 and NOx Technical
Code, a pre-certification survey shall be performed which shall be such as to ensure that the engine, as IBC - International Certificate
designed and equipped, complies with the NOx emission limits. If this survey confirms compliance, the of fitness for carriage of
Administration shall issue an: Engine International Air Pollution Prevention (EIAPP) certificate. dangerous Chemicals in
The pre-certification survey shall generally be done at the engine manufacturer’s facilities. Bulk
IGC - International Gas Code

A A A A R
INF - Irradiated Nuclear Fuel
HSSC - Harmonized System of

tinted, if no No surveys. Document issued following examination of the appropriate documentation Survey and Certifica
at:-cations tion
6 Documents Maritime Single Window (MSW)
Benefits include: The subject of the Maritime Single
- Online (cloud) access of certificates Window is new in the maritime indus
reduces administrative burden, try. It is still under discussion within
6.1 Electronic certificates
saving time and money. the IMO and the European Union, and
- Certificate storage is more secure. has not yet been implemented.
The use of standardised international
This means that certificates can
rules and regulations like IMO con
be easily shared with stakeholders The MSW takes the idea of digitali
ventions and Flag State regulations
using digital access codes. It also zation a step further. It involves the
means that ship owners onshore and
helps to prevent damage, loss or exchange of regulatory documents
ship captains on board have to deal
fraud. via one uniform system. In addition
with a large amount of administration.
- Secure cloud storage makes shar to ships' certificates, other regula
This has traditionally been in the form
ing documents simple and helps tory documents include trade certifi
of hard copy paper certificates.
facilitate management of certifi cates such as: customs declarations,
In recent years this situation has
cates. import/export permits, certificates of
started to change. Some classifica
tion societies, national authorities and origin etc. As with the use of e-certifi-
The use of e-certificates is encouraged cates, implementation of an MSW (by
Flag States have introduced electronic
by the IMO. For example, in 2014 the an international body like the IMO, for
certificates. These are digital versions
Facilitation Committee (FAL) agreed example) will increase the efficiency
of the paper certificates. This trend of
that electronic certificates should be of international trade.
digitalization is expected to continue
treated as equal to traditional paper
until the so-called e-certificates have
certificates. This is currently appli The first IMO pilot project was com
replaced the old paper certificates.
cable within the IMO guidelines for pleted in April 2019. The computer
The use of e-certificates will make
electronic certificates FAL.5/Circ.39/ software for this system has been
the administration work involving cer
Rev.2 , issued 20 April 2016. made available to other countries.
tificates more straightforward for ship
As the use of e-certificates increases,
operators and owners, as well as
so does the importance of cyber 6.2 Some compulsory
other marine stakeholders such as
security. Therefore ship owners and certificates are shown
Port State Controls.
classification societies have to invest on the following pages
a considerable amount of resources
into guaranteeing the protection of
electronic data from cyber threats.

. W Yi
fèA AAiLl’
Form ClTi(CHN)
'I' A [1 fJii’lR
THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA No. SH09SS37001
ffl Rife ÜE (1969)

NTERNATIONAL TONNAGE CERTIFICATE (1969)
(INTERIM)
±^±^±1982*7^ 18HXÏ*Kl^±©.
Issued under the provisions of the International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships, 1969,
under the authority of the Government of the People's Republic of China, for which the Convention came into force
on I 8th of July, 1982 by the China Classification Society.
Un £ ft'i ÜW3*
Name of Ship Distinctive Number or Letters / Port of Registry Date*
IMO Number
75 BLFK7 / 9568897 Taizhou October 30, 2007
PING AN DA 75
M = &(2)(b)).
*Date on which the keel was laid or the ship was at a similar stage of construction (Article 2 (6)), or dale on which the ship underwent
alterations or modifications of a major character (Article 3 (2)(b)), as appropriate.
± 2? R &
MAIN DIMENSIONS
l££ (££j^-&8) Hi l£ f jg ± T IS ft) & ® S Klj ^.1^2)

Length (Article 2(8)) Breadth (Regulation 2(3)) Moulded depth amidships to Upper Deck
(Regulation 2(2))
172.85 m 31.00 m 14.95 m
m n$ fö
THE TONNAGES OF THE SHIP ARE:
GROSS TONNAGE 24872
NET TONNAGE 12717
THIS IS TO CERTIFY that the tonnages of this ship have been determined in accordance with the provisions of the
International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships, 1969.
*iiE±£W£
This certificate is valid until June II, 2010
PENDING ISSUANCE OF A FULL TERM CERTIFICATE

Completion date of the survey on which this certificate is based.-Decernber 1,2009
The certificate is issued according to the INTERNATIONAL TONNAGE
CERTIFICATE(No. STLO-09230) issued by BV.

BUREAU
VERITAS
INTERNATIONAL CLASSIFICATION SOCIETY
CERTIFICATE OF CLASSIFICATION
Nr RTD0/SBY/20161220113714
EEMS SPIRIT 17275E
Ship's Name Register Nr
NETHERLANDS DELFZIJL
Flag Port of Registry
SPIRIT BV
Owners
This is to certify that the above named ship has been entered in the Bureau Veritas Register Book with
the following classification symbols and notations
K HULL ® MACH * AUT-UMS

General cargo ship -heavycargo (147 kN/m2)
Unrestricted navigation
STRENGTHBOTTOM
This certificate is issued within the scope of Bureau Veritas Marine & Offshore Division General Conditions.
At Rotterdam on 20 December 2016
Limit date of validity 6 August 2020
D. v. Eijk
By Order of the Secretary

Certificate no: 2003803
Page 1 of 4
Cargo Ship Safety Construction Certificate

The Republic of Liberia
Issued under the provisions of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974, as modified by the Protocol of
1988 relating thereto,
under the authority of the Government of the Republic of Liberia by Lloyd's Register EMEA
Particulars of Ship
Name of ship DELTA ATLANTICA
Distinctive number or letters 18765
Port of registry MONROVIA
Gross tonnage 85,522
Deadweight of ship (metric tons)' 161,762 *
IMO number 9419101
Type of ship ' Bulk carrier Oil tanker Chemical tanker Gas carrier
Cargo ship other than any of the above
Date of build:2
Date of building contract 14 September 2006
Date on which keel was laid or ship was at similar stage of 29 June 2009
construction
Date of delivery 05 January 2011
Date on which the work for a conversion or an alteration or modification Not applicable
of a major character was commenced (where applicable)
This is to certify:
1. that the ship has been surveyed in accordance with the requirements of regulation 1/10 of the Convention;
2. that the survey showed that:
.1 the condition of the structure, machinery and equipment as defined in the above regulation was satisfactory and the ship complied with
the relevant requirements of chapters 11-1 and II-2 of the Convention (other than those relating to fire safety systems and appliances and fire
control plans); and
.2 the ship complied with part G of chapter 11-1 of the Convention - N.A.
3. that the last two inspections of the outside of the ship's bottom took place on 30 January 2014 and 20 November 2015;
4. that an Exemption Certificate has not been issued.

5. that the ship was not subjected to an alternative design and arrangements in pursuance of regulation(s) 11-1/55 111-2/17 of the Convention;
6. a Document of approval of alternative design and arrangements for machinery and electrical installations/fire protection is not appended
to this Certificate.
This certificate is valid until3 04 January 2021 subject to the annual and intermediate surveys and inspections of the outside
of the ship's bottom in accordance with regulation 1/10 of the Convention.
Completion date of the survey on which this certificate is based 20 November 2015
Issued at Rotterdam on 20 July 2018 Q —$____ __________ ~
* Valid for a range of deadweights up to a maximum of 161,762 office—) OOC/'A L£S Regser
metric tonnes. Lloyd’s keyistëi liuea—J
D.Xydous
Surveyor to Lloyd's Register EMEA
a member of the Lloyd's Register group.
' For oil tankers, chemical tankers and gas carriers only.
' Delete as appropriate
2 AH applicable dates shall be completed.
3 Insert the date of expiry as specified by the Administration in accordance with regulation //14(a) of the Convention. The day and the month of this date correspond to the
anniversary date as defined in regulation !/2(n) of the Convention, unless amended in accordance with regulation 1714(h).
Lloyd's Register Group Limited, its affiliates and subsidiaries and their respective officers, employees or agents are, individually and
collectively, referred to in this clause as 'Lloyd's Register'. Lloyd's Register assumes no responsibility and shall not be liable to any
person for any loss, damage or expense caused by reliance on the information or advice in this document or howsoever provided,
unless that person has signed a contract with the relevant Lloyd's Register entity for the provision of this information or advice and
in that case any responsibility or liability is exclusively on the terms and conditions set out in that contract.
Form 2221LBR (2016.10)

INTERNATIONAL LOAD LINE CERTIFICATE
No RTD0/PWS/20181224203016
Issued under the provisions of the
International Convention on Load Lines. 1966.
as modified by the Protocol of 1988 relating thereto
under the authority of tire Government of
THE NETHERLANDS
By BUREAU VERITAS MARINE & OFFSHORE
Name of Ship Distinctive Number Length (L) as defined in
BV Register: 19738G Port of Registry IMO Number
or Letters Article 2(8) (m)
CORAL PARENSIS PC HL ROTTERDAM 109.786 9208148
Freeboard assigned as: New Ship Type of Ship: Type "A1

Freeboard from deck line Load line
Tropical 1435 mm (T) 175 mm /above (S)
Summer 1610 mm (S) Upper edge of line through centre of ring.
Winter 1785 mm (W) 175 mm/below (S)
Winter North Atlantic - mm (WNA) - nun / below (S)
Timber Tropical - mm (LT) - mm / above (LS)
Timber Summer - mm (LS) - mm / above (S)
Timber Winter - mm (LW) - mm / below (LS)
Timber Winter North Atlantic - mm (LWNA) - mm / below (LS)
Note: Freeboards and load lines •which are not applicable need not be entered on the certificate. Subdivision load lines may be entered on the
certificate on a voluntary basis.
Allowance for fresh water for all freeboards other than timber 166 mm.
For timber freeboards - mm.
The upper edge of the deck line from which these freeboards are measured is 0 mm below the level of freeboard steel deck at side
LTF
LT
S
LW w
LWNA VNA
THIS IS TO CERTIFY:
1. Tliat the ship has been surveyed in accordance with the requirements of article 14 of the Convention.
2. That the survey showed that the freeboards have been assigned and load lines shown above have been marked in accordance with
the Convention.
This certificate is valid until* 30 June 2020. subject to annual surveys in accordance with Article 14( 1 )(c) of the Convention, due or
30 June (Range from 30 March to 30 September).
Completion date of the survey on which this certificate is based: 19 September 2018.
Issued at Rotterdam, on the 31 December 2018

BUREAU VERITAS
MARINE & OFFSHORE
D. van Eijk
This document is electronically signed and does not require a manual signature as defined
in IMO guideline FAL.5-Circ.39.
Click here for the verification website
By Order of the Secretary

Certificate no: 2003803
Page 1 of 3
Cargo Ship Safety Radio Certificate

The Republic of Liberia
This Certificate shall be supplemented by a Record of Equipment for Cargo Ship Safety Radio (Form R): 2003803/02
Issued under the provisions of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974, as modified by the Protocol
of 1988 relating thereto,
under the authority of the Government of the Republic of Liberia by Lloyd's Register EMEA
Particulars of Ship
Name of ship DELTA ATLANTICA
Distinctive number or letters 18765
Port of registry MONROVIA
Gross tonnage 85,522
Sea areas in which ship is certified to operate
A1 + A2 + A3
(regulation IV/2)
IMO number 9419101
Date on which keel was laid or ship was at a similar stage of construction
or, where applicable, date on which work for a conversion or an alteration 29 June 2009
or modification of a major character was commenced
This is to certify:
1. that the ship has been surveyed in accordance with the requirements of regulation I/9 of the Convention;
2. that the survey showed that:
2.1 the ship complied with the requirements of the Convention as regards radio installations;
2.2 the functioning of the radio installations used in life-saving appliances complied with the requirements of the Convention;
3. that an Exemption Certificate has not been issued.
This certificate is valid until’ 04 January 2021 subject to the periodical surveys in accordance with regulation I/9 of
the Convention.
Completion date of the survey on which this certificate is based 20 November 2015
Issued at Rotterdam on 20 July 2018
Lloyd's
Register
D.Xydous
Surveyor to Lloyd's Register EMEA
a member of the Lloyd's Register group.
1 Insert the date of expiry as specified by the Administration in accordance with regulation //14(a) of the Convention. The day and month of this date correspond to the
anniversary date as defined in regulation l/2(n) of the Convention, unless amended in accordance with regulation 1/14(h).
* Delete as appropriate
Lloyd's Register Group Limited, its affiliates and subsidiaries and their respective officers, employees or agents are, individually and collectively,
referred to in this clause as 'Lloyd's Register'. Lloyd's Register assumes no responsibility and shall not be liable to any person for any loss,
damage or expense caused by reliance on the information or advice in this document or howsoever provided, unless that person has signed a
contract with the relevant Lloyd's Register entity for the provision of this information or advice and in that case any responsibility or liability is
exclusively on the terms and conditions set out in that contract.
Form 2206 LBR (2015.06)

Panama
INTERNATIONAL OIL POLLUTION PREVENTION CERTIFICATE

(Note: This Certificate shall be supplemented by a Record of Construction and Equipment)
(Supplement No. 19RT9876-OPR)

Certificate No. 19RT9876-OPP

INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION FOR THE PREVENTION OF POLLUTION FROM SHIPS, 1973,
as modified by the Protocol of 1978 relating thereto,
as amended (hereinafter referred to as “the Convention”)
under the authority of the Government of:

the Republic of Panama
by NIPPON KAIJIKYOKAI
Particulars ofship
Name of ship REEFER ONE
Distinctive number or letters 3FRE22
Port of registry Panama
Gross tonnage 9876
Deadweight of ship (metric tons)l)
IMO Number IMO 1234567
Type of ship2) Oil tunkor
Ship other than an oil tanker with cargo tanlm coming undor
regulation 2.2 of Annex I of the Convention
Ship other than any of the above
THIS IS TO CERTIFY:
1. That the ship has been surveyed in accordance with regulation 6 of Annex I of the Convention; and
2. That the survey shows that the structure, equipment, systems, fittings, arrangement and material of the ship and the
condition thereof are in all respects satisfactory and that the ship complies with the applicable requirements of
Annex I of the Convention.
This Certificate is valid until3) 14 August 2024

subject to surveys in accordance with regulation 6 of Annex I of the Convention.
Completion date of the survey on which this certificate is based: 15 August 2019
Issued at Rotterdam on 15 August 2019
The undersigned declares that he is duly authorized by the said Government to issue this Certificate.
SIGNED
General Manager
NIPPON KAIJI KYO
Rotterdam Office

Panama
CARGO SHIP SAFETY EQUIPMENT CERTIFICATE
This Certificate shall be supplemented by a Record of Equipment for Cargo Ship Safety (Form E).
(Form E No. 19RT9876-SER)
Certificate No. 19RT9876-SEC
INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION FOR THE SAFETY OF LIFE AT SEA, 1974,
as modified by the Protocol of 1978 relating thereto
under the authority of the Government of
the Republic of Panama
by NIPPON KAIJI KYOKAI
Particulars ofship
Name of ship REEFER ONE
Distinctive number or letters 3FRE22
Port of registry Panama
Gross tonnage 9876
Deadweight of ship (metric tons)!)
Length of ship (regulation III/3.12) 123.45 m
IMO Number IMO 1234567
Type ofship Cargo ship other than any of the above
Date on which keel was laid or ship was at a similar stage of construction
or, where applicable, date on which work for a conversion or an alteration
or modification of a major character was commenced. : 11 August 2018
THIS IS TO CERTIFY:
1 That the ship has been surveyed in accordance with the requirements of regulation 1/8 of the Convention, as
modified by the 1978 Protocol.
2 That the survey showed that:
2.1 the ship complied with the requirements of the Convention as regards fire safety systems and appliances and
fire control plans;
2.2 the life-saving appliances and the equipment of the lifeboats, liferafts and rescue boats were provided in
accordance with the requirements of the Convention;
2.3 the ship was provided with a line-throwing appliance and radio installations used in life-saving appliances in
accordance with the requirements of the Convention;
2.4 the ship complied with the requirements of the Convention as regards shipbome navigational equipment, means
of embarkation for pilots and nautical publications;
2.5 the ship was provided with lights, shapes and means of making sound signals and distress signals in accordance
with the requirements of the Convention and the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea in
force;
2.6 in all other respects the ship complied with the relevant requirements of the Convention;
2.7 the ship was/was not2) subjected to an alternative design and arrangements in pursuance of regulation(s) II-2/17
III/382)of the Convention;
2.8 a Document of approval of alternative design and arrangements for fire protection/life-saving appliances and
arrangements2) is/is not2) appended to this Certificate.
3 That the ship operates in accordance with regulation III/26.1.1.13) within the limits of the trade area
4 That in implementing Regulation 1/6 (b) the Government has instituted:

Mandatory Annual Surveys / Unscheduled Inopootiono2).
5 That an Exemption Certificate has / hue not2) been issued.
This Certificate is valid until 14 August 2024
Completion date of the survey on which this certificate is based: 15 August 2019
Issued at Rotterdam on 15 August 2019
The undersigned declares that he is duly authorized by the said Government to issue this certificate.
SIGNED
General Manager
NIPPON KAMI KYO
Rotterdam Office
DNV-GL
DNV GLId No:
54321
CLASSIFICATION CERTIFICATE Date of issue:
2019-06-18
Issued under the provisions of the Rules of DNV GL
Particulars of Ship
Name of Ship: marvellousi morning

Builder: . Cruise SHip Yard AG
Yard No/Hull No: 321
Owner: Morning Shipping Co. ...........................................
IMO Number: 9876543
This is to certify:
that the above-mentioned ship has been surveyed by DNV GL according to the Rules and that, upon
completion of survey the administration of the Society is satisfied that the condition of the hull,
machinery and equipment was in compliance with the applicable Rule requirements for the following
class notation:
® 1A Passenger ship ECO Gas fuelled LNG SRTP Clean(Design) Recyclable

Cyber Secure Advanced Silent(E) COMF
Important assumptions and conditions related to maintenance and handling of the ship are found in the
ship's Appendix to the Classification Certificate. Current status of surveys and conditions of class is given
in the Class status issued by the Society.
This Certificate is valid until 2024-06-30 provided the requirements for the retention of class in the
Rules will be complied with, and unless the class has been suspended or withdrawn.
Completion date of survey on which this Certificate is based: 2019-05-291
Issued at Hamburg, Germany on 2019-06-18

for DNV GL
This document is signed electronically in accordance with IMO
FAL.5/Circ.39/Rev.2. Validation and authentication can be
obtained from trust.dnvgl.com using the Unique Tracking
Number (UTN) and ID
Sebastian Beck
Head of Section
Date of survey for the current period of the certificate, performed by DNV GL or a possible previous class society.
Form code: CSHIP Revision: 2017-09 www.dnvgl.com Page 1 of 3
© DNV GL 2014. DNV GL and the Horizon Graphic are trademarks of DNV GL AS.

Certificate No.: 7712294-1959625-001
International Ship Security Certificate

INTERNATIONAL CODE FOR THE SECURITY OF SHIPS AND OF PORT FACILITIES (ISPS CODE)
under the authority of the Government of
Netherlands
(name of state)
by the AMERICAN BUREAU OF SHIPPING
Name of Ship: TEMPEST
Distinctive Number or Letters: 770 PHXV

Port of Registry: Amsterdam
Type of Ship 1 Other Cargo Ship Tug and Fire Fighting vessel
Gross Tonnage: 1368
IMO Number: 7515377
Name and Address of ITC MANAGEMENT BV

Company:
Herenweg 133
Heemstede 2105 MS Netherlands

(see paragraph 1 owie ISM Code)
, nN "
Company identification number: __
r ’ 5343039
THIS IS TO CERTIFY THAT: ,-nf>
ilv'
1. the security system and any associate^,security equipment of the ship have been verified in accordance with
section 19.1 of part A of the ISP^xpoclÓ:
2. the verification showed that the security system and any associated security equipment of the ship is in all
respects satisfactory and that the ship complies with the applicable requirements of chapter XI-2 of the
Convention and part A of the ISPS Code;
3. the ship is provided with an approved Ship Security Plan.
This Certificate is valid until 10 March 2016 subject to verification in accordance with section 19.1.1
of part A of the ISPS Code.
Date of the initial/renewal verification on which this certificate is based: 11 March 2011
Issued at: IJmuiden, The Netherlands.

(place of issue of the certificate)
Date Of I 11 March 2011
ABS gaard, Winfried F.J., Rotterdam Port

[Signature of the duty authorized official issuing the certificate)
1 Insert the type of ship from among the following: Passenger Ship; Passenger High Speed Craft; Cargo High Speed Craft; Bulk Carrier; Oil Tanken
Chemical Tanker; Gas Carrier; Mobile Offshore Drilling Unit; Other Cargo Ship. For "Other Cargo Ship" specify detail type in adjacent field
ISSC O2K Rev 4 Pace 1 of 3

7
1 Cargo holds The bulkheads of the holds are as
flat as possible to make them 'user-
Cargo holds are in general large, friendly'.
empty, rectangular spaces where In bulk carriers the surroundings of
there are as few stiffeners as pos the tank top in the holds, not under
sible exposed to the cargo (frames, the hatch opening, slope upward, so
longitudinals etc.). that the cargo slides down towards the
Nevertheless, the hold is so impor area where the grab can take it.
STRUCTURAL tant that the entire ship's construc Also, these ships have an increased
tion is aimed at enabling the moving tank top plate thickness to compen
ARRANGEMENT
of the hold and its contents (the sate for the wear damage caused by
cargo) through the water from port grabs.
1 Cargo holds 156 to port.
The amount of cargo carried deter
2 Stern 164 mines the earning capacity of the
ship.
3 Engine room 170
4 Double-bottom and 172
wing tanks
5 Bow 181
6 Accommodation 188
7 Bridge 192
Hold looking forward (feeder)
Hold of a capesize bulker, self-trimming, corrugated bulkhead (left), double hull

(right). Damages in corrugated bulkhead from grabs.
156 7. STRUCTURAL ARRANGEMENT

1.1 Multipurpose ships
In multipurpose ships, the ship own

ers prefer just one very large hold.
The crew can then decide on the basis
of the type of cargo how to subdivide
the hold. The hold is divided by mov
able bulkheads positioned either
horizontally or vertically.
The bulkheads can be attached to
the sides of the hold in a very simple
manner.
Legal safety requirements (intact /
damage stability) normally require
that one or more of these movable
bulkheads are always in place.
The actual number of sub-division
bulkheads depends on the length of
the ship.
Both the side longitudinal bulkheads

(the boundary between hold and wing
tanks) and the tank tops have man
holes to enable access for inspection
of the tanks.
The longitudinal bulkheads have lash
ing points for cargo securing. Heavy
cargo is often secured temporarily by
means of beams and / or brackets
welded to strong points in the ship's
side and tank top. This of course, can
only be done when the tanks are safe
for hot work.
The humidity in the holds can be

controlled by ventilation, recirculation
and / or the use of dryers.
Most multipurpose ship cargo holds

are box-shaped. This means that
the hold is rectangular and the spaces
have straight walls. This is important
when containers have to be carried
as cargo.
If the hatches and the holds have a
facility to lash containers, the holds
are then said to be 'container fit
ted'.
The ship in the pictures shown is

designed to load wood, in box-shaped
parcels. The design is optimised for
loading these parcels, with a mini
mum loss of space. The hatch-covers
are trapezium-shaped, with external
stiffening, so that another tier can be
loaded in the space created by the
shape of the hatch cover. A disad
Particulars of the hold: Height of the coaming: 2.33 metres
vantage is that the ship cannot take
Length 49.7 metres Max. depth 8.85 metres
deck cargo.
Width 10.0 metres Capacity 149,300 ft3 = 4,228 m3

Explanation of the image to the left:
1. Forecastle deck
2. Breakwater on the focsle deck
3. Bulkhead
4. Tank top
5. Holes for fitting container supports
6. Manholes, entrances to double
bottom
7. Longitudinal bulkhead between hold
and wing tank
Explanation of the image below:
1. Bridge
2. Deck house
3. Engine room bulkhead
4. Tank top
5. Wing tank
6. Longitudinal bulkhead
7. (full) Floor (plate)
8. Side girder
9. Web frame
10. Top rail
11. Coaming
12. Gangway / Main deck

1.2 Container feeder ships 1.3 Tankers Internal surfaces of cargo tanks are:
- coated with a paint which is resist
The holds on cellular container ships When ships are designed to carry ant to the cargo the ship has been
are divided into multiple cells, each liquid cargoes in bulk, they are called designed for.
capable of storing a stack of 20' or 40' tankers. The total cargo space is then - not painted if constructed of stain
containers in a fore and aft direction. divided by watertight bulkheads into a less steel.
The spaces (cells) are separated from large number of separate tanks.
each other by guide rails. Each tank (in oil tankers) is provided Furthermore, and depending on the size
During loading and discharging the with: of the ship, there are additional deck
containers are guided by the vertical - entrance - and escape hatch holes for transport of materials, tools,
rails. In addition, the rails also keep - tank cleaning hatches or in case of an accident, for people.
the containers in place. - ladder to descend in the tank The tanks have as little stiffening inside
- ullage and/or sounding pipe as possible to prevent the accumulation
Because of the small depth, which - ventilation / de-aeration pipe of dirt and sediment, and to minimise
keeps the tonnage figure low, con (closed system) the area to be expensively coated.
tainer feeders have more containers - filling and discharge lines Crude tankers only have the deck
on top of the hatch covers than inside - (deep-well) pump, depending on head and bottom coated.
the holds. the kind of cargo Inert gas protects the steel generally.
- dipping holes. No oxygen = no rust.
Ullage is the distance between Every tank has possibilities for:
the cargo liquid and the top edge - temperature measurement, The surrounding ballast tanks are also
of the entrance hatch, (or another - ullage and / or sounding measure stiffened where possible. Division
decisive level) on which the tank ment, often radar level control, bulkheads between cargo tanks are
content tables are based. In dry heating possibilities to control therefore, often corrugated to mini
cargo ships it is simply the space the cargo temperature, mise stiffening; however, stringers
between the cargo (such as grain), - independent high level alarm (95% and some brackets are still needed.
and a measuring point on deck. full) and overfill alarm (98% full).
- tank cleaning with fixed or hand
operated washing machines.
The inside of tanks on a chemical tanker (GT 3,350, dead hatch and a simple ladder. The double bottom slopes
weight 5,070 tons). slightly towards centre line, to facilitate the flow of liquids
The transverse and longitudinal bulkheads are corrugated. to the suction of the pump.
The tank can be inspected by entering via the entrance

Double hull tanker: Deadweight: 200,000 ton
On this and the next page a double hull Overall length 292 metre
VLCC is depicted. Beam: 46 metre
Draught: 16 metre
Double hull (Suez max)tanke-
1. Stern section
2. Deck house
3. Side longitudinals
4. Deck on side tank
5. Deck on cargo tank
6. Deck longitudinals
7. Web frame of longitudi
bulkhead, upper bracket
8. Web frame of longituor
bulkhead, lower bracke:
9. Web frame in lower side
(ballast) tank
10. Deck girder
11. Bracket of side keelson
12. Transverse bulkhead
13. Web in side tank
14. Full floor in double bot-:
15. Cargo manifold.
Vapour return line
16. Loading and discharge c:
nections (cargo, bunks
water, etc)
17. Cargo tank hatch
18. Deck pipelines
ShipConstructor/E image courtesy of Estaleiro Atlantico Sul, Br

Simplified Midship Section of a This drawing is specifically made to be used for thickness measure
double hull tanker ment and to report about it. It shows that the stiffening of the deck
is fitted above deck.
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th

That is not always the case, on most ships it is fitted A disadvantage is of course obstacles on deck, and the cost
below decks. of maintenance of the enormous area of steel, exposed to the
This has both advantages and disadvantages: marine environment. It shows furthermore the standard way of
Tank cleaning is easier, as all surfaces are smooth naming and localising of the steel plating, with frame numbers
Less coating is to be applied, which is cheaper. and strake numbers.
7. STRUCTURAL ARRANGEMENT
2 Stern The work places, storage facilities The stern section is the section above
and most fuel tanks are also found the after peak where the steering
Most cargo ships have the accommo aft. The after peak is the part of the gear is located.
dation and the engine room as far aft ship that is enclosed by the after peak The rudder carrier is located in the
as practicable. bulkhead, the stern shell, transom steering flat, taking the weight of the
The accommodation is above the and the after deck. rudder and rudder stock or king post.
engine room, and the propeller shaft It is the part where the stern tube The king post runs through the rudder
is as short as possible. is located with the tail shaft running trunk (frame 0) in the upper part of
The parallel mid-body is available for through it. the after peak. The transom borders
cargo in this configuration. The stern tube is supported by high the after side of the stern section.
The V-shaped after part still allows floors extending above shaft level. This is a plate running nearly the full
the various engine parts to be fitted. These high floors also have to sus width of the ship, on which the name
tain any propeller-induced vibration of the ship and the home port are
at every frame. welded.
1. Funnel 8. Floor plate, frame no 3

2. Bridge 9. Floor plate, frame no 10
3. Bridge wing 10. Stiffeners
4. Accommodation 11. Centre keelson
5. Poop deck 12. Stern frame
6. Main deck 13. Bottom plate
7. Rudder horn

120<t.
A container feeder, seen from aft 1. Web frame 8. Water or oil tank
with a glimpse of the engine room 2. Fuel tank with heating coils 9. Fuel tank with heating coils
Ballast lines come from the ballast 3. Hold bilge 10. Delivery suction line of wing tank
tanks into the engine room. 4. Bilge line 11. Side girder
The frames in the engine room double 5. Ballast line 12. Centre keelson
bottom run in the transverse direction 6. Web frame 13. Full floor (plate)
and those in the wing tanks in longitu 7. Longitudinal stiffener
dinal direction.
View from aft of a Roll-on Roll-off

vessel
The open access spaces can be closed by
ramps (not yet in place).
When the ramps are opened, they can be
used to load or discharge moving cargo.
1. Freeboard deck
2. Main deck
3. A-frame, space for the propeller clear
ance
4. End of stern tube / tailshaft bearing
5. Skeg
The Skeg
This is a narrow vertical part added to
the hull in the stern. It is necessary for
the course stability of twin propeller
ships. The skeg improves the course sta
bility of the ship by enlarging the lateral
area. The skeg is important for dry dock
ing as it transfers the load of the after
part of the ship to the keel blocks.
Inside of an aft ship under construction

1. Skeg 4. Floor
2. Frame 5. Division bulkhead
3. Stringer

1. Fender channel 7. De-aerating or vent pipes 13. Wheelhouse top
2. After peak 8. Deck girder 14. Thruster location
3. Stern brackets 9. Deck longitudinal 15. Centre Keelson
4. Azimuth thruster room 10. Bulwark bracket 16. Skeg
5. Watertight bulkhead 11. Towing bitt
6. Transverse frame 12. Exhaust pipes

Frame 23
3 Engine room
The engine room is a compartment that

usually spans the full width of the ship.
In tankers and bulk carriers, however,
there are often bunker tanks in the sides, 131k
still leaving sufficient space for the engine
room.
Watertight bulkheads are located at the
after and forward ends of the engine
room.
24£
230
110
410 420 450

(411) (4211 <431) (451)
Above the engine room the casing rises

vertically towards the funnel.
The exhaust gas lines of the various
diesel engines and the boiler(s) run up
through the casing.
Part of the casing has an access hatch,
which may be opened or removed to
allow transport of engine parts. Travelling
cranes are installed above the main and
auxiliary engines with simple manual hoists
or electric hoists capable of lifting piston
heads and pistons.
The large open engine room space is
stiffened with deep frames, flats and pil
lars to withstand the water pressure from
outside, the weight of the engines and
the vibration induced by them.
Foundations supporting the main and __ -

auxiliary engines have to transfer ttie
weight of the machine, the induced vibra
tions and resulting stresses onto the
ship's structure.
The foundations have to keep the engines
in place when the ship is rolling and / or
pitching and have to be stiff to maintain
a proper alignment of engine and propel
ler shafting.
All machinery is properly bolted down
and provided with sideways supports to
secure their position in the heaviest ship's
motions.
The double bottom below the engine

room is often at a different level from the
double bottom below the cargo spaces so
that propeller shaft is at the right height.
The propeller blades have to be a suf
ficient distance above the baseline to
prevent damage.
Construction drawings of the engine room of a container feeder

Explanation of the image at the right
and previous page
1. After peak bulkhead

2. Cable guide
3. Hoist beam
4. Flat
5. Main deck
6. Top plate for the engine foundation
7. Longitudinal girders of the engine
foundation
8. Longitudinal deck girder with face
plate
9. Deck girder
10. Transverse deck girder
11. Watertight bulkhead (wing tank)
12. Watertight Centre line bulkhead
(wing tank)
13. Frame 23 (web frame)
14. Stiffener
15. Floor
16. Web frame
View in the engine room of a container

feeder
1. Floors 5. Brackets with flange 10. Web frames

2. Tank top 6. Pillar 11. Side girder
3. Crown plate of the engine 7. Bulkhead stiffeners 12. Web stiffener
foundation 8. Stringer
4. Longitudinal girder 9. Side longitudinals

4 Double-bottom and Ro-ro ships are often fitted with a Sometimes a combination of the two
wing tanks heeling system. systems is used, when the double
This is a system which automatically bottom and the main deck are longi
The double-bottom and wing tanks pumps ballast water from one wing tudinally framed and the side tanks
are discussed together as they have tank to the opposite wing tank very are transversely framed.
the same function. The wing tanks are quickly, to compensate for a list due The double bottom is covered by the
located at the sides of the ship on top to cargo loading. tank top and thereby separated from
of the double bottom. the hold.
Usually the two wing tanks are sepa Ballast tanks are by definition water Several piping systems run through
rated in the sense that no fluid can tight compartments. Oil tanks are the double bottom, such as piping for
flow between them. Sometimes, how oil tight fuel, bilge or ballast water systems.
ever, the two tanks are joined in a In the double bottom, the separation Container ships need reinforcements
U-shaped or L-shaped fashion. of the two sides is accomplished by in the double bottom at the corners of
the centre keel or side girders fore the containers.
The functions of the double bot and aft and by a watertight floor in
tom and wing tanks are: the transverse direction. Floor plates in the double bottom
- to increase the transverse and can be divided into:
longitudinal strength of the ship An oil tank and a drinking water - water- or oil-tight floors
- additional safety when the bot tank must be separated by an empty - floors, that can be reduced in weight
tom or side is damaged (damage space, a cofferdam. by manholes (also for access)
stability) The wing tanks are separated by - floors made of profiles and
- to carry seawater ballast to keep watertight web frames. brackets (open floors)
the propeller in the water, to pre The shell stiffeners in the double bot
vent pounding when the ship has tom and the wing tanks usually run in
no cargo on board. This is also a longitudinal direction.
advantageous for the stability of
the vessel When a ship has a length of approxi
- to store fuel mately 60 metres or less, for instance
- to provide list and trim control View looking down at an aft shift
a tugboat or fishing vessel, the frames
to compensate for uneven loading double bottom section. Rolled bilge
run in a transverse direction.
plates are laying ready to be fitted.
1. Bilge bracket 4. Lightening hole 7. Watertight side keelson 10. Bilge plate
2. Tank top 5. Side girder 8. Full floor
3. Tank top longitudinal 6. Duct keel 9. Full floor, watertight
Vents and openings are installed for This can be a float, connected to a Fuel tanks often have a system for
the filling and emptying of the tanks. counter, sending a signal to the com heating fuel (depending on the type
Every double bottom tank must be fit puter in the control room, a bubble of oil). Most ships burn heavy fuel,
ted with a sounding pipe, normally aft pipe system working on air pressure and the viscosity depends on the
(with a small doubling underneath) or even a tank-radar. temperature.
and a vent pipe forward and aft in The double bottom is accessible by The fuel tanks therefore are usually
each tank. bolted manhole covers in the tank provided with heating coils, through
Tank contents are often measured by top; every tank must have a means which hot water, steam or thermal oil
special measuring devices, with a dis of entry. circulates.
play in the cargo control room.
1. Centre keel (watertight) 7. Ballast line 14. Coaming bracket

2. Side girder (keelson) 8. Bilge line 15. Main deck (gangway)
3. Bottom longitudinal 9. Lightening hole 16. Ballast or fuel tank
4. Watertight or oil tight floor (plate 10. Side shell longitudinal 17. Beam
floor) 11. Watertight or oil tight bulkheads 18. Engine room bulkhead
5. Full floor (plate floor) 12. Web frame 19. Ventilation trunk of cargo hold
6. End of ballast line, with suction 13. Hatch coaming 20. Deck house front
Longitudinal cross-sections
1. Full floor (plate floor) 8. Tank top 15. Floor on frame 31

2. Side girder 9. Tank top longitudinals 16. Floor on frame 35
3. Bilge bracket 10. Bottom longitudinal 17. Floor on frame 46
4. Bilge keel 11. Port side 18. Longitudinal slots
5. Container pot recess 12. Starboard side 19. Bottom shell
6. Air holes 13. Longitudinal framing system 20. Heating coils
7. Drain holes 14. Transverse framing system 21. Ballast line (GRE of GRP)
7. STRUCTURAL ARRANGEMENT ”>75

Section 4925 above base

1. Hatch coaming plate
2. Top rail
3. Gangway
4. Deck longitudinal
5. Side shell longitudinal
6. Shell plating
7. Longitudinal bulkhead, tank side
8. Scallop
9. Stringer
10. Web frame
11. Full floor
12. Stringer deck
13. Bulkhead stiffeners
Transverse cross-section of a
cargo tank of a tanker
x ■»*
Location of the section in the ship
Bilge wells: Heating coils:

Fluid present in the com These are in the heavy oil
partment will flow to the tank. If the oil is too viscous
bilge well and can then be to be pumped, it will be
removed by the bilge pump heated up to a 'safe viscous'
ing arrangement. temperature.
1. Longitudinal bulkhead
2. Bilge well
3. Heating coils
4. Bilge line
5. Cross-over line
This isometric shows an open wing

tank and a double bottom of a Ro-Ro
passenger ferry.
The cross-over line is visible as an

open line between the port side tank
and the starboard tank.
A cross-over in this case is designed
to be used in the event of a collision.
Water entering one space will flow to
the tank on the other side.
This will moderate the list.
The system can reduce damage sta
bility requirements.
The majority of ferries and passenger
liners have such a cross-over system.
Side view
Bilge keel. Approximately

220 x 15 mm
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1. Hatch coaming
2. Side-rolling hatch cover
3. Top wing(ballast) tank
4. Double hull
5. Lower hopper, part of double
bottom tank
6. Pipe tunnel or Duct keel
7. Double bottom (ballast) tank
8. Bulldozer to move cargo
into grab reach
9. Bulkhead
10. Cargo (coal or ore)
11. Grab
RUDOLF DAS
Bulk carrier, capesize, alongside discharge berth.
Mid ship block of a multi purpose ship being transported outside

5 Bow
The bow is the part of the ship

between the stem and the collision or
forepeak bulkhead, and the adjacent
part aft of the forepeak, to the paral
lel body.
The space forward of the collision

bulkhead and below the main deck,
is the fore peak. The fore peak tank
is the lowest space in the bow and is
often divided in a lower and an upper
fore peak tank. The fore peak tank is
usually used as a ballast tank.
If the ship is not loaded this is
often filled with water to increase the
draught and to reduce the trim by
the stern.
Usually there is a wash-bulkhead at

the centre line in the peak tanks.
This prevents sloshing (the fast
movement of water from port to star
board) when a tank is partially filled.
It also improves the rolling-behaviour
of the ship.
Directly behind the fore peak there
can be another tank (deep tank) that
extends from starboard to port and
from the bottom to the deck; used for
ballast or fuel.
In the top of the fore peak, right

below the anchor windlass there are
chain lockers for the stowage of the
anchor chains.
Above the weather deck in the bow
there is often a forecastle, a super
structure from bow to above the
collision bulkhead. Sometimes it is
extended further aft, to even aft of
number one hatch.
The forecastle is protected against
rough seas by a bulwark.
On the forecastle are the windlass
and other mooring equipment.
The fore mast is usually located at the
rear part of the forecastle deck.
1. Bulbous bow
2. Side of bulb
3. Shell frame
4. Stringer
5. Centre line web
6. Thwart ship wash bulkhead
7. Stringer
1. Bow 6. Stringer 11. Access / lightening holes
2. Forecastle deck 7. Bow thruster room 12. Transition of transverse to
3. Break water 8. Hatch coaming with brackets longitudinal framing system
4. Bulbous bow 9. Top rail 13. Tank top
5. Main deck 10. De-aerating pipes
The forecastle can be divided into: a. the pitching of the ship (pitching A bulbous bow can be added to
- stores and workshops for ship stresses). reduce wave-resistance.
maintenance: b. the fore peak moving in and out of
• tools for work on deck (bosun's the water (panting stresses). Bulbous bow
store, carpenter's store) c. maintaining speed in heavy weather With an ordinary bow, often the bow
• storage for paint (with fixed d. ice. wave and the fore shoulder wave
fire-fighting equipment) interfere in such a way that they are
• storage for ropes. Items stored in the fore peak spaces producing an enlarged fore shoulder
- Storage for cargo-handling need to be properly secured, to deal wave. This results in a high wave
equipment like: with the acceleration forces. resistance of the ship.
• twist locks, (container lashing By adding a bulbous bow, the bow
equipment) To compensate for the forces men wave is brought more forward, and
• slings, shackles, tioned, the forward part of a ship when properly positioned, interferes
• airbags. needs additional reinforcement that with the fore shoulder wave in such a
These items are usually stored in sometimes extends to midships. way that the latter is eliminated.
racks made for this purpose.
If necessary, these racks can be lifted
up by the ship's crane or the hatch
cradle crane. Stiffening Location Objective
Container-lashing gear is often Reduced frame spacing Foreship: 700 mm a.c.
stored in boxes along the hatch Reduced frame spacing Fore peak: 600 mm a
coaming. Smaller spacing internals general Double bottom fwd a
(floors and side girders)
The bow is subject to extraordinarily
Panting area (stringers, horizontal Fore peak a.b.
large forces, acceleration and stress beams)
es caused by:
Intermediate frames Fore peak a.b.
Web frames, side girders Fore peak c.
Increased shell thickness Draught b.
Bulbous bow of a big container ship
1. Main deck
2. Breast hook
3. Web frame
4. Stiffener on a web frame
5. Access / lightening opening
6. Stringer or flat
7. Centre keel in bulb
8. Stem bar
9. Transition of flat to shell stringer
10. Shell frame (HP)
11. Hawse pipe
12. Anchor pocket
13. Chain locker
14. Watertight bulkhead (collision
bulkhead)
15. Ladder to the forecastle deck
16. Weather deck (main)
17. Emergency fire pump / bilge
18. Bilge line in bow-thruster room
19. Fore peak (water ballast)
20. Bow-thruster tunnel
21. Floor slab in bow-thruster room
22. Deep tank (water ballast)
23. Floors
24. Wash bulkhead at the Centre line of
the ship

1. Bulwark brackets 9. Forepeak deck 17. Frame
2. Forcastle deck 10. Stiffener 18. Deck
3. Break water 11. Web frame 19. Stringer
4. Hatch 12. Knuckle 20. Vent pipe of double bottom
5. Hatch coaming 13. Breast hook 21. Pipes
6. Crane foundation / pedestal 14. Stringer or flat 22. Wing tank
7. Bulkhead 15. Floors 23. Anchor recess
8. Stringer 16. Forepeak bulkhead

LDS470
1- Frame
2. Breast hook 5- Fore peak bulkhead
3. Floor 6- Forward perpendicular (F ) 9. Bulk head
4. Web frame 7- Bow thruster tunnel 10. Floors
8. Web frame 11- Longitudinals
12.Seawater inlet
Z^™UC.URALARRANr.e™
187
6 Accommodation The height of the accommodation 1. Sufficient mess room
is important, for the view from the accommodation shall be provided
6.1 Introduction bridge. in all ships
Ships with the accommodation aft, 2. In ships of less than 1,000 tons
In the past, the crew accommodation when with a considerable trim, and separate mess room accommo
was not the most important aspect in thus a blind sector, need a higher dation shall be provided for:
the design phase. accommodation than ships with the • master and officers
The reason for this was the large deck house forward. • petty officers and other ratings
number of men in the crew compared 3. In ships of 1,000 tons and over,
to the present day. 6.2 Safety separate mess room accommo
Forty years ago a crew of forty dation shall be provided for:
manned a vessel that today might Safety equipment particularly focuses • master and officers
have a crew of twelve. on the prevention of fire. • deck department petty offic
Due to the added workload of today's The requirements are stated in SOLAS ers and other ratings
crew, there is growing pressure to resolution, chapter 11-2: • engine department petty
improve their facilities. 'Construction - Fire protection, fire officers and other ratings
When the size of the ship permits, detection and fire extinction'. 4. Adequate mess room
cabins are for one person only, have The chapter consists of the following accommodation shall be pro
a separate day and bedroom, are well parts: vided for the catering depart
equipped and have their own toilet ment, either by the provision of a
and shower. Part A: General separate mess room or by giving
As a result of smaller crews and Part B: Fire safety measures for them the right to use the mess
shorter lay days, the importance of passenger ships rooms assigned to other groups.
recreational and leisure facilities has Part C: Fire safety measures for
Example of International Labour
grown (a gym, satellite telephone cargo ships
Organisation (ILO) rules
connection from all crew cabins, cen Part D: Fire safety measures for
tral antenna system, etc.). tankers.
Main deck plan of the accommodation on a coastal trade liner

6.3 Environment
a. Vibration
Vibration is usually accompanied by
sound or noise as they usually have
the same source. On a ship these
sources are generally the propel
ler, the various diesel engines and
even the waves at sea. Insulation
techniques and the prevention of
An engine placed on cushion mounts
local resonance are used to keep 1. Foundation
the vibrations in the accommodation 2. Flexible supports
Flexible support of the
and other locations within acceptable 3. Diesel engine (crank case)
engines 4. Flexible coupling with shaft or
levels. Installing the diesel engines
Flexible support of the (main) generator
on rubber-mounts reduces vibrations
engine reduces the level of struc
considerably. Vibration has a negative
ture borne noise. The flexible plac
effect on many things. Writing can be 6.4 Methods of insulation
ing of the engine has two goals:
difficult and sophisticated machinery
- Reduction of the dynamic stress
may be damaged. Resonance can Insulation material has to be
on the ship
result in fractures in the structure. installed to combat:
- Reduction of dynamic forces
(ISO-criteria: vibrations of 4-5 milli- - inside and outside temperature
on the engine foundation. Less
metre/sec are tolerated. Values larger differences,
sound will be lead through the
than 10 mm/sec are unacceptable.) - heat in case of fire
ship into the accommodation.
- noise.
If a hammer hits the foun
b. Noise nuisance
dation, the sound will travel
Too much noise is disturbing and All accommodation decks and bulk
through the construction and
irritating and therefore has a nega heads which are in contact with the
the sound can be heard in the
tive impact on the working and living outside or hot locations in the ship,
fore ship. If, however, a layer
conditions on board ship. such as the engine room need to be
of rubber is placed between the
Noise affects: insulated against heat and cold.
foundation and the hammer, the
- communication in the engine room
sound will be largely absorbed.
and on the bridge (the listening
aspect of keeping watch is ham
pered)
- conversations in the common c. Air conditioning
spaces The air conditioning and climate control
- Quiet cabins where a low noise requirements will depend on the out
level is required and disturbance side temperature and relative humid
by music etc. from other spaces is ity. Air conditioning normally consists
not appreciated of a ventilation cabinet where outside
- human condition air is sucked in, cooled to remove the
- quality of rest. moisture, and afterwards heated to
Noises come from: the desired temperature.
- propulsion installations, propeller, Needless to say, proper insulation of
auxiliaries, hydraulic power packs the accommodation is a prerequisite
- AC and ventilation systems and for a good interior climate.
cabin refrigerators
- crew, music, TV, toilets, etc. d. Lighting and daylight
Noise is measured and expressed High standards are set for lighting in
in decibels. work and living spaces. Fire and thermal insulation
The following maximum values Light fittings should be able to resist
apply to ships: the vibration on a ship and should be 1. Steel plate (outside of accom
- day rooms, mess room etc.: 65 dB easily accessible for maintenance. modation or inside boundary)
- cabins, sick bay: 60 dB Windows (port holes) should be sized 2. HP-profile
- galley, control rooms: 75 dB. and fitted so that one can look outside 3. Glass wool
both sitting down and standing up. 4. Welding stud
There are also certain requirements 5. U-profile
for port holes, such as the design 6. Accommodation panel
pressure and the position on board (a galvanized steel plate of 1 mm
(e.g. not below the freeboard deck). thickness)
Sound reducing wall panels are fitted clear of steel decks and bulkheads. In
the space the vibration and noise is reduced by the vibration reducing panels.
a. Rock or Glass wool patches 6.5 Communication

Wall Flooring
Batts of rock wool or glass wool are To minimise disturbing sounds and Each cabin should be equipped with a
attached to welded pins that have reduce the chances of fire, the floors telephone and terminal for a central
been placed on the steel plating. (especially if they are directly above antenna for radio, TV and Internet.
Thickness depends on the difference the engine room) are built as sprung For operational and safety reasons it
in temperature inside and out. floors. is necessary that each member of the
The drawing shows an example of These floors can consist of multiple crew can be summoned or warned at
fire protection and thermal insulation. layers of steel wool with a large den any time or place.
The panels of the accommodation are sity (e.g. baffles) placed on the steel
free of contact with the insulation to deck, covered by a hard ground slab. 6.6 Maintenance
prevent the transfer of vibrations.
The panels are attached to U-profiles Cleaning and maintenance of the
which, in turn, are attached to the accommodation is necessary for both
insulating floor. hygiene and appearance.
In general, the arrangement of the
accommodation should be designed
for easy and efficient cleaning and
maintenance.
Things that have to be taken into
account are:
- prevention of dirt transfer from
work to living space
- proper choice of materials (clean
and easy to maintain).
In the design phase it is important:

- to include enclosed compartments
where dirty overalls can be taken
off and hands can be washed
- to include a cleaning-gear locker
on every deck.
Part of accommodation insulated by rock wool on welding pins

6.7 Overview of the Duty-mess Owner's cabin
different spaces A small room with table, chairs and The owner's cabin is usually on the
a cabinet where crew can eat in dirty same deck as the captain's and chief
Captain's office clothes, in case there is too much engineer's cabins.
A separate office for the captain. work on deck or in the engine room. It is a passenger cabin, for office staff,
Cargo office Lounge a pilot, superintendent or other per
This is the room where the captain or This is the focal point of social activi son not belonging to the crew.
chief mate deals with agents, cargo ties outside working hours. Working deck
receivers, customs, ship chandler, Laundry On large ships, the lowest deck in
suppliers, etc. A space located centrally, with at least the accommodation, often one deck
Cargo control room a washing machine and dryer. above the main deck, is a working
On board tankers and bulk carriers, Hospital deck where you can find the cargo
the loading and discharging, ballast The arrangement of this space is sub office, captain's office, meeting room,
ing and de-ballasting is controlled ject to legal requirements. galley and mess rooms. Every space
from this room. Smaller ships can Furthermore, it has to have easy above this deck is private. Space
have a control panel on the bridge. access for a stretcher. usage on the working deck depends
Galley Cabins very much on the size of the ship.
The food is prepared here. These are being increasingly stand Stores
It is situated near the mess room to ardised. Storerooms contain:
keep the walking distance as small as Cabins may be finished completely at - provisions and cold stores near the
possible. the manufacturer's (prefab). galley
Mess After placing on board, terminals for - bonded store, also near the galley
Dining room for officers and crew. electricity, water, heating, etc. have luggage lockers on all cabin decks
only to be installed and connected. - engine spare parts and tools near
or in the engine room
- paint locker, forward or aft, isolat
ed from the accommodation, with
entry from outside only
- garbage locker near incinerator
and galley, only accessible from
outside.
The main deck below the accommoda
tion spaces may be used as the work
deck or for stores, engine room stores,
etc. depending on the ship's size.
Galley with port holes Mess room
7 Bridge 7.2 Systems and instruments 7.2.2 ECDIS
Always the highest deck. All forms ECDIS is the electronic nautical chart
of communication and navigation 7.2.1 Radar, Radar chart system on which the navigator plans
are located on the bridge. The and monitors routes to be sailed while
nerve centre of the ship. From - Radar sailing. If the applicable requirements of
here there are connections to The radar is a system that enables the IMO and / or Flag State are met, ships
the engine room, steering engine navigator to better observe and interpret are allowed to sail completely with
room and cabins. its environment. The radar technology is out paper nautical charts. Redundancy,
Some ships have both the engine constantly evolving and will become even emergency power supplies and map
control panel and ballast / load better with solid state technology in the updates are important requirements for
systems in the wheelhouse. future. Connected sensors provide infor this. The system allows the navigator to
The bridge is on the stern, mid mation about course, speed, position, put together a safe route from A to B.
ship or fore ship. There are no wind and depth. The system checks the route and warns
specific provisions for the loca The ARPA function is an additional tool to of hazards and / or problems on the
tion. There are, however, spe avoid potential collisions. created route. When the route is safe,
cific requirements with regard to Add to this the integration of AIS and the navigator will be able to activate it
horizontal and vertical sectors Navtex and everyone understands that and monitor it while sailing. The ECDIS
and sight lines. Ease of use and the radar has a central place on the will alert him to possible dangers and I
ergonomics are constantly being bridge. or problems while sailing.
improved to enable the crew to do - Radar chart The ECDIS is also suitable in modern
their job as efficiently and health This system displays the radar image and systems as MKD for AIS and Navtex
ily as possible. the electronic map on one screen with the systems. AIS functionality helps the
radar echoes over the map information. navigator by warning of a possible col
7.1 Integrated or Echoes of land mass and other objects lision and provides insight into the den
"stand alone" will then be placed over the map. This sity of shipping traffic on site.
creates a better picture of the environ
In addition to a conventional ment, which contributes to safety.
bridge, the integrated bridge
is on the rise. The conventional
bridge is characterised by "Stand
alone" equipment that does share
sensors but does not function.
With an integrated bridge, all
equipment is intertwined and
multiple navigation functions on
so-called "Multi Functional Dis
plays" (MFDs) are available to
the user. Integration can consist
of sharing sensors and functions.
However, it can be implemented
much further and get the IBS
notation. International regulations
Solas talks about IBS and INS.
For IBS, all systems on the bridge
must come together. INS is part of
that. IBS focuses on the safe and
efficient execution of navigation
tasks. When designing a new ship
that is to fall under this class, the
applicable requirements must be
taken into account in all respects.
Despite the big difference in phi
losophy, both bridge types also
have a lot in common. A lot of
navigation equipment is present
on both.

7.2.3 Autopilot, Trackpilot and The Speedpilot calculates how fast the This means that the connection must
Speedpilot ship must sail for this and will then be bi-directional. In addition to posi
operate the throttle. This means the tion data, for example, alarms and
The autopilot is one of the most ship arrives on time and not too early warnings are also sent from the sen
appreciated devices on the bridge. or too late for its destination. This sor. The alarms and warnings are
It takes hours of manual steering saves fuel again and waiting times at displayed and acknowledged by the
out of the hands of the navigator. anchorages can be avoided. integrated system.
The standard autopilot follows a set The Trackpilot and Speedpilot can be
direction until it is changed by the fully integrated as part of INS. All 7.2.5 Conning system
navigator. A smarter variant is the required sensor information is avail
Trackpilot. This sends a route cre able there for the Trackpilot. The Conning screen can display a
ated and checked on the ECDIS accu multitude of information. Data such
rately and fully automatically. The 7.2.4 Sensors as speed, propulsion, wind speed
course change between two parts of and direction, route information and
the route is done with a preset radius. Sensors are shared across the net much more. Modern Conning systems
By choosing this radius as large as work within an integrated system. can be classified by the user himself,
possible, the course change will take Duplication of a number of sensors whereby you can switch between mul
place gradually, resulting in much less is required for INS. Gyro, DGPS, Log tiple screens.
speed loss. Considerable fuel savings and depth must be offered twice from With IBS systems, the Conning sta
are possible with this technique. As different sources. It is therefore not tion also serves as an Alert Man
an optional addition to the Trackpilot sufficient to offer two outputs from agement System. When a one-man
there is the Speedpilot. With this one source. The sensors are offered at bridge is chosen, all relevant alarms
option it is possible to indicate what data level, with the integrated system and warnings from the ship will be
time the ship must arrive at its des serving as a display / control. displayed on the Conning screen.
tination.
Navigation bridge of the passenger ship Quantum of the Seas.

GT 168.666, length is 348 metres, number of passengers is 4905.

7.2.6 VDR Operation of critical engine room sys 7.2.10 Inmarsat
tems is usually not possible on the
The Voyage Data Recorder is the bridge, you can only watch. With an Inmarsat (International Maritime
black box of shipping. This system unmanned engine room, all alarms Satellite) is the pioneer of satellite
stores data from various systems on the bridge are displayed on these communication for the maritime mar
on board, for example from naviga MFDs. Sometimes it is possible to ket. It started with the introduction
tion, communication, propulsion and control ballast or loading systems of the Inmarsat-A system, followed
watertight doors. Radar and ECDIS from the wheelhouse. by B, C and F now offering Inmarsat
images as well as bridge and VHF with Fleet Broadband solutions with
speech are recorded and stored as 7.2.9 Communication systems almost a worldwide coverage and
standard. The data can be read up high data speeds. The satellites are in
to 90 days back from the FRM. This In accordance with GMDSS regu orbit above the equator, so the areas
is a metal pressure-resistant capsule lations, mandatory communication above 70 degrees north and south
which is mounted on the top deck systems are installed on board, such are not covered.
such that an ROV can store the cap as:
sule. However, the data is not only - VHF for short range 7.2.11 Iridium
stored on the FRM. There is storage MF / HF for medium and long range
available in the VDR itself and on a - Satcom-C for long reach via satel Iridium is a satellite system that can
FFFRM. This is an EPIRB with data lites be used when coverage is required in
storage which, when the ship sinks, These systems are primarily intended the areas not covered by Inmarsat.
automatically pops out of its holder for voice and telex communication. The system consists of 66 satellites in
and floats to the surface. The VDR is As part of the GMDSS, this equip a low orbit around the earth. Because
read out when an incident or accident ment can be used as an alarm in an the satellites orbit the earth, there is
has occurred in which the ship is emergency. always a number available for com
involved. The data on the VDR can be So-called DSC messages with the munication. Iridium is suitable for
used by the authorities as evidence nature of the emergency can be sent speech (VOIP) and data where the
to find out the cause. Operation and to other ships or shore stations. latter can now reach high speeds.
testing of the VDR is possible in an
integrated system.
7.2.7 Dynamic Positioning
Ships operating in the offshore oil

and gas or wind industries are often
equipped with DP. DP systems are
placed in class where the lowest
has fewer requirements than the
highest. Higher class DP is achieved
by the redundant design of sensors
and power supplies with additional
requirements for placing equipment
in rooms separated by fireproof parti
tions. DP can be integrated into the
bridge console or executed as a sepa
rate part of the bridge.
7.2.8 Automation, Alarm

Monitoring and Power
Management Systems
These systems have traditionally

always been placed in the engine
room or ECR. All engines, genera
tors and other peripheral equipment
are monitored there. In an inte
grated system, MFDs are placed on
the bridge which form part of these
systems.

AIS Automatic Identification System
ARPA Automatic Radar Plotting Aid
DGPS Differential Global Positioning System
7.2.12 Remote Access and
DP Dynamic Positioning
Cyber Security
DSC Digital Selective Calling
VSAT connections are extremely suit ECDIS Electronic Charts Display Information System
able for the remote management of ECR Engine Control Room
equipment on board. This includes EPIRB Emergency Position Indicating Radio Beacon
the remote diagnosis of equipment
FFFRM Float Free Final Recording Media
such as propulsion, but also naviga
FRM Final Recording Media
tion and automation on board. Mak
ing changes to programming and GMDSS Global Maritime Distress and Safety System
updating software is also possible. IBS Integrated Bridge System
Adequate protection must be pro IMO International Maritime Organization
vided for these applications. Inmarsat International Maritime Satellite
Cyber security is now high on the
INS Integrated Naviagtion System
agenda of all parties involved. IMO
and classification organizations define MFD Multi Functional Displays
rules and standards to guarantee MKD Minimum Keyboard and Display
the safety of critical installations on MF/HF Medium Frequency / High Frequency
board.
NAVTEX NAVigational TEXt messages
No data can be sent at high speed
ROV Remote Operated Vehicles
with these systems. This requires an
Inmarsat, Iridium or VSAT terminal. VDR Voyage Data Recorder
VHF Very High Frequency
VOID Voice over IP
VSAT Very Small Aperture Terminal
' "■
CLOSING APPLIANCES
1 Introduction Hatch cover types and systems are
chosen based on parametres such as:
The seaworthiness of a ship is for a - the type of cargo the ship is
great deal dependent on the quality of designed for
the closing of spaces. Hatch covers for - the availability of lifting appliances,
holds, doors for the accommodation, on board or ashore
small hatches for working spaces or - the trading area of the ship
stores and manhole covers for tanks.
Container ships usually have huge
The weather tight hatch covers on covers or pontoons, which are lifted
cargo holds are as wide as the outside by the shore container crane and
of the hatch coamings, (they fit over stacked on top of each other or simply
the hatch coamings). laid ashore.
The hatchways of multi-purpose ships
and container ships are often wider
than those on bulk carriers, which are
normally a maximum of half the beam
of the ship.
Ships designed for liquid cargoes have
small deck openings, large enough for
people and equipment and for tank
cleaning gear. The size of the deck
openings influences the assigned free
board. Tankers are allowed a smaller
freeboard than dry cargo ships.
Hatch covers must be:

- sufficiently strong, to withstand
green water
- weathertight
easy to open and close
easy to maintain
- fitted with strong securing arrange
ments.
Some special designs require extra
strength, for example:
cargo such as containers or timber
stowed and secured on top of the
hatches.
The sealing systems of the various

hatch cover systems are all based on
the controlled compression of a rub
1. Pontoon hatch cover
ber seal against a steel flat bar, either
2. Hatch cradle
horizontal or upright. Another method
3. Hatch coaming
is that the sealing rubber of the hatch
4. Coaming top rail
cover is compressed against a flat
5. Hold
and smooth coaming toprail without
6. Wedges
compression bar.
These rubber seals and compression
bars need careful maintenance as Bulk carriers usually have side-rolling
they are vital for the weathertightness or folding hatches, one set per hatch.
of the hatches. Multipurpose ships have pontoon,
Incoming water will generally lead to folding or multi-folding hatch covers.
damage of cargo. Ro-Ro ships have stern ramp doors,
bow doors or side ramp doors. Tankers
have small hatches only big enough
for people and tools.
198 8. CLOSING APPLIANCES

2 Hatch covers
2.1 Pontoon hatch covers
2.1.1 General
Today general cargo ships up to

23,000 tons deadweight have one
large cargo hold with division bulk
heads positioned where needed.
The usual hatch cover for this kind of
ship (multipurpose ship) is the pon
toon hatch cover.
Approximately 80-90% of these ves
sels use this type of cover.
Pontoon covers come in many con
figurations. Often they are closed
on the underside, sometimes even 1. Hatch
watertight so that they can be stored 2. Top rail
in the water beside the ship during 3. Gliding block
loading or discharge. 4. Combined stacking/
The hatches are opened and closed lifting point
by lifting and lowering the pontoons 5. Snug
with a crane on the ship or quay. 6. Cleat bolt
The crane on the ship is often a hatch 7. Cargo bollard
cover gantry crane, a travelling crane 8. Timber load foundation
which can also move the pontoon 9. Hatch number
hatch covers along the ship and stack 10. Coaming stay
them on the coaming. 11. Deck
Reasons for choosing pontoon hatch
covers in combination with a hatch
cover crane are:
- easy maintenance - the system
has no wheels or other movable
parts. When in position they only
need to be secured to the coaming
and to each other
- flexibility in cargo hold configura
tion - movable 'tween decks and
grain bulkheads can be positioned
with the hatch crane.
2.1.2 Types of hatches This is an advantage when it is rain As a result the pontoon hatch cover
ing. Sometimes the beam is left in has the possibility to move several
Pontoon hatch covers can be divided place during cargo handling to absorb millimetres over the sliding blocks in
into upper hatch covers, lower hatch the deformation forces between port a transverse direction.
covers and end covers. and starboard hatch coaming. This prevents the hatch from getting
When a hold is closed the lower stuck if the width of the hold changes
hatches are closed before the upper by a few millimetres, due to forces
hatches and the other way around 2.1.3 Positioning of a pontoon during loading.
when the hold is opened. hatch
Sometimes there is a short hatch in Note: The sliding of the pontoon
between with a width of one metres The positioning of pontoon hatch hatch cover is an apparent move
or less; this is called a hatch beam. covers is achieved by tapered pins ment, not a real one. In reality, the
These are not always present or nec (centre punches) at the side of the top rail moves under the hatch.
essary. The weight of a hatch can be cover, fitting into holes in the coam
somewhere between 10 and 25 tons. ing top rail. On one side, the hole is
A beam acts as a small lower hatch a tight fit, and on the other side it
and has the advantage that one can allows approximately 60 mm side
easily open just a part of the hatch. ways movement.
8. CLOSING APPLIANCES
2.2 Hydraulic folding The picture and drawing below show
hatch covers two sets of folding hatches, together
covering the hold completely.
Folding hatches are opened and closed Opening and closing is done in two
by means of hydraulic cylinders. steps. First the most forward (or aft)
The location of the cylinder can vary. set of two is opened. Then a second
- cylinders attached to the outside set is lifted by two external hydraulic
of the hatch. This type is only pos arms. The hatch covers are secured
sible if it leaves enough walking in open position.
space at the main deck side (mini The closing process is vice versa.
mum of 60 cm).
- cylinders which are supported by 1. Hinges between two covers,
the main hinge aft or forward of lower hinges
the hold beam. The cylinders that 2. Hatch cover
push the hatch up or down are 3. Main hinges
located at the main hinges. 4. Cylinder
- cylinders located inside the hatch 5. Wheel
acting against the hinges between 6. Ramp / rail track
two covers.
Beam between two closing hatches Advantages:

1. Closing hatch - faster opening and closing com
2. Beam pared with pontoon hatches
3. Wedges - the hatches can cover the hold
over the entire length of the ship
(there is no hatch crane blocking
their way)
- easier to control, especially in bad
weather
- more hatch area per hatch; this
means that there are fewer trans
verse seams and therefore shorter
length of rubber seals (e.g. instead
of 10 pontoon hatch covers, only 8
folding hatches are required).
Disadvantages:
- high acquisition cost
- vulnerability of the hydraulic sys
tem
- vulnerable to damage by shore
crane due to height when stored.
Hydraulically operated folding hatches

need safety devices to prevent col
lapse in the open condition:
Control panel of the hatch gantry crane.
The yellow display on the right side - ruptured hose safety system. This
shows a longitudinal drawing of the prevents the hydraulic system from
hatch arrangement (Various arrange emptying when a hose breaks.
ments are possible) - if the control button is released

(dead man's brake), the system
01, 07, 08, 14: End hatches will stop. For example, if the con
trol button is on the starboard side
02, 04, 06, 09, 11, 13:Closing hatches
a dead man's button should be
03, 05, 10, 12 Bottom hatches
installed on the port side.
Emergency push buttons can also
be installed.
- safety hook. This prevents the
opened hatches from slamming
shut when stored upright.

1. Wheel 5. Ramp I Rail
2. Bottom hinge 6. Cylinder
3. Hatch cover 7. Main hinge
4. Hydro arm
The picture and drawing show two sets of fold

ing
hatches, together covering the hold completely.
Two covers, most forward (or most aft) are
called
the folding pair and are operated by a hydraulic
cylinder at the main hinge.
The other two panels are called the trolling pair.
These are opened/closed by the hydro arm
(crocodile arm) (4).
Ship with open (hydraulic) folding hatches. The ship is being loaded with timber parcels

2.3 Side-rolling hatch When lowering the hatches in the Advantages:
covers closing operation, the covers are posi - minimal jointing length
tioned precisely by V-shaped catch - easy opening and closing
Large bulk carriers are usually pro es, to align the gaskets above the - low air draught of the hatch covers
vided with side-rolling hatch covers. compression bars. The hatches are - maintenance friendly
This type of hatch cover opens and opened and closed with chains or Disadvantage:
closes in the transverse direction. cogwheels driven by hydraulic pumps. - large and heavy
When in the closed position, they The individual hatch covers have to
be secured to each other and to Bulkcarriers for grain, coal, and
rest on special pads, which adjust the
the coamings by means of bolts or other bulk cargoes mostly are
compression of the rubber gaskets.
hydraulic equipment. equipped with two hatch covers
Before they can be rolled towards the
per hold.
sides of the ship, they are lifted, usu
On large vessels especially, the hatch Ships solely for iron ore, have nor
ally hydraulically.
coamings have to withstand distor mally one hatch cover per hold.
tions of the ship as a result of the The hatch opening in the first
varying types of cargo and the state group is half the ships width, the
of the sea. latter only one third.
Ore carrier. Each hatch has a single cover
1. Main deck lines (fire line, working air, 5. Fair leads 11. Top rail
electrical conduct piping etc) 6. Vent pipe (top wing ballast tanks) 12. Hand rail / stanchion
2. Hold entrance hatch 7. Sliding support 13. Hatch cover
3. Mooring (spring) winch 8. Corrugated bulkhead 14. Helicopter winching area.
4. Hydraulic buttoning down arrange 9. Coaming
ment 10. Hatch end beam
Panamax bulkcarrier, side-rolling hatches, two covers on each hold
2.4 Open cargo holds 2.5 Deformations of the

(No hatch covers) ship Container ships and bulk carriers suf
fer from torsion and warping in the
Some container ships have holds During loading and discharge a ship hull, forcing the rectangular hatch
without hatch covers. They are called with a long hatch opening can become openings to become a parallelogram.
open hatch ships. somewhat deformed. This phenom The rectangular hatch covers continu
The holds have to be equipped with enon is called harbour deflection. ally slide the rubber gaskets over the
extra powerful bilge pumps to cope This deflection can be prevented by compression bars, or over the coam
with water that enters the hold. placing one or more beams or strong ing.
The containers in the holds prevent hatches in the transverse direction. The covers wear at the resting pad
free surface effect. If, in spite of this, deflection still areas.
The largest quantity of water to be occurs, it can cause the coamings and Therefore, special sliding pads have
dealt with is not from bad weather, therefore the top rail to move several been developed, consisting of layers
but from a tropical rain shower. centimetres out of position. of different materials. These pads
Having no hatch covers saves time allow sliding and carry the weight of
opening and closing. Stainless steel sliding blocks can be the cover.
welded onto the top rail to guide the
Some types of dredger also have open sliding of the hatches. Greasing the rubbers before closing
holds. The cargo comes on board as the hatches helps reduce wear.
slurry: a mix of water and sand. The The sliding blocks also adjust the
sand settles, and the surplus water height of the covers.
flows over the side. To prevent damage to the seal the
When the hold is full with settled sand, sealing rubber with or without a com
the remaining water is pumped out. pression bar, is allowed to be com
pressed to a maximum of 10 mm.
The hatches are not constructed to
resist the forces acting on a ship in
waves. This is why there is a fixed
side and a free side.
1. Wheel bar
2. Quick acting cleat
3. Lever F
4. (Low friction) bearing
pad or Sliding pad
5. Rubber sealing
6. Stainless steel tightening
surface 1. Upper cover
2. Lower cover
3. Compression bar
4. Rubber gasket
5. Drain gutter
2.6 Weathertightness 2.6.3 Wedges
Hatch covers have to seal the hold Wedges - to ensure the compression
weathertight. This weathertightness of transverse joints is maintained.
is achieved by:
2.6.4 Checking weather
2.6.1 Rubber sealing gaskets tightness
Rubber sealing gaskets, glued in a Hatch covers have to be regularly

channel in the cover, rest with con checked for tightness.
trolled compression on the coam It can be done as follows:
ing, on a flat surface or on a vertical hose test. A powerful jet of water
compression bar. is sprayed against the joints of
The compression is controlled by the pontoon hatch cover, while the
resting pads, adjusted in height, to hold is simultaneously checked for
Intermediate hatch obtain the required compression. leakage.

The sealing gaskets have a backup with the aid of ultrasonic detec
1. Rubber gasket
in the form of a save-all, a gutter, tion equipment. A sound wave
2. Compression strip (fore and aft)
collecting the drops of water that transmitter is placed in the hold and
3. Top coaming
managed to pass the rubber gaskets. a detection microphone (receiver)
4. Pontoon hatch cover
Often this gutter is doubled. on top of the hatch cover, or moved
5. Compression strip for the circum
It is fitted between the rubber and along the coaming. If the detec
ferential seam sealing
the coaming inner edge, and between tor does not 'hear' a sound at the
6. Hold
hatches in the transverse direction, transmitted frequency, the hatch is
below the jointing rubber, leading the considered watertight.
leakage water to the coaming. The
corners of the coaming are provided Checking the tightness of hatch covers
with a drain. is commonly performed by charterers
and P & I clubes prior to loading.
2.6.2 Cleats It is the normal test when the ship is
new, during commissioning, at Annu
Cleats on the outer edge of the pon al Survey, at Special Survey or
toon hatch cover fix the hatch cover after repairs when the class surveyor
to the coaming (see picture quick act inspects the hatches.
ing cleats, upper left).
Wedge

2.7 Hatch cover gantry Ships that are equipped with pontoon than 10,000 tons (especially container
crane hatch covers generally have a crane to ships) need a crane (on board or
open and close the holds. ashore) to open and close this type
Ships with a carrying capacity of more of hatch.
Top view of the hatch cradle, fixed bridge
1. Store crane
2. Control box
3. Cable sheave jigger winch
4. Hoisting frame
5. Columns
6. Wheel with hydro motor. Two of the
four wheels are equipped with
brakes.
This drawing shows how, with the aid of the hatch cradle, the bulkheads can be placed in different positions.
The lifting and lowering of the hatches This stores crane can rotate 360°, but Safety measures on the hatch cover
by the hatch cradle is done by: cannot be topped or lowered. gantry cradle:
- hydraulic cylinders (up to 17 tons) With the gantry one can also operate a - an optical signal when moving
- steel cables operated by winches working basket for work in the hold, such as: - emergency stops on the hatch
on the loading platform of the - handling grain or separation bulk crane:
crane (up to approximately 21 heads • on the loading platform
tons) - handling the supports for the • the bottom side near the gang
tween decks. way (Port- and Starboard side)
Hatch cranes are sometimes equipped • speed brakes in the hydraulic
with two stores cranes. These cranes The steel cables that control the mov system will immediately come
are capable of: able bridge can be disconnected and into action in case of a hydrau
- loading and discharging provisions attached to a bulkhead. lic leak or defect.
and engine parts They can then be positioned any
- lifting materials in and out of the where in the hold by the hatch cradle. 2.8 Tween deck hatch
hold The bulkheads can then be used as covers
carrying materials over the entire tween decks or separation bulkheads.
length of the ship. Tween deck hatch covers come in the
following versions:
- pontoon hatch cover
- folding hatch cover.
Tween deck hatch covers are normal

ly not provided with rubber gaskets.
2.8.1 Pontoon tween deck

covers
Pontoon tween deck hatches are

usually found on multipurpose ships
where their function is twofold.
Pontoon hatch covers can be placed
both horizontally (tween deck) and
vertically (grain or separation bulk
heads).
The positioning of the pontoons is
done by means of the hatch cover
crane. If the pontoons are not in use,
Cargo hold of a multi purpose cargo ship, divided in two parts, using the mov
they are stored vertically, in a special
able bulkhead. The forward part for bulk cargo, the rear for packaged cargo.
stowage.
Pontoon hatch cover placed vertically

2.8.2 Folding hatch 3 Entrances 3.3 Bow doors
Tween deck folding hatches are com 3.1 Side doors Ro-Ro passenger vessels on short
mon on ships which are provided with voyages also have bow doors.
more than one tween deck, such as Side doors are found on ships with a There are various types - horizon
reefers. large freeboard, like passenger liners. tal sliding doors, vertical doors, and
On reefers having three tween decks, They use them to embark and disem ramp-door combinations.
there is usually one tween deck where bark passengers. The latter type is often protected by a
the folding hatch is fitted with ther Larger side doors (ramps) are used to bow visor, where the whole bow opens
mal insulation. The folding hatches of load and discharge vehicles. upwards, giving access to the real
tween decks are normally operated Generally, these doors are controlled watertight door and the ramp.
mechanically using the cargo runner hydraulically (see chapter 9). A side
of the crane. door locally weakens the strength of After a number of accidents, the
a ship. This is compensated by thicker strength and security of the vari
side shell plating and heavier internal ous systems have received much
structural parts. attention. Requirements have become
more and more stringent.
3.2 Stern doors and ramps
Ro-Ro ships may have ramps between
Ro-Ro vessels often load and unload the upper car deck and lower car
via stern doors and quarter or slew deck. This ramp when closed, is part
ing ramps, combining the function of the upper car deck and also part of
of bridge between jetty and ship and the weather tight closing of the ship.
watertight closure of the cargo-hold. They are therefore provided with rub
Due to the weight of the lorries, these ber gaskets.
doors/ramps are heavily constructed. If such a ramp is installed in the free
They are supported at the stern of the board deck it has to be watertight.
ship by hinges and the jetty. The span
can be considerable.
Opening and closing is done by wires,
via hydraulic cylinders and jigger
winches.
The hoisting wires are often backed
up by a heavy wire or chain to pre
vent lowering too far in case of wire
Tween decks with folding hatches on or hydraulic failure.
a reefer.
Pontoon hatch covers placed An opened side door, equipped with hydraulic cylinders for opening and dosing.
horizontally

3.4 Companion hatches
Companion hatches come in many

shapes and sizes. Some types are dis
cussed below.
Storage compartments often need a
wide entrance because the stored
parts, such as engine parts, lashing
gear, etc. can be quite large.
The companion hatches can be opened
manually or with the aid of a crane, a
hatch cradle or a hydraulic system.
Companion hatches on oil tanks can
be sealed from the open air with a
cover that makes the hatch imperme
able to oil and gas. The cover itself
is closed with clamps. Just above
the cover is a screw thread on a
wheel that is used to lift the lid and
subsequently turn it away from the
hatch coaming. Hatch covers are
sometimes provided with a smaller
hatch that is used to take samples
and determine the ullage and the
temperature of the cargo.
A watertight door
3.6 Watertight doors
These are really watertight closing

appliances used in watertight bulk
heads, for instance between engine
rooms.
They are designed to withstand water
pressure up to the margin line.
Hydraulically controlled entrance hatch
Watertight doors can be controlled
3.5 Accommodation doors locally, manually and hydraulically, as
well as from the bridge.
Exterior doors The control panel on the bridge indi
Exterior doors are weathertight. cates whether a watertight door is
This means that, if the door is closed, open or closed. The doors are oper
it will only leak when submerged in ated hydraulically.
water. The watertight doors should not leak
The exterior doors are often opened even if the whole compartment is
and closed with a central bar or filled with water.
wheel, serving up 6 toggles.
The difference in the exterior doors Weathertight door. This door
shown below is the number of closing can be opened with just one bar.
dogs. This determines the quality of
the tightness.
Interior doors
These doors are inside the weather
tight doors. Fire fighting regulations
require that there is a fire barrier in
the accommodation. This can then
be achieved by using metal fireproof
interior doors which automatically
Overview of the watertight doors that can be controlled from the bridge
close in case of an alarm.
4 Miscellaneous
4.1 Ventilation louvres
All the vents of the holds, the engine

room and the accommodation are
shielded by gratings, often louvres.
These have to be provided with
means for closing weathertight and
airtight by a cover in case of bad
weather or fire.
This mechanism seals the pipe from 1. Port hole

the seawater. When the tank is over 2. Tank vent
filled, the surplus water discharges 3. Vent
via the airpipe head (goose neck) on 4. (Companion) hatch
deck. Tank vents I overflows can be 5. Quick acting cleat for securing of
equipped with: cover
- an overflow pipe, to guide the
contents of the tank to another
location
- a sounding opening where the
depth of the liquid in the tank can
Ventilation louvre with cover
be measured
- in case of a vent / overflow of an
4.2 Manhole covers oil-tank, a flameproof mesh and a
save-all to keep oil inside is com
Manhole covers close the access pulsory.
openings that are part of every tank,
except for the cargo tanks. Manholes Cargo tanks of tank vessels have
make it possible to inspect a tank. complicated venting systems, in con
nection with inert gas and the influ
4.3 De-aeration devices ence of outside temperature on the
pressure in the cargo tank.
4.3.1 Tank vent I overflow
Every liquid-containing tank must
have a means of venting in order to
prevent over and under-pressure dur
ing emptying or filling.
For this purpose, every water and oil
tank has air pipes that end on the Raised tank vents
freeboard deck at a vent terminal with
a closing device, preventing seawater
1. Plastic ball
entering the tank.
2. Rubber gasket
3. Vent opening
In case of submersion of the airpipe
4. Air and water release pipe
terminal due to large waves, a float
ing ball inside will float upwards until
it is pressed against a rubber ring.
Drawing of the inside of a vent

terminal

4.3.2 Mushroom shaped vents 4.3.3 High velocity pressure/
vacuum valves
Mushroom shaped vents are only
used for the ventilation of dry spaces a. High velocity speed pressure
like the bosun's store or the accom valves
modation. They have to be provided These are tank vents with the special
with a closing flap for protection characteristic that they let the gas
against fire or bad weather. escape only when a certain over
Often the whole mushroom head can pressure is reached, and not before
be screwed down to close the vent. that.
There are two ways of closing them, The velocity of the escaping gas is so
either by manually rotating the top high (with a minimum of 30 m/sec)
part or with a valve. They are a that it can never catch fire.
mechanical back-up when the air con The gas rapidly diffuses into the air
ditioning does not work; under normal and will not fall back to the ship.
circumstances they are closed. They will also let air into the tank in Pressure / vacuum valve (P.V. valve)
case of under pressure, for example
during the emptying of the tank.
To ensure that no flames can enter
the tank via this route, a fire resist
ant wire mesh covers the inlet side of
the valve.
The type of high velocity pressure
valve discussed here is the most
widely used type on tankers.
It is a safety device against over or
under pressure of the atmosphere
above the cargo, what normally is
Mushroom shaped vent with a hand controlled manually through the inert
wheel gas system or damp return system.
All the parts mentioned in this section
are either bronze, galvanized or stain
less steel. The classification society
determines which type of material is
to be used.
b. A device, related to the pres

High-velocity pressure / vacuum
sure / vacuum valve (P/V Valve)
valves. The arrows depict the path of
is the pressure I vacuum breaker.
the escaping gas.
It is a safety device with a large
capacity, and is part of the inert gas
system on tank vessels. It is basi
cally a water lock, and is connected
to the inert gas main line. It works
on all cargo tanks together. When the
pressure in the cargo tanks (due to
temperature changes), changes too
fast for the P/V valves, and exceeds
a certain value, the water lock will be
blown out. This results in total loss
of the inert gas pressure. When this
safety device has done its duty, and
the overpressure in all tanks has been
lost, the whole ship has to be brought
under pressure again. It is of utmost
importance that the liquid level in the
P/V breaker is checked regularly.
The arrows depict the path of

PV breaker
the air flowing in.

5 Boarding / access minium that makes it easy to handle. of changes in draught or movements
The top of the accommodation ladder of the ship. Lowering and lifting of the
5.1 Accommodation ladder is attached to a platform with a slewing ladder is done by a winch. The ladder
connection, so that, if necessary, it can can be held just above sea level when
Every ship needs a means of getting be turned away from the ship in case of the ship is not alongside.
people on board safely. Most vessels a large gap between the ship and the Compulsory safety measures:
have two accommodation ladders, one quay. On the quay the accommodation - a safety net hanging under the
each side, preferably where the ship's ladder rests on a roller at the bottom. accommodation ladder
side is flat. In general, the accommoda This roller allows the accommodation - a life buoy at the gangway with light
tion ladder is made of lightweight alu ladder to slide on the jetty as a result and line.

5.2 Gangway accommodation ladder cannot be used, due to location or
jetty lay-out. The gangway is put into the desired position
Many vessels have an aluminium gangway in addition to an by either a crane or manpower,
accommodation ladder. This gangway is used whenever the
Offshore gangway
5.3 Pilot ladder
Pilots come aboard ship to assist the ladder from and to a pilot boat. Pilot The IMO Convention for Safety of Life
crew during the most critical and ladders are the most safe and efficient at Sea (SOLAS) sets out the principal
potentially hazardous phases of a way to board ships at sea and there requirements for the rigging of pilot
voyage. Normally, pilots board and is usually no alternative, except on ladders.
disembark using a traditional rope occasions when a helicopter is used.
Crew prepares combination ladder (left photo). A combination ladder (pilot ladder Pilots using a pilot ladder.
and accommodation ladder combined) is mandatory for ships with a freeboard of 9
metres or more.(both photos). These accommodation ladders are too steep, must be
less than 45 .
1. Life buoy 4. Pilot ladder 7. Angle between accommoda

2. Spreader 5. Accommodation ladder tion ladder and horizontal
3. Life line 6. Bottom platform plane must be less than 45°

li>1W ■
Pilot comes on board via side door. The ladder must be attached to strong points on the deck.
This is not clearly visible on this photo.
5.4 Walk to Work

There are various systems. The sup by hydraulic plungers under the foun
This is a new expression in the off ply ship lays at DP, near the object, dation of the fixed end of the gang
shore world, expressing the possibility wiWth a special gangway transversely way. The movement of the hydraulic
to walk from a ship to a fixed object at towards the object. The end of the plungers is computerised, with various
sea, like a windmill platform, a small gangway is kept in position in three inputs from sophisticated sensors at
oil jacket, rig, etc. directions, the end of the gangway.
KgQONBORG
mBEIb
Cargo handling gear
Most cargo is moved with the aid of some type of cargo handling gear. The
cargo handling gear is either present on the ship (self-loader/unioader) or at the
port. In the latter case the quay has a large array of cranes capable of moving
along the length of the quay.
In former times these cranes used to move exclusively on rails, but today an
increasing number of cranes are equipped on rubber tyres and do have steering
capabilities. This allows the cranes to move freely across the entire quay / port.
1.1 The choice of cargo

handling gear
There are many types of cargo han

dling gear for ships and just as many
incentives for choosing to install one
or the other:
- the charterer (who hires the ship)
demands it. Why, is not the ship
ping company's concern, but if not
in possession of a self discharging
ship, the order goes to a competi
tor who does have one!
the trading area requires it because
the ports in that area lack cranes.
This may be especially the case in
Africa, South America, Asia and
around the world in the smaller
ports and at some factory sites
- in order to transport special cargo
high quantities of dry bulk or too
heavy cargo to handle with the
available shore cranes.
- special cargo is a one-time, large
scale transport like a complete fac
tory, moved in sections, or large
and heavy machinery.
A mobile crane on pneumatic tires
Ship's cranes reduce the stability and
the carrying capacity of a ship; they
also cost money and require mainte
nance. On a general cargo ship, two
cranes, including foundations, repre
sent 10% of the total building costs.
Refrigerated vessels even have up to
7 or more light cranes on board which
may cost as much as 20% of the total
building costs.
As a compromise a ship may be built
without cranes, but with the nec
essary foundation (strengthening in
several places on the ship) and piping
systems.
If cranes are then required, they can
be installed without radical changes
to the ship and without to much extra
loss of time and costs.
Mobile crane loading paper rolls
stowed on a pallet
216 9. CARGO GEAR

Container cranes on rails at work
1.2 Statutory demands 1.2.1 Division of tasks 1.2.2 Certificates
The statutory demands for cargo The inspections, certification and The items under control of the clas
handling gear, including lifts, ramps, responsibilities are divided as follows: sification society are specifically men
hoistable decks etc. are laid down in all ILO 152 tasks directly related to tioned in the Register of Ship's Lifting
the ILO-convention 152 (Interna cargo handling (cranes, ramps etc.) Appliances and Cargo Handling Gear.
tional Labour Organisation). are the responsibility of the classifica Excerpts from the ILO 152 treaty:
Compliance with the regulations is tion society. Every seagoing vessel must have a
under the supervision of the Flag All ILO tasks related to safety, such Register of Ship's Lifting Appli
State and the classification societies. as access to the ship, hold or crane ances and Cargo Handling Gear.
accesses and safety in the holds
Classification of cargo handling as well as supervising the classifi The inside cover of this register must
gear is regulated by: cation societies are the responsi state:
national law, which states that bility of the Flag State. the rules for the five-yearly inspec
the ship checks the gear annually All tasks that do not result from the tions as stated in the ILO rules
and a class check done every 5 ILO 152 treaty such as hoisting gear and the rules of the classification
years. in the engine room, store cranes, etc., society.
- international regulations which are the responsibility of the shipping - rules for the annual inspections
state that the gear has to be company, in compliance with national - test certificates must be present
checked annually by the Classifi law and ISM. for all parts of the loading gear that
cation society for an examination can wear through use and aging:
and a function test. Once in five • the crane (complete)
years a Quinquennial Survey, • the runner and topping lift
i.e. examination, including opening wire(s)
up of blocks, etc. plus a load-test. • the blocks
• the crane hook
• attachments
The certificate must show which
requirements are applicable for
every part.
certificates are marked by the sur
veyors name stamp, covered by his
signature and the date and place
of testing.
- the maximum lifting capacity of
the crane must be clearly visible
on both sides of the boom and the
working radius.
SWL (safe working load) of lifting beam is clearly shown
9. CARGO GEAR
2 Cranes The crane jib is hinged on the crane very small compared to the ship's
house to allow lowering and top total mass, can have that arrange
ping. The jib consists of one or two ment. The crane driver's view of
2.1 Slewing cranes box beams. It is designed to have the holds is as good as when all
the required strength with minimum the cranes are on the centreline,
The picture shows a ship with ordi weight and maximum stiffness is. but the view of the quay is better.
nary slewing cranes. The crane house The different types of revolving Also, the reach of the crane over
is bolted to a slewing bearing, cranes discussed can be distinguished the quay is much improved.
with its lower ring bolted to a pillar, mainly on the basis of where the jib is - An alternative is to position one
the foundation, which is part of the attached to the crane house. crane on the portside and one to
ship's structure. The slewing bearing starboard, (or two and two, alter
is a large double-turning bearing. An 2.1.1 The position of cranes nating). They are still off centre,
electric or hydraulic motor drives a but now half the number of cranes
pinion which meshes with the upper Masts and cranes used to be placed are not on the side of the quay,
turning ring which is a large ring exclusively on the ship's centre line, which is bad for visibility and the
shaped cogwheel that rotates the but today they are increasingly placed reach of these cranes.
crane. Normally the crane cannot towards the ship's side. - if the crane is remote controlled
rotate unrestrictedly due to electrical In general: (wireless), the view from the crane
cables running to and from the crane - Cranes on the centreline of the cabin is of no importance. The
inside the pedestal. ship are best for the ship's stability. crane driver can position himself
They give the crane driver a good wherever the visibility is best.
The crane cabin is a steel construc view of the hold, but not of the
tion with windows giving the crane quay. There is no preference which
driver a wide view of the work area. side the ship should go alongside. 1. Jib rest on the fore mast
The wire drums, drive motors and - Cranes positioned on one side of 2. Crane foundation I pedestal
the controls and safety devices are the ship have an adverse effect on 3. Slewing bearing
all located in the crane house. The the position of the ship's centre of 4. Crane house
diameter is 2 to 6 metres depending gravity. Therefore only large ships, 5. Jib
on the maximum lifting capacity of where the mass of the cranes is 6. Topping cylinder
the crane (40 to about 1,000 tonnes).
2.1.2 Securing the cranes - the forces of acceleration and 2.1.4 Ship stability
deceleration increase with the
All crane jibs are subject to additional square of the range. When working with cargo gear and
forces from waves. - centrifugal forces, which give the especially with heavy loads, the sta
They have their own cradle, a support load the tendency to leave its cir bility (GM) of the ship must be posi
where they can be secured during the cular trajectory, increase as a func tive to such an extent that it remains
voyage. tion of the crane's range. positive when the load is suspended
This can be done by means of: - crane drivers can control the load from the crane.
- a fixed or moveable support some up to a maximum angular velocity The list of the vessel may not exceed
where on deck of 2.5 - 4 m/s. 5°. Too great a list can be prevented
- a fixed support against the fore or reduced by shifting ballast water
castle, a deck house or the break 2.1.3.2 Lifting capacity (or fuel).
water In many ships this is automated by an
- a neighbouring crane as support The maximum pulling capacity of a anti-heeling system that automatical
when the jib's length equals the drum winch is, on average, 10-125 ly pumps water from one wing tank to
distance between the two cranes tons. another, during shifting a heavy load
- a support against a crane cabin If the jib is lowered and the radius of from port to starboard, or vice versa.
when the crane is not in use. the crane increases, the load, hang The working angle limit of cranes is
ing from the end of the jib, increases normally 5° .
2.1.3 Controlling the load the moment on the crane (tipping
moment). In general, revolving cranes are hard
For this reason, the maximum load ly affected by trim (the difference in
2.1.3.1 Slewing velocity of all cranes depends on the radius draught fore and aft).
(inversely proportional). Most cranes can tolerate a trim of 5°,
Revolving cranes often have a long In some cranes, the maximum pull but there are also cranes with a maxi
cargo runner (hoisting wire) to which ing force of the winch is automatically mum trim of 2°. One of the reasons
the load is attached, especially at reduced when the radius increases. for a maximum list and maximum
short range (when the jib is near ver This prevents loads from lifting when trim is that the slewing engine must
tical). If the crane rotates, the initial the radius is too large (load/momen- overcome a larger part of the load's
velocity of the load will be less than tum limit). weight (this increases with the sine
the velocity of the jib. The velocity of of the crane's angle with the vertical).
the load then increases. 2.1.3.3 Lifting speed
When the jib reaches its final posi 2.1.5 Safeguards
tion and stops, the load will still have There are cranes where the winch can
momentum, which sends it past the be transferred manually from single Some safety devices of revolving
position of the jib. The skills of the work to double work. cranes are typical for these types
crane driver ensure that the load With double work, the maximum lift of cranes, others apply to all crane
arrives at the intended location. ing force is greater and the achiev types. General rules:
able hoisting speed is correspondingly a zero voltage device shall be
An objection to the revolving crane lower (inversely proportional). Often present. No power to the various
is that the horizontal momentum of something similar happens automati electric motors means that brakes
the load makes it difficult to accurate cally: if the winch has to lift heavier, are applied. If the power supply
ly position the load. Therefore, high it simply does not go faster. is restored after it has been inter
loading and discharge speeds cannot The hoisting wire of the winch is often rupted, the crane will not start on
be obtained. In many cranes with referred to as the loading bar in its its own. A normal safeguard is the
a large range, the angular velocity, entirety. The free-hanging part is automatic main switch.
when revolving, is reduced automati called the 'loading bar' and the part It can be turned on again when the
cally in connection with the following: of the winch drum to the top of the crane driver is back in place and
boom the 'running part'. resets the controls.
The dead part (the end of the hoist An overload safety shall be pre
ing cable) is fixed at the head of the sent. If any part of the crane expe
boom or via a disk at the head of the riences overload, the crane will
crane housing. shut down. When a crane motor
reaches overload, power to the
motor is cut out, and the brake of
that motor comes in, stopping the
motor from turning.
9. CARGO GEAR 219

emergency stops shall be pre The main slide valve often has a very When lowering, the same correction is
sent. Red emergency stop buttons ingenious construction adapting the carried out in reverse.
shall be present within reach of force and velocity of the winch engine
the crane driver and wherever the to the position of the control lever. In the case of double runners, hook
regulations require them. When The main slide valve also lifts the blocks are used instead of hooks.
pushed, all movement of the crane brakes of the particular motor when
is made impossible. Emergency movement is wanted.
stops can only be reset locally, Furthermore, if the oil lines of a 2.2.1 Topping with a steel
a hoist-limit switch shall be pre hydraulic motor are closed, the main cable
sent. This is a switch that defines slide valve can absorb the extra load.
the highest position of the hook. In topping and slacking with a cable,
empty drum safeguard. The hois b. Electric drives the crane jib is attached to the crane
ting cable shall be wrapped around The electric drives of the ship's cranes house as low as possible, just above
the drum at least three times receive their power from a switch the slewing bearing. A longer distance
in order to keep sufficient lifting board. For this purpose, the ship's between the end connection of the
capacity (friction). 3-phase current is changed by an topping lift wire and the lower hinge
- sometimes an inclination limit adjustable converter into either direct pin of the jib means less force in that
switch is present. This shuts down current (DC) or an alternating current wire. Furthermore, the centre of grav
the crane when the angle of incli (AC) with an adjustable frequency. ity will be lower.
nation becomes too large.
The control lever operates the con A possible danger in these types of
Specifically for revolving cranes: verter, which sends current to the cranes is that in case of a sudden list,
- a limit switch for the highest and motor and releases the brakes. In a steep crane jib can smash against
lowest position of the jib. contrast to the hydraulic engines, the the crane cabin.
This is also the maximum and electric motor cannot absorb the forc This effect is amplified by the forces
minimum outreach limit. es of a load if the power supply is cut in the runner. To prevent this, rubber
- turning limit switch(es) to pre off. In case of a stop command, the stops are used, but if there is a load
vent the crane jib from touching brakes are applied instantaneously to hanging from the runner, both the
another part of the ship's structure. overcome this short coming. However, load and the crane-jib can be dam
as a result of this, the brakes of an aged. The maximum positions of the
2.1.6 Drives electric winch engine wear faster than jib are protected by a limit switch.
the brakes of a hydraulic winch motor.
Every crane has at least three motors: The topping lift wire can be connec
one for the runner, one for the top As in hydraulic drives, excessive lift ted to the top of the jib, to a point
ping of the jib and one for slewing. ing, slacking, topping and slewing is halfway or a combination of both,
The motors can be hydraulic or elec prevented by a limit switch. preventing vibrations in the jib.
tric. In case of hydraulic power to the
crane, the hydraulic supply is created 2.1.7 Classification of cranes 2.2.2 Topping with hydraulic
by a so-called power-pack, driven by cylinders
an electric motor. Revolving cranes can be categorised
by the following types: The jib fulcrum is attached higher
a. Hydraulic crane drives - conventional type (section 3) to the crane house if the crane jib
The runner and the slewing both - low type (section 4) is moved vertically by hydraulic cyl
require revolving hydraulic motors; - heavy lift cranes (section 5). inders.
the topping of the jib is done using This is because the cylinders are
one or two hydraulic cylinders. 2.2 Conventional type attached to the lower part of the jib at
The main slide valve is controlled with crane one end and to the base of the crane
the main lever via the driver valve. house at the other end.
The advantage of conventional revolv The cylinders are positioned such that
To lay down the jib in the crutch, the ing cranes over low ones is that dur they are beside the crane cabin when
resting position, an override switch is ing topping and slacking, the load the jib is completely topped.
necessary, as this is normally below remains at the same height. This means that although the load can
the lowest allowable position of the jib. This horizontal level luffing / load touch the crane cabin, it cannot dam
travel is achieved by using the high age the cylinders.
position of the pulley block and the
way the runner is reeved through. The end positions of the cylinders
This ensures that it slacks the same determine the working area of the jib.
distance that the top of the jib rises.
220 9. CARGO GEAR

1. Crane house 8. Hoisting safety device
2. Cabin 9. Hanger (topping lift)
3. Jib 10. Runner
4. Pedestal 11. Pulley (sheave)
5. Slewing bearing 12. Light cargo block
6. Turning point of the jib 13. Swivel
7. Light runner (auxiliary 14. Ramshorn hook
hoist) 15. Heavy cargo block
Using hydraulic cylinders for the top-

ping of the jib has a number of
advantages over topping with a steel
cable:
slamming of the jib as a result
of waves is prevented because
double-acting hydraulic cylinders
can absorb both pulling and push
ing forces.
- cylinders are easier to maintain
than cables. The latter have to be
replaced every five years.
- the jib cannot shoot through the
top position. This allows cranes
with hydraulic cylinders to have
a smaller range (2 metres) than
cranes with wires (3 metres).
Cranes with topping wires
9. CARGO GEAR
2.2.3 Crane cabin
The drawing below shows the arrange

ment of the crane winch, which is
driven by an electric-hydraulic motor.
An electric motor drives the hydraulic
pump which, in turn, supplies oil to
the hydraulic lifting and revolving
motors.
The oil absorbs the heat that is

generated in this process and is
subsequently cooled in an oil-cooler
by an automated ventilator. Then it
is pumped back to the hydraulic oil
tank.
1. Crane cabin
2. Lever for topping and revolving
3. Lever for lifting
4. Jib
5. Hydraulic motor
6. Oil tank
7. Oil filter
8. Oil cooler
9. Limit switch
10. Drum for topping
11. Drum for hoisting
Crane cabin
12. Hook block
2.2.4 Grab crane
1. Jib The bulk crane is a unit designed for These are usually conventional revolv
2. Crane house loading and/or discharging using grabs ing cranes, up to 40 ton SWL.
3. Grab and logs on standard (handy size,
4. Bulk cargo 60,000 tons) bulk carriers.
1. Jib
2. Crane house
3. Runner
4. Topping cylinder
5. Crane cabin
6. Hoisting winch
7. Hook block
8. Cam disc
9. Fulcrum of the jib
10. Crane foundation
11. Hook rotator
Slewing crane of the low type with

All revolving cranes give the load a
hydraulic topping cylinders
certain freedom of rotation under the
hook. The runner itself, however, also
has a tendency to twist when being
2.3. Slewing crane of the loaded or unloaded.
2.2.5 Tanker manifold low type For this reason, the hook is always
crane / hose crane connected to the runner via a swivel,
In cranes of the conventional type allowing the two parts to rotate inde
A tanker needs a crane to handle the the crane houses are 8-15 metres pendently.
loading/discharging hose. above the slewing bearing. However, Preferably, twist-free wires are used
Often, the hose has to be picked up in cranes of the low type, this distance with an electric-hydraulic drive. A
from the jetty or out of the sea in is approximately 5 metres. The crane rotatable hook is also used to prevent
case of a buoy mooring. cabin extends just above the fulcrum the load from turning.
The hydraulic crane always has a low of the jib, which fuses into one box When a double cargo runner is used,
tubular foundation, with a crane body beam jib further away from the crane. the hook block must not rotate rela
bolted on through a slewing bearing. The drum of the hoisting winch, is tive to the crane jib because this will
The jib is fitted at the top of the body. placed on top of the crane house. cause the two parts of the runner to
The jib is supported by a hydraulic The lifting capacity of these cranes twist together.
ram. The winch is often on top of the can vary between 10 and 150 tons, A special electric-hydraulic hook
jib or on the crane body. the range between 12 to 35 metres. rotator can be used to prevent this
There is no crane cabin, a platform and to prevent undesired rotation of
with handles is sufficient. However, 2.3.1 The crane's construction the load.
often there is a second manoeuvring The crane jib has a cable reel that
stand at the ship's side. The figures above show one of many slacks and hoists the rotator power
Once the hose is lifted and bolted to versions of the low type cranes. cable via a number of guide sheaves,
the manifold pipe, the crane is no A peculiarity of this crane is that the ensuring that it never hangs too
longer needed during the whole load horizontal position is merely used to loosely or too tightly and that it fol
ing or discharge operation. 'park' the crane in the boom cradle: lows the cargo hook precisely.
Depending on the ship's size, the the boom rest. When operating, the This cable reel is controlled by the
SWL ranges from 5 tons for a 5,000 crane should remain topped at least crane driver with the same right hand
ton tanker to 20 tons for a 300,000 15°, as indicated by the minimum and lever that the driver uses to control
ton tanker. The beam of the ship maximum range. the hoisting winch.
decides if one crane can do the job or
if two are needed beside each other,
one on each side.
The necessary reach is only 5 to 7
metres beyond the ship.
More containers fit beneath the Jib

without obscuring the view
9. CARGO GEAR
2.3.2 Advantages of the low crane
- The jib of a low crane is much higher than

that of a conventional crane while the top
of the crane house is at the same height.
The crane can still operate with many con
tainers stacked on top of each other.
- The low crane is lighter and has a lower cen
tre of gravity then a conventional crane with
the slewing bearing at the same height. This
offers more stability and increases cargo
capacity.
- The low crane obstructs the view from the
bridge less.
2.4 Cranes for heavy cargo
Loads to be transported by ship are becoming

heavier. The shipping industry therefore builds
ships for heavy cargo, where every new gener
ation of ship has cranes with a higher capacity
than the previous generation.
The cargoes of specialised ships can be com

plete installations for the petrochemical indus
try, or power stations and suchlike, having
heavy components amongst the total package. Heavy-lift ships with mast cranes
We speak of heavy load cranes with a lifting
capacity of at least 250 tons. The upper limit is
currently 1,500 tonnes.
There are two basic types of heavy cargo

cranes:
- conventional cranes
- mast cranes.
The conventional crane has a crane house,

mounted on and revolving through a slewing
bearing, with a connected crane jib.
The slewing bearing is bolted to a pedestal and
has to take the full tilting moment of the crane
plus cargo.
The winches are located inside the crane house,
and slewing can be carried out unobstructed.
The mast crane is installed around a mast,

welded to the ship's structure. At the lower part
of the mast a platform is mounted which can
rotate around the mast. The jib, or derrick is
mounted on this platform.
1. Mast
2. Jib
3. Topping liftand running part of the hoist
ing rope
4. Crane hook
5. Hook of auxiliary hoist
6. Slewing bearing
7. Mast foundation / pedestal
8. Top slewing unit
9. CARGO GEAR
2 Heavy Lift Cranes of 350 ton lifting capacity each in tandem lift operation. The special control system ensures safe
operations for both cranes by just one crane driver.
On top of the mast is a free-turning Cranes are often used in tandem to 2.4.1 Stabilising pontoons
swivel head, with sheaves for the top lift a heavy load. The load control is
ping and runner wires. computerised and both crane drivers Stabilising pontoons are employed
The winches are installed inside the have information displays about both when the heeling tanks fail to reduce
mast, inside the pedestal of the mast cranes. Maximum reach and load are the list to an angle of less than 3°.
or even below deck. The topping and derived from the load I moment curve The pontoons are necessary when the
runner wires go through the mast to calculated for each individual crane, GM gets smaller than 1 metre.
the top swivel. and must not to be exceeded. They are rigidly attached to the sides
This arrangement restricts slewing of the ship at a distance of 0.5 metres
ability, normally to around 270°. The data from the individual cranes in such a way that the ship and pon
(lifting capacity / flight) are often toon essentially become one.
Stability requires anti-heeling tanks transmitted digitally to the control
with high capacity pumps to prevent room or bridge where ballasting is A pontoon consists of tanks that can
listing of the ship while lifting cargo also performed. be filled and emptied independently.
from outside the ship. Usually side
tanks are used for this purpose. For heavy cargoes, the ship is pro The pontoon increases the GM of the
To increase stability, side pontoons vided with special equipments: heavy ship in the picture by 0.4-0.8 metres.
which can be emptied or filled with slings, shackles, spreader beams, etc.
water are often attached to the ship's Suitable lashing gear must also be After use, the pontoons are emptied
side. provided. All are load-tested, marked and lifted back on board.
They enlarge the moment of inertia of and certified.
the waterline.
Stabilising pontoon for increased waterline area and a faster crane operation
9. CARGO GEAR 225

2.4.2 Hoisting diagram
The capacity of a crane depends on

the range and maximum load of all
parts of the crane, in total as well as
separately.
The right side of the graph shows the
importance of the range.
Hoisting diagram for mast crane

Lifting beam
Jib angle 83° 49° 27° 13° 0°
Lift capacity 275 t 2751 2031 1861 162 t
Range 5.0 m 18.8 m 25.0 m 27.0 m 27.5 m
Hoisting diagram for a derrick
2.5 Heave compensation These ships normally feature die Passive heave compensation is in
sel-electric driven propulsion units. fact a kind of spring or buffer in the
A specific type of offshore supply ship The crane requires a high electric hoisting wire. Active heave compen
is the 'offshore construction support power, simultaneously with the ship in sation involves a very fast hoisting
vessel'. The basis is a ordinary supply dynamic positioning mode. When the winch, fast hoisting and lowering,
ship, however, with a large accom ship is underway or towing, the power and changing in between to cope with
modation, a larger beam and a crane, is available for propulsion. the difference in vertical position of
capable of lifting up to 500 ton. the hook caused by rolling and other
The crane on the afterdeck, near the movements.
Work on large constructions is usually ship's side, is the main feature. It is This system receives computerised
carried out by the huge crane vessels. capable of loading up to 250 tons, commands based on data from vari
Smaller units often do the smaller with wires long enough to work at a ous sensors, such as a sensitive GPS
jobs, preliminary work and the finish maximum water depth of 3,000 m. sensor in the top of the crane, and or
ing touch. a depth sounder attached to the load,
The crane is equipped with a heave or in an ROV monitoring the work
The main characteristics are those compensation system. A load, close to near or on the seabed.
of a normal supplier, but is larger the seabed or to an existing construc Such a system is usually hydrau
in every aspect: a greater length, a tion on the seabed, ideally has to be lic and requires enormous electrical
larger beam to obtain sufficient sta without movements. The ship at the power due to speed and capacity.
bility, an accommodation for some 75 surface can be rolling, resulting in the
people, a large knuckle-boom crane load down below going up and down. The buffers can be nitrogen in high-
and a propulsion system for towing pressure vessels or nitrogen com
and anchor running. Sea movement creates a vertical bined with hydraulic plungers. When
In connection with the construction movement of the boom. the ship is rolling (up to 5°) this con
work on the seabed, the vessel is This can be compensated by a so- stant movement of large forces pro
provided with a moonpool, and is called heave compensation system. duces an enormous amount of heat.
at least equipped for DP2. Working This comes in two ways: passive or A large cooling system is therefore a
through the moonpool reduces the active. major part of the installation.
heave motion.
226 9. CARGO GEAR

A knuckle-boom crane with a capacity of 250 t at 14 m or 82 t at 36 m, on a
J-lay pipelaying vessel. The crane is fitted with a heave compensation system.
The platform below the winchdrum accommodates the nitrogen vessels and
the cooling system.
A typical offshore Construction Support Vessel specially two Voith Schneider propellors situated aft. The crane has
developed for the maintenance of offshore wind turbines a motion compensation system, and the vessel carries a
and platforms. The vessel features diesel-electric propul so-called walk-to-work gangway aft of the accommodation
sion and a DP2 system activating two bowthrusters and section.
9. CARGO GEAR
I
Gantry cranes are deck cranes that
can travel fore and aft over the cargo.
Many different types of cranes can be
mounted on a gantry.
Ships without their own cargo gear
often use a simple gantry crane to
handle hatches.
Gantry cranes specifically for the
handling of cargo can be divided into
three main types:
- gantry cranes with a revolving
crane on top
- gantry cranes with a moveable
trolley with jib
gantry cranes with a double portal
and trolley without a jib.
Two container gantry cranes of 40 t lifting capacity. Trolley travel on the gantry
and drives above the quay on the cantilevers of the gantry.
A characteristic of gantry cranes is the This type of gantry crane is best used
large reel on the side for the feeder for moving:
cable. - containers
- parcels of timber or paper
The portal uses train wheels to travel - rolls of thin steel
over the guide rails. - other bundled cargo
The pinions mesh into a toothed rack,
attached to the longitudinal beam, 3 Side loaders
which is usually the foundation for
the rails. Side loader systems are used for the
Clamps on the sets of wheels fit transshipment of small cargo units
Multipurpose ship with hatch cradle around the rails without actually like pallets, rolls of paper and general
Gantry cranes are always sensitive to touching them in order to prevent the cargo.
trim; 2° often is the maximum. gantry from tipping over. During the The system comprises one or more
Cranes that have a trolley are even voyage, heavy gantry cranes are lifted doors in the side of the ship, and one
more sensitive and in this case a list free from the rails by hydraulic jacks, or more elevators situated behind
of 2° is the maximum. in order not to damage the wheels these doors to transport the cargo
If there is a revolving crane on top (ball-bearings) and rails by the ship's from the ramp, at quay level, to the
this maximum may be a bit higher, vibrations. holds and vice versa.
but it will never be more than 5°.
The four-point suspension of the 2.6.1 U-gantry The advantages are:
hoist gives a gantry crane excellent - it has minimum impact on the
load control. This ensures that the The crane's forces are distributed ship's stability because it adds
load stays in line so that it can be more equally in gantry cranes with almost no weight
deposited at the right location. two beams and a trolley without a jib - a high transfer capacity - the cargo
than in a gantry crane with a fixed or does not have to be transported
A disadvantage of gantry cranes is rotating jib; there are more torsional over unnecessary distances, mini
their massive weight that shifts the forces in the latter. mising the waiting period
centre of gravity to a higher point. This allows the structure to be only - if the route over the quay to the
This reduces stability and carrying slightly heavier than structures with ship is covered, loading and dis
capacity. only one beam. However, the crane charge of delicate cargo (paper
An advantage is that the ship needs cabin has to be placed higher than in rolls) can continue during rain or
very little strengthening; only the the other two types of gantry cranes snow
guide rails on deck need a strong because the load is always some dis
foundation. tance below it.
9. CARGO GEAR
Side and top view of an elevator system
Paper rolls on the elevator. The cargo is transported by the lift

to the tween deck or the lower hold
The disadvantages are:

- the doors in the side of the ship
reduce the longitudinal strength,
which has to be compensated for
with thicker plates around the
A fork lift picks up cargo to convey to the holds
opening in the ship's side
the elevators reduce the available Some characteristics of side load
cargo volume systems
- the elevators are unsuitable for - the maximum work load (of the 1. Opened side door
heavy loads elevator) is 8-20 tons 2. Cargo (paper rolls)
- there is a maximum size for the - the lifting speed of the elevator 3. Elevator
cargo to fit the dimensions of the is 0.33-0.66 m/s (20-40 metres/ 4. Quay
elevators. min.). 5. Tweendeck
9. CARGO GEAR 1
4 Ramps The bow doors/visor absorb the
forces of the waves, and are therefore
subject to stringent requirements for
4.1 Between ship and shore strength, locking system, seals and
security. Rules stipulate that the bow
Ro-Ro vessels are ships where the ramp and the watertight door, posi
cargo is brought on board via wheels tioned at the collision bulkhead, must
and ramps. be separated from each other.
Loading and discharging can take place This is normally accomplished in one of
quickly due to the speedy and mainly the two following ways.
horizontal transport. a. With a folding frame bow ramp
arrangement the collision bulkhead
An advantage of this is that the ship is door can be completely separated
independent from the shore facilities. from the rest of the ramp.
In general, ramps have sufficient This implies that no part connected
length to be used both in high and low to the door will extend forward of the
tides. location of the collision bulkhead.
Opening and closing is done with a A steel frame is positioned for
winch or hydraulic cylinders. ward of the collision bulkhead door
Closing and securing is done using and controls the folding movement
hydraulic sequence locking systems. through hinge connections with the
outer part of the ramp. In the fully
The most important types of ramps are: open position the frame, together
- straight ramps, extending straight with the outer section, forms the
from the forward and aft ends or load carrying structure.
from the side b. A normal bow ramp/door arrange
- quarter ramps, having an angle of ment is fitted behind the bow doors/
45° relative to the centreline. visor. Behind this ramp, at the
slewing ramps, with an angle position of the collision bulkhead,
between +45° and -45° relative to another set of doors is fitted.
the centreline.
4.1.2 Straight ramp in the aft
Driving from the loading deck to the ship
other decks also proceeds via internal
ramps. These include: The aft ship can suffice with just one
- fixed ramps watertight door, which, if it is flat, is
- adjustable ramps used as a ramp.
car decks that also serve as ramps
The use of straight ramps means that 4.1.3 Straight ramp in the side
the ship sometimes depends on a
specially designed, sloped quay, with Straight ramps can also be located on
a landing area for the ramp. If loading the side and are comparable to the
and discharge are done via the fore straight ramps in the stern and to the 1. Straight stern ramp/door
or the aft ship, the full length of the side loaders discussed earlier. 2. Shell door
ship has to fit in the berthing place. The ship designer tries to make the 3. Hoistable ramp
However, this is not necessary if the side ramp in such a manner that, when 4. Hydraulic power pack
straight ramp is lowered from the side closed, it forms a seamless whole with 5. Ramp cover
of the ship. the ship's shell. 6. Hinged hatch
There are also stringent requirements 7. Internal access ramp
4.1.1 Straight ramp in the fore for locking, sealing and safety meas 8. Hoistable car decks
ship ures for these types of ramps.
A straight ramp forward is normal 4.1.4 Quarter ramps

ly combined with a watertight door,
behind bow doors or sometimes a A quarter ramp makes an angle of
bow visor. The bow doors have a very approximately 45° with the ship's cen
complicated shape as this is part of the treline. This limits the orientations of
profile of the ship's bow. The inside of the ship in berthing to the side where
these doors have a flat edge with a ramp is located.
rubber seal to make it watertight.
9. CARGO GEAR
Ro-Ro vessel for trailers, or containers on wheeled supports
1. Stern ramp, main part 4. Quarter ramp 7. Walk way

2. Stern ramp, movable part 5. Main car deck 8. Hoisting wires
3. Flaps 6. Movable car deck
232 9. CARGO GEAR

4.2 Inboard ramps 5 Registers and certificates
Every ship with cargo gear has to be provided

4.2.1 Fixed inboard ramp with a Register of Ship's Cargo Gear and Lift
ing Appliances, accompanied by certificates:
The bottom figure on page 211 shows a ship with a fixed ramp that leads to - Certificate of Test and Examination of Winch
the lower hold. Economically, this a disadvantage as nothing can be stored es, Derricks, and Accessory Gear
beneath the ramp. - Certificate of Test and Examination of Cranes
or Hoists and their Accessory Gear
4.2.2 Hoistable car decks - Certificate of Examination and Test of Wire
Rope (for each rope!)
A hoistable car deck can be used as tweendecks, allowing two layers of cars Cranes used in the offshore industry are subject
to be transported one above the other. When the tweendeck is full, the to more stringent regulations in connection with
ramp, complete with cars, is hoisted to the tweendeck position. The space use at an offshore unit, ship or platform or at sea,
below the movable deck can be loaded when the ramp has been hoisted. and are subject to the unit's movement. These
cranes are called offshore cranes.
4.2.3 Hoistable inboard ramps
Repairs to any item of cargo gear have to be
Between decks, hoistable ramps are used, which are closed by lifting the done under supervision of class or Flag State,
ramp, thus closing the upper deck or the freeboard deck. This has implica and generally re-testing and re-certification have
tions for tightness, strength, certification. This type of ramp can be very to be carried out.
long, depending on angle when lowered and height of the cargo space. Movable or hoistable ramps between decks are in
some cases also cargo space.
4.3 Cargo lifts When a lorry is placed on a ramp before it is
hoisted, the ramp is cargo gear, and subject to
Trailer lifts provide the only solution to the problem of transferring trailers the normal cargo gear inspections and testing.
between deck levels where longitudinal space is limited. The trailer lifts are In that case the ramp needs to be registered in
available in a wide variety of configurations to suit individual applications. the cargo gear book.
The layout of the installation can be arranged to enable the lift platform to
act as a watertight hatch cover when secured in its upper level position. Wires and locking devices need to be tested by
ship's staff regularly, as per ISM requirements.
4.4 Elevators If the ramp is between a lower deck and the
freeboard deck, the ramp is a watertight closing
Personnel elevators need to be tested and certified yearly by a recognised and also subject to the loadline regulations, with
company. inspections and tests for weathertightness.
1. Hoistable car deck 3. Hoisting wire 5. Deck

2. Hangers with hinges 4. Ramp
9. CARGO GEAR 233

REGISTER OF SHIP’S LIFTING APPLIANCES AND CARGO HANDLING GEAR
Part 1 Thorough examination of Lifting Appliances

Note 1: If all the Lifting Appliances are thoroughly examined on the same date it will be sufficient
to enter in column (1) "All Lifting Appliances, No. 1 -n". If not, the Lifting Appliances
which have been thorpughly examined on the dates stated must be clearly indicated.
Note 2: The thorough examinations to be indicated in column (3) or under (6) include:
(a) Initial (b) Yearly
(c) 5-yearly (d) Damage/repair
(e) Other thorough examinations
5-yearly thorough examinations and those related to load tests
Fünfjahrliche eingehende Untersuchungen und solche in Verbindung mit Belastungsprüfungen
UI (2) (3) (4) (5)

1 certify that on the date to which 1 hove
Situation and description of Lifting Appliances Certificate Examination appended my signature, the Lifting Applian
(with distinguishing numbers or marks, if any) Nos. performed ces shown in column (1) were thoroughly ex
amined and no defects affecting their safe
which have been thoroughly examined (see Note 2) working condition were found other than
Beschei-
(see Note 1). those shown in column (5). Remarks
nigungs- Art
Ich bescheinige, doB die in Spalte (1) genann- (to be dated and s
Anordnung und Beschreibung der Hebezeuge Nummern der Untersuchung ten Hebezeuge am Tag meiner Unterschrift
(mit Kennzeichnung, wenn vorhanden), (siehe Hinweis 2) eingehend untersucht wurden und, daB abge- Bemerkunge-
sehen von den Bemerkungen in Spalte (3),
die eingehend untersucht wurden Form: keine Mangel festgestellt wurden, die den (mit Datum und Unte
(siehe Hinweis 1). Sitheren Betrieb beeintrachtigen.
LA 2 etjsmp and signature)

LA 2 (U) / ?\>PptuiK Sje’mpel und Unterschrift)
" A
K. Mull
C Ka n e j to Germa t ter bps I.|< ___ __ _
M K
a let
ó-a* f k'o. 2 to Germ misch jr LI.-. •
a/ iiicr
rECrTjBF^YSurveyor to Gern unischc.'....----------------------
Page in cargo booklet with the applicable cargo gear for which the book is issued .
Container ship. Cranes with topping wires
234 9. CARGO GEAR

6 Load testing
equipment
All equipment intended to be used

in lifting gear needs to be certified.
Regulations for lifting equipment and
testing are international.
This means that material qualities are
checked, workmanship is judged and
that a load test is carried out under
the supervision of a regulating body.
For ships this is normally the classifi
cation society.
All items of hoisting gear must be

covered by a certificate, stating an
identification and test.
The load test is carried out to guaran
tee a Safe Working Load (SWL) or the
Working Load Limit (WLL).
A crane as a complete unit is tested

by lifting a weight, and carrying out
the normal movements such as hoist
ing, lowering, slewing and topping.
When power to the crane is interrupt
ed, the brake has to hold the load. Testing the crane using water bags
The test weight is heavier than the
WLL.
Individual small items belonging to

the crane, such as blocks, hooks,
shackles, etc. are normally tested at
a load in accordance with ILO and
the classification society:
- single sheave blocks at 4 times
the SWL
- multi sheave blocks below SWL 25
ton, at 2 x SWL
multi sheave blocks between SWL
25 and 160 ton at (0.933 x SWL)
+ 27 ton
- multi sheave blocks over 160 ton,
at 1.1 x SWL
- hooks, shackles, chains, rings
below SWL 25 ton at 2 x SWL
- hooks, shackles, chains, rings
above SWL 25 ton at (1.22 x SWL)
+ 20 ton.
Test weights can be steel weights

with a known mass; the modern
variant is a water bag, which can
be filled with water untill the required
mass is reached.
A certified load cell indicates the
weight. Water bags are available up
to 35 tons. Testing with waterbags has a limit. When a heavier test weight is needed,
specially constructed pontoons partly filled with water are used.
9. CARGO GEAR 235

- ’5
ANCHOR AND MOORING GEAR

1 Overview of anchor and mooring gear
Forecastle deck
ANCHOR AND
MOORING GEAR
1 Overview of anchor 238
and mooring gear
2 Anchor equipment 239 Main deck
3 Mooring gear 247
4 Rigging 249
Longitudinal cross-section of the fore ship
Mooring gear and anchor windlass on general purpose ship
1. Stowage part of the mooring drum 7. Chain stopper with security device
2. Heaving section of the drum (work 8. Anchor
ing part) 9. Hawse pipe
3. Brake band 10. Spurling pipe
4. Gear box 11. Chain locker
5. Electro-hydraulic motor 12. Bollard
6. Chain in the gypsy wheel 13. Guide roller
238 10. ANCHOR AND MOORING GEAR

2 Anchor equipment Normally a ship is not allowed to sail Conventional anchors are always cast.
from any port when an anchor has Newer types, such as Pool, can also
been lost. consist of plates (or other components)
2.1 Purpose The classification bureau may allow that are welded together. If the flukes
departure under the condition that are hollow, they tend to be more resist
The purpose of the anchor gear (or replacement is carried out at the ear ant to bending forces. The crown plate
ground tackle) is to secure a ship to liest opportunity and that the vessel ensures that the flukes of the anchor
the seabed in shallow water. takes additional tug assistance leav penetrate the sea floor. In certain types
Reasons for doing so can be: ing and entering port. of anchors, flukes prevent the anchor
- the ship has to wait until a berth from burying too deeply in the seabed.
becomes available The stern anchor is used to pre
to load or discharge cargo when a vent ships (coastal trade liners, for HHP anchors are allowed to be 25%
port does not have a berth along example) from rotating due to tidal lighter in weight because their holding
side for the ship changes in a river. force is twice as strong as that of a con
- to help with manoeuvring ventional anchor.
- in emergency, to avoid grounding. Anchors can be: The SHHP anchors can be 50% lighter
Conventional anchors in weight because their holding force is
2.2 Legal requirements - HHP anchors (high holding power) even larger, namely 4 times as large as
- SHHP anchors (super high holding a conventional anchor.
A certificate issued by Class must be power) However, this type of anchor is not
provided for each anchor. It shows Common conventional anchor types accepted by class for normal ships and
the type, materials used, weight and are Spek, Hall and Pool. can only be used on yachts and special
testing. The same applies to chain craft.
cables. Spek anchors have the advantage of
A certificate for the anchor and moor being fully balanced. For offshore and dredging operations,
ing equipment is only issued after all A fully balanced anchor has the fol specialvery high holding power anchors
the requirements of the classification lowing advantages: are used.
society are met. - an anchor recess that completely They have to be laid in position by a tug
The original certificate has to be envelops the anchor, can be used boat, a so-called 'anchor-run boat' and
on board. The table below indicates - the shell cannot be easily damaged also have to be lifted out by the same
equipment numbers used to deter during heaving when the anchor boat using a separate wire attached to
mine the minimum weights and flukes leave the water vertically the crown of the anchor.
dimensions of anchors, chains, ropes, These anchors are certified as Recover
etc. The equipment number can be Accepted HHP anchors are AC14, Pool able Mooring Systems.
found on the midship section draw and Danforth. CQR and Plow-type An example of such an anchor is the
ing. anchors are only used on small craft. Flipper Delta anchor.
Various copies of accepted types are
2.3 Anchors made all over the world.
The conventional type is still used a
Anchors are the final safety lot and serves as a standard for newer
resource of a ship. types of anchors (see table).
A regular check of the condition of
the anchor itself, the crown, anchor
shackle, the chain cable, windlass,
brake band and anchor securing
arrangements is the responsibility of
the master.
In general, ships have two bow

anchors and sometimes a stern
anchor. There are two bow anchors
for safety.
Under normal circumstances one Hall anchor (conventional anchor)
anchor is sufficient, but under severe
The total holding force is supplied 1. Crown shackle
weather conditions or in a strong cur
by the anchor and the weight of the 2. Anchor shank
rent both anchors may be needed.
chain. The dashed lines in the draw 3. Anchor flukes
Also, if one anchor fails, the second
ing show that it is not dangerous if a 4. Trunnion pin
anchor is a back-up.
ship floats away for a certain distance 5. Anchor head
(a ship's length) from the original 6. Swivel fore runner with 'D' type
anchor position. end shackle

Spek anchor
Spek anchor, fully balanced
Hall anchor Pool TW anchor
d'hone Anchor
Danforth anchor
AC-14 anchor Flipper Delta anchor

2.4 Anchor chain The paid out chain length can also
be monitored electronically by sen
The chain runs from the chain locker, sors that carefully register how many
through the spurling pipe, via the times the gypsy wheel rotates.
gypsy wheel of the windlass through An advantage of this system is that
the hawse pipe, to the anchor. when the anchor is heaved in, the
The anchor chain consists of links with winch automatically slows down when
studs to prevent kinks in the chain the anchor chain is almost inside and
(stud link chain). stops when the anchor is home.
The required strength and length of A 'D' type end shackle connects the
the chain can be determined with the anchor and chain. A swivel is usu
aid of the equipment numbers (see ally fixed on the chain and allows the
4.1). This table also distinguishes two anchor to rotate independently. The
main types of material quality, namely swivel can also be connected directly
U2 and U3. to the anchor.
Not included in the table is the quality 1. Half link 3. Centre chock
U4, which is an offshore quality. 2. Taper pin
The anchor chain is composed of

lengths (shackles), each with a length
of 15 fathoms (15 x 1,83 = 27.5
metres). The shackles are inter
connected by a Kenter type joining
shackle.
In order to keep track of the out

board chain length, the paying out
and heaving in of the anchor can be
monitored by markings near each
Kenter shackle. The markings are
either white paint and/or wire wound
around the studs.
The Kenter itself is red.
81 mm U3 chain quality 1. 3rd length or’shackle'

2. 6th length or'shackle'
3. 7th length or'shackle'
Different ways
to connect the
anchor to the
chain
1. Anchor shank
2. 'D' type end shackle
3. Swivel
4. End link
5. Enlarged link
6. Kenter shackle
7. Crown shackle

2. 5 Hawse pipes and anchor 2.6 Chain stopper
pockets
The chain stopper absorbs the pull of the chain by diverting it to the
The hawse pipe is a tube that leads from the shell hull. The chain stopper's holding force should be min. 80% of tensile
plating to the forecastle deck. A water spray in breaking strength of the anchor chain.
the pipe cleans the chain during heaving of the Furthermore, the hawse pipe's resistance absorbs 20% and the
anchor. windlass should have a holding force of 45% of the minimum break
During heaving, the flukes of the anchor should load.
be parallel to the ship's shell. A collar protects the In most types of chain stoppers, the chain runs over a roller, some
part of the ship's shell around the hawse pipe. times equipped with a tensioner.
In addition, the plating is extra thick in this area. The actual stopper is usually a heavy bar laid over the horizontal link
Anchor pockets or recesses are sometimes made and secured with a strong pin. The securing consists of a hook onto
in the bow into which the anchors can be com which both eyes of a steel wire are attached. This wire is put through
pletely retracted. a link of the chain and tensioned. This fixes the anchor in the recess
The advantages of the anchor recesses: thereby preventing banging of the anchor against the shell.
the anchors are protected from direct contact Cable stoppers are to be divided into anchor securings for when the
with waves vessel is at sea and riding at anchor.
- a loose anchor cannot bang against the shell When the vessel is at sea, the anchor is held by the brake band and
(important on passenger liners) a securing wire or preferably a high tensile chain, through the chain
- prevention of fatigue damage to the anchor cable and then attached to a strong point on the foredeck.
itself The windlass should not be engaged.
- mooring wires do not get fouled. When riding at anchor the chain force on big ships is held by a
transverse, hingeable bar, a strong back, incorporated in the guide
roller above the hawse pipe, secured on top of a horizontal link of
the anchor chain, so that a vertical link cannot pass. The chain forces
are then transferred to the ship's structure. A wire is insufficiently
strong and vulnerable to chafing especially when not lashed through
a link of the chain under a stud.
A water spray installation in the hawse pipe
Anchors in pocket Chain stoppers

Berthing operation at LNG terminal
1. Lines boat 7. Mooring drum 12. Steel wire rope

2. Tug boat 8. Control panel 13. Warping head
3. Lead 9. Ventilation hatch 14. Escape hatch
4. Stretcher 10. Emergency towing system
5. Fairlead 11. Stowage reel of emergency tow
6. Bollards ing system
2.7 (Anchor) winches The winches can be powered by:
electricity - An electric motor rotates a cogwheel. The
Anchor winches are used to heave in and pay out the advantage of using an electric motor is that the noise is
anchors and anchor chains in a controlled way. limited. Especially important on passenger liners.
The same winch can be used to operate a mooring drum. hydraulic systems - The cogwheels are driven by a
A clutch is used to connect / disconnect the gypsy wheel hydraulic motor, which is connected to a hydraulic pump
or the mooring drum to the main shaft. system located below the deck. Advantages of this sys
The anchor can be heaved in if the gypsy wheel is coupled tem are that there is no risk of (electrical) sparks and
to the main shaft. Anchor winches are normally provided furthermore, the system is gearless.
with a mooring drum via a separate clutch. electric hydraulic. The set of pumps is incorporated in
The winch turns either the gypsy or the mooring drum, or the winch instead of below deck. This means that there
both. The main shaft in most cases is horizontal, however, is no need for piping systems for the hydraulic oil.
in rare cases it can be vertical, like a capstan. steam.
1. Gear box 4. Working part 7. Warping drum

2. Electro motor 5. Brake band 8. Snap back zones
3. Stowage part 6. Control lever

AMERICAN BUREAU OF SHIPPING
Customer Name SHIPS EQUIPMENT CENTRE Purchase Order No 70160066

Attending Office Rotterdam Report Number RO3066176
First Visit Date 14-Jan-2016 Last Visit Date 14-Jan-2016
Certification Of: Windlass Quantity: One (1)

Manufacturer: SHIPS EQUIPMENT CENTRE
Survey Location : Groningen, the Netherlands.
Equipment Data
Item Name One (1) Anchor Windlass and Two (2) Chain Stoppers
Model Number EHAW 46 U3 (Windlass), RKR46-48 (Chain Stopper)
Destination Vessel (Class Number) YY261130
Builder/Shipyard DETROIT BRASIL LTDA
Builder I.D./Hull No. 389
Purchaser Name DETROIT BRASIL LTDA.
Design Details
Design State Design Approved/Reviewed

ABS Reviewing Organization London Engineering Department
Drawing Number 95001.0051.00.98
Additional Data
ABS Stamping * RO3066176
This is to Certify that the undersigned surveyors) to this Bureau did, at the request of the customer, carry out
the following survey and report as follows:
Traceability of materials used on this project has been verified.

Welding plans, procedures & welder qualifications have been reviewed as required by Rule/Specifications.
The principal data has been verified in accordance with the applicable Rules/specifications and applicable approved
plans, and confirmed to be within acceptable tolerances.
All testing (pressure/load/operational/etc.) has been carried out as applicable and verified in accordance with the
applicable Rules/specifications.
Testing machines are maintained in a satisfactory condition and records of their recheck orcalibration dates
confirmed.
All parts of the machinery/equipment satisfactorily complied with the approved drawings. Amendments, if any,
verified to be rectified and considered satisfactory.
Asbestos-free declaration verified and supporting documentation reviewed
One (1) Anchor Windlass suitable for Chain size 46mm and Two (2) Chain Stoppers were examined in finished condition and found
manufactured in accordance with ABS approved drawings.
Anchor Windlass S/N: 60150184

Chain Stopper S/N: 37/15, 38/15
Anchor Windlass found approved as per ABS approval letter ref. T1444283, dated 04-Ded-2015.
Chain Stopper found approved as per ABS approval letter ref. T1458908, dated 23-Dec-2015
Surveyor(s) to The American Bureau of Shipping

Attending Surveyors
Zalewski Mariusz P Electronically Signed on 15-Jan-2016
Reviewed By
Fydrych, Patryk Electronically Signed on 18-Jan-2016, Rotterdam Port
A rope should never be left on
1. Main shaft 9. Guide roller
the warping drum because the
2. Gear box 10. Chain stopper (Strong back)
force exerted by the ship may well
3. Electric motor 11. Counterweight
exceed the pulling force of the
4. Warping drum 12. Stud link chain
warping drum. The warping drum
5. Drum (storage part) 13. Endlink for attachment for swivel
can absorb equal amounts of pull
6. Drum (working part) and anchor
ing force and brake force; the brake
7. Gypsy wheel 14. Main gear protection casing
force of the drums, however, is
8. Control lever for the band brake
three times as much as the pulling
force due to the band brake.
Claw clutch out (left photo's) and in 1. Bearing 2. Sliding clutch 3. Engaged clutch
(right photo)

2.8 Chain locker 3 Mooring gear
The anchor chain enters the chain A ship's mooring system is designed to moor a ship with a standard lay-out on
locker via the spurling pipe. Chain a standard jetty, with bollards at regular distances.
lockers are high and narrow, making A ship is therefore equipped with winches, wires or ropes on drums (no hands)
them self-stowing. This means that and with additional ropes, which can be paid out by hand and tightened using
the stacked chain cannot fall over in the warping heads. Tankers have, through an international standard system of
bad weather. oil companies, a standardised mooring system.
The end of the chain, the bitter end,
is secured to an end connection in the
chain locker, with a release outside
the locker.
On very large ships, the connection is
often a weak link, which breaks if the
chain runs out accidentally.
This way the chain locker and fo'c'sle
deck will not be damaged, because
a heavy chain running out cannot be
stopped abruptly.
A grating (plate with holes) in the
bottom of the chain locker makes
sure that water, rust and mud can
fall to a space below the chain locker.
This has a separate manhole entrance
for cleaning purposes. A bilge pump
drains the water.
Possible types of chain release
(bitter-end connection):
- remove the pin from the last link
of the chain with a hammer.
The pin is located either below
Mooring gear
deck in or near the chain locker or
on deck, next to the windlass. 1. Warping head 4. Storage part
- a weak link in the bitter end con 2. Band brake 5. Gear box
nection ensures that the chain 3. Working part 6. Bollard
breaks loose when the stress
becomes too high. 3.1 Winches Suppose that the diameters of the
a hand wheel may be used to drum is 30 cm, and 5 turns fit next
release or attach the chain. to each other in two layers, then the
3.1.1 Drum pulling drum can pull in 10 metres
of rope. If the MBL (minimum break
A winch drum can be made in two load) of the ropes is 100%, then the
ways - a single drum or a drum in two holding capacity of the drum is 80%,
parts for tensioning and stowage. If and the pulling force is approximately
the drum has one part, it serves both 1/3 of this. This rule applies to all the
as stowage drum and as heaving and drums mentioned.
slacking drum. These types of drums
are only suitable for steel wire and 3.1.2 Warping Head
certain synthetics. If force is applied
to a synthetic hawser, it may slip The warping head is used:
through the layers of rope below. - to heave in extra ropes, set them
If this happens, the rope fouls. Sort up and fasten them on the bollards
ing the rope out again takes a lot - to move the ship along the quay
of time. If the drum consists of two over short distances. If the warp
parts, then the small part is the work ing drum is used, the gypsy and
Bitter end connection for chain locker ing drum and the other part is the the reels must not be coupled to
stowage part. The tension in a rope the main shaft which would engage
may only be applied on the working the anchor cable.
drum.

3.1.3 Self tensioning winches 3.2.1 Leads
Self tensioning winches can be adjust The lead must be able to withstand large
ed to maintain a certain holding force. forces because the direction of the rope
If this value is exceeded, then the changes inside the lead. The lead must
winch automatically adjusts the be curved to prevent wear of the rope.
length of wire to the new force (too For the non-moving types like Panama
much holding force: slacking; too lit lead, the permitted force is 1/5 of the
tle holding force: heaving). This sys maximum static force that this part is
tem is frequently used by ships that able to sustain.
load and discharge quickly or if there
is a large tidal range in the port. 3.2.2 Roller fairleads
3.1.4 Capstans Roller fairleads can be made of vertical

and horizontal rollers. Their function is
The capstan consists of a vertical the same as the Panama lead. However,
warping drum with a vertical drive the roller fairlead causes less wear to the
shaft that is driven either electrically, ropes.
hydraulically or electro-hydraulically.
The capstan is often placed aft and, if 3.2.3 Rollers
the ship is very long, at the sides. If
the capstan is combined with a gypsy Rollers on deck serve to change the
it can be used to control the anchor direction of the ropes. Both the roller
i.e. a vertical anchor windlass. fairleads and the roller guides are able
to withstand a maximum of 32 tons of
pulling force depending on the ship's size.
3.2.4 Bitts
Bitts transfer the mooring forces to the

ship's hull. The outside of the bitts may
have a nose, which prevents the first few
turns of the rope from slipping upwards.
Above or below this, there is an eye to
which the rope stopper can be attached.
The stopper absorbs the forces in the
rope temporarily so that the rope can be
taken off the warping drum and secured
on the bitts.
3.3 Emergency towing

system for tankers
A number of environmental disasters

involving tankers has shown how difficult
it is to connect to a ship in distress.
1. Capstan
The IMO demands that tankers with a
2. Roller fairlead
carrying capacity of more than 20,000
tons have an emergency towing connec
3.2 Mooring gear tion forward and aft. Forward, this is a
auxiliaries stopper, which holds a standard chain
when pulled through from outside to
One or more winches can be placed inside (the same stopper the tanker uses
fore and aft, depending on the size when mooring on a single buoy). Aft, it
1
of the ship and the preference of the has to be a prepared system that can be
2
owner. deployed by one man. This means a rope
3
The warping drum, bollard and fair or wire in the water with a messenger
4
lead are preferably positioned in a buoy, ready to be picked up and secured
5
straight line. by a tugboat. See also page 219.
4 Rigging Rope can be made from either natural in a parallel fashion, giving the maxi
or synthetic fibres. Nowadays, with a mum tensile strength. The mantle
4.1 Cables and ropes few exceptions, most ropes are made itself rarely contributes to the tensile
from synthetic fibres. strength.
Cables are used on ships: The synthetic fibres are manufactured The threads in the core need not be
a. to moor the ship and maintain its from mineral oil products that have resistant to wear as the mantle pro
position at a jetty and for tow undergone a chemical process. vides wear resistance.
ing, mostly in combination with a The rotation of the threads is oppo Therefore it is important that the
stretcher site to the strands, preventing the wear resistance of the sleeve (usu
b. for the cargo gear rope from unlaying. On the next page ally polyester) is higher than the wear
c. in fishing and dredging. some (of the many) types of ropes are resistance of the core. A sleeve keeps
categorised according to the way they the cable round and compact, which
The cables mentioned in a. are usu have been laid (plaited). reduces sensitivity to wear and gives
ally made of rope and called hawsers better spooling property.
or lines. The cables used in b. and c. Some rope types have a sleeve. Some core types that can be present
generally are steel cables. The purpose of the sleeve is to keep in sleeved cables:
The latter are described in more detail the strands in the core together. - braided
in the section 'description of common This has the advantage that the - stranded
cables'. strands in the core can be arranged - parallel strands
- parallel threads.
Table of equipment for self-propelled ocean going vessels.

The table of equipment links the so-called equipment number to the composition, sizes and quality of anchors, chains and
mooring ropes. The number is normally calculated in the design of the vessel. This table is accepted and used by all main
classification societies.
EQUIPMENT STOCKLESS BOWER STUDLINK CHAINCABLES TOWING LINES MOORING LINES
NUMBER ANCHORS (WEIGHT)
CONV. HHP POOL® TOTAL AU2 AU3 LENGTH MBL QUANTITY LENGTH MBL
ANCHOR ANCHOR LENGTH EACH
(kg) (kg) (m) (mm) (mm) (m) (kN) (m) (kN)
840- 910 2640 1980 467,5 46 40 190 520 4 170 200
910- 980 2850 2140 495 48 42 190 560 4 170 215
980-1060 3060 2295 495 50 44 200 600 4 180 230
1060-1140 3300 2475 495 50 46 200 645 4 180 250
1140-1220 3540 2655 522,5 52 46 200 690 4 180 270
1220-1300 3780 2835 522,5 54 48 200 740 4 180 285
1300-1390 4050 3040 522,5 56 50 200 785 4 180 305
1390-1480 4320 3240 550 58 50 200 835 4 180 325
1480-1570 4590 3445 550 60 52 220 890 5 190 325
1570-1670 4890 3670 550 62 54 220 940 5 190 335
1670-1790 5250 3940 577,5 64 56 220 1025 5 190 350
The equipment number can be

calculated with the equation:
(A2/3 + 2HB + 0.1A)
A = displacement (weight of the

ship) this term indicates the
influence of displacement and
the currents on the ship
HB = width and height - determines
the influence of frontal winds
(m2)
A = the lateral surface of the ship
(above the water), which
determines the influence of
side winds (m2)
1. Bow lines 2. Spring lines

The characteristics that are - chemical durability - indicates how 4.2 Dynamic Mooring
important when using or buying well the rope can resist chemicals System
rope: - knot or splice - in a cable this can
- MBF (Minimum Break Force) - min reduce the strength by as much as There is a relatively new dynamic
imum force in kN at which load the 50% mooring system on the market for
rope should not break - TCLL value (thousand cycle load safer mooring of sea-going ships.
- elasticity level) - the cyclic load level as a The so-called ShoreTension system
- density - the larger the densi percentage which is a result of a mainly consists of a cylindrical and
ty, the heavier the rope. specific formula. This TCLL gives hydraulic device. With the dynamic
It is important to know whether an indication of lifetime in practice mooring system ships of any size can
the density is smaller or larger under certain conditions. be firmly anchored to the quay. The
than 1.000 t/m3, in other words: This is the load at which a cable system significantly reduces move
does the rope sink or float. will break when it has undergone ment caused by strong winds, cur
- UV-resistance. After several years, the load 1,000 times. For example, rents, swell or passing ships. With
sunlight can degrade a rope. if the TCLL value of a 100 ton/f the traditional mooring method using
- wear resistance cable is 50%, or 50 ton/f, then mooring lines on bollards and tension
- construction - the number of the cable will break if subjected winches, this movement is always
strands and the way that the rope to a 50 ton/f load 1,000 times. present.
is plaited; presence of a mantle In extreme conditions, the tremen
- water absorption - expressed as dous pressure this exerts on the
a percentage of the rope's weight ship can cause the mooring lines to
- backlash or snapback - indicates if, snap with potentially serious conse
in case of breaking, the rope falls quences. Because ships are moored
'dead' on the deck or snaps back. alongside the quay with greater sta
Rubber has a large backlash bility, the dynamic mooring system
- creep limit - lengthening of the promotes unhindered quay crane
cable under constant tension operations.
Wireless control
Each dynamic mooring system comes
1. Fibre
with its own wireless controller that
2. Th read
works on solar energy. This enables
3. Rope yarn
- 3-strand rope the captain of the ship, the terminal
4. Strand
operator and other parties involved to
5. 3-Strand rope
remotely monitor the tension on the
mooring lines in real-time. Through
SMS, all parties involved will be auto
matically notified if the safe work
ing load (SWL) of a mooring line
approaches the pre-established lim
its and if additional measures are
- Parallel fibre core with mantle required.
Main benefits
The dynamic mooring system fea
tures the following main benefits:
- a safe working load of up to 150
metric tons (1500 kN) in fully
extended condition;
- suitable for lifting appliances
(Heavy lifting)
- intrinsically safe;
- a control system monitors and
warns when load limits are exceed
ed; GPS data provide an overview
of where warnings are issued in
ports across the globe.
The drawing above shows how a rope

can composed - Braided rope
10. ANCHOR AND MOORING GEAR

Dynamic Mooring. Ships' mooring ropes are kept under tension through a remote operated tensioning system.
4.3 Description of common b. Polyamide
cables Polyamide is better known as nylon. TCLL values
(8 strand plaited)
Polyamide ropes sink (density > 1,000
a. High-grade cables 3) and absorb water after being
kg/m2 polypropylene
polyamide
b. Polyamide in contact with water a few days. steel (laid)
c. Polyester The absorption of water adds 4% to polyester
aramid
d. Polyolefines the rope's weight. This can reduce the Dyneema
e. Steel wire ropes MBF by 20%. Polyamides have a large
A official end of lest
elasticity. A consequence of this is determine residual st-s»
a. High-grade cables the backlash when parting. The rope 8 end of Dyneema tesrnj
Aramide and High Module Poly-Ethylene sweeps over the deck and endangers residual strength IX'
(HMPE) are high-grade cables. Kevlar, the people present.

Twaron and Technora are aramide brand
names and Dyneema and Spectra are c. Polyester cycles (x 1000) •
HMPE-brands. On a weight basis aramid Polyesters are very resistant to wear
This graph shows the TCLL-values for
is more than 5 times stronger than steel and very durable, both in wet and dry
a number of rope types
and it is stiff (high modulus), hardly conditions. Its mechanical character
creeps and is fire resistant. Aramide sinks istics resemble nylon, except that it is
whereas HMPE floats. High-grade cables more resistant to wear. d. Polyolefines
are relatively new products and strength Furthermore, polyester is more There are two types of polyolefine
wise they are comparable to steel cable expensive. rope, namely 'High Performance
of the same diameters. The density of nylon (1.14) is lower Ropes' and 'Standard Ropes'.
However, the price is 5-10 times higher than of polyester (1.38) and the The difference between these two
than steel cables. energy absorbing capacity of nylon lies not just in the MBF, but also
Advantages over steel cables are: is higher, making it more suitable to in qualities like UV-sensitivity and
- light weight absorb large force variations. wear resistance, which increase the
- easy to handle For this reason, nylon is often used durability of the rope. High perfor
- non-conductive as a shock absorber, to protect steel mance ropes can also be found with
- small backlash cables from large shock loads. a mantle.
- low elasticity
Polypropylene, polyethylene and
mixtures of these compounds are
polyolefines. Many high performance
ropes are also polyolefines.
The advantages of polypropylene are:

- it floats
- it is relatively cheap
The disadvantages are:

- it is not very resistant to wear
- it has a low TCLL-value
- it has a short life span
1. Working deck 4. Stretcher

2. Towing wire 5. Towing bridle
3. Retractable towing pins 6. Deck crane
(Karmoy pins) 7. Window wiper
All relying on one bollard

6X36WS + IWRC 1960 N/MM2
Nominal
Diameter MBF
(mm) (kN)
QUALITY • galvanised TYPE OF LAY • regular lay
TENSILE STRENGTH • i960 N/mm' DIRECTION OF LAY • right hand
8 44,7
TOTAL NUMBER OF STRANDS •13 GREASING • yes
TOTAL NUMBER OF WIRES • 265 ON REQUEST • lang lay 9 51,0
TYPE OF CORE • IWRC • ungalvanised 10 69,8
NUMBER OF OUTER WIRES •84 • dry 11 84,4
NUMBER OF OUTER STRANDS • 6 • left hand lay
12 100,0
Standard wire rope with steel core, general purpose use
7X19
Nominal
Diameter MBF
QUALITY • galvanised TYPE OF LAY • regular lay (mm) (kN)
TENSILE STRENGTH • 1770 N/mm’ DIRECTION OF LAY • right hand lay
TOTAL NUMBER OF STRANDS -7 GREASING • no 8 37,6
TOTAL NUMBER OF WIRES -133 ON REQUEST • ungalvanised 10 58,7
TYPE OF CORE -WSC • greased
12 84,6
NUMBER OF OUTER WIRES -36 • left hand lay
NUMBER OF OUTER STRANDS -6 14 115
Standard wire rope, mainly used in small diameters on winches
6X19 + FC
QUALITY • galvanised TYPE OF LAY -regular lay Nominal

TENSILE STRENGTH • 1770 N/mm2 DIRECTION OF LAY ■ right hand lay Diameter MBF
TOTAL NUMBER OF STRANDS «6 GREASING • no (mm) (kN)
TOTAL NUMBER OF WIRES -114 ON REQUEST • ungalvanised
8 34,8
TYPE OF CORE -fibre • greased
NUMBER OF OUTER WIRES -72 • left hand lay 10 54,4
NUMBER OF OUTER STRANDS «6 12 78,3
Wire rope with fibre core
19X7
Nominal
• regular lay Diameter MBF
QUALITY • galvanised TYPE OF LAY
• right hand lay (mm) (kN)
TENSILE STRENGTH • i960 N/mm' DIRECTION OF LAY
TOTAL NUMBER OF STRANDS •19 GREASING • yes
TOTAL NUMBER OF WIRES ON REQUEST • lang lay 8 41,1
• 133
TYPE OF CORE • WSC • ungalvanised 10 64,3
NUMBER OF OUTER WIRES •72 • dry 12 92,6
NUMBER OF OUTER STRANDS • 12 • left hand lay 14 126
Rotation resistant wire, used as hoisting rope

A Talurit clamp is an aluminium
Polymix (polyprop-polyestermix) Cables are made of a number of
bush, which is pressed under high
strands, turned in a long spiral around
pressure at the position where a
a core.
splice would be normally, replac
The strands consist of a number of
ing the time-consuming splicing.
wires that are usually galvanized.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY MELTING POINT • approx. The pressing makes the original
UV-RESISTANCE •good 165°C/265°C
oval shaped bush into a cylindri
ABRASION RESISTANCE • very good COLOUR • white For flexible wire, the core is rope, and
CHEMICAL RESISTANCE •good MARKER YARN -yellow
cal clamp, with the strength of the
ELONGATION AT BREAK • approx. 20% WATERABSORPTION • <0,5% when flexibility is not necessary, the
replaced splice.
core is steel. A steel core makes a
A Talurit clamp must not be bent.
Superline-HMPE stronger wire. Rope core when oiled,
lubericates the wire, but allows defor
mation under stress and bending. 4.4 Various parts
Steel wires need maintenance. Regu
lar greasing is essential. Various rigging parts are explained on
these pages:
The strength is maximum when dif - end connections
SPECIFIC GRAVITY • 0,98 CONSTRUCTION * 12-strand
UV-RESISTANCE • excellent
ferent sizes of wires are used in one - safety hook
with jacket
ABRASION RESISTANCE • excellent TCLL VALUE . 100 % strand, so that the space between the - thimbles
CHEMICAL RESISTANCE •good COLOUR • white
ELONGATION ♦ see graph MARKER YARN • ■blue
wires is optimally filled. - shackles
MELTING POINT • approx. WATERABSORPTION •<1% - turnbuckles or bottle screws
Like ordinary rope, there are right - steel wire clamps
hand and left hand laid cables. - slings
High strength Co-polymer (HSCP)
Analogous to synthetic rope, the
direction of rotation of strands and
___ wires is mostly opposite, called 'ordi
nary lay'.
Other constructions are Lang's Lay,
Non-Rotating, etc. When wires and
SPECIFIC GRAVITY 0,93 CONSTRUCTION • 8-strand plaited

strands have the same direction of
UV-RESISTANCE very good TCLLVALUE •70,7% rotation, it is possible they will open.
ABRASION RESISTANCE very good COLOUR • yellow
CHEMICAL RESISTANCE good MARKER YARN • orange These types of wires are only to be
ELONGATION see graph WATERABSORPTION •0% used where both ends are fixed, such
MELTING POINT approx. 140°C
as mast stays and bridge suspen
sions.
e. Steel wire ropes
Steel cables or wire ropes have advan During the fabrication process the
tages and disadvantages. wires in the strands can be preformed
They are strong, cheap, have little into the helical form for the finished
elongation under tension, have a high state to reduce internal stresses in
wear resistance, but they are heavy, the rope. This prevents unravelling,
and they rust. and a broken wire does not stick out.
The construction of steel wire is given
Life boat hoisted with 19x7 steel
They are used where the circumstanc in a formula.
wires (non spinning)
es allow or demand it. For example:
For instance for: Galvanised - Diam. 36 mm, 6 x 36
- hoisting and luffing wires in cranes WS + IWRC.
- mooring wires for tankers and bulk It means 36 mm diameters, 6 strands
carriers with 36 galvanised wires each,
anchor wires in dredging and off Warrington Seal (WS), and an
shore Independent Wire Rope Core (IRWC).
- towing wires for fishing and tug Warrington seal is a method of con
boats. structing a wire rope from wires of
different diameters, creating a more
Fire does not immediately destroy solid section. Steel wire is generally
them. Steel wires are available in galvanized, but untreated steel wires
numerous constructions, depending also exist, and for special purposes
on the requirements. stainless steel is used.
There are basically two steel tensile
strength grades: 1770 N/mm2 and
1960 N/mm2. An eye is spliced into a rope

1. Open socket with rolled connection
2. Closed spelter socket
3. Rolled eye terminal
4. Mechanically spliced eye
5. Hand spliced eye with thimble
6. Thimbled Flemish eye, swaged.
7. Wedge socket.
End links
Shackles Turnbuckles
End connections Shackles can be divided into bow Turnbuckles are used to connect and
End connections are needed to con- (anchor) shackles and straight or tension steel wires or lashing bars.
nect a wire to something else. Often Dee-shackles. They can be supplied The bottle screw consists of two
shackles are used for the connection. with a screw or a pin and nut. screws, one with a left screw thread
Their general purpose is to connect and the other with a right screw
Safety hook certain parts to each other or to the thread.
A safety hook is shown in the figure ship. The Working Load Limit (WLL) These are connected by a load.
below. It prevents the load from fall can vary from 0.5 tons up to 1,000
ing off the hook, even if the load is tonnes and more.
resting. The hook can only be opened
by pressing the safety trigger.
Safety hook
Bow shackle with screw pin
1. Brand or type marking

2. Chain size (chain 7/8 mm) Turnbuckle
3. Class, grade 8 (high-grade steel)
4. Trigger 1. Jaw
5. Spring 2. Body
3. Thread - one left, one right handed
Thimbles 4. Eye
A thimble is a ring inside a spliced eye

to enlarge the radius of the wire in a
splice, e.g. for the pin of a shackle,
thus protecting the wire and is usually
made of galvanized steel.
Its function is to protect the eye of a
cable from wear and damage.
D-shackle with screw pin
High tensile steel shackles.

To obtain this high strength, after
forging the shackles are subjected
to heat treatment. (Quenched and
Tempered)
10. ANCHOR AND MOORING GEAR

When the item to be lifted has lugs
welded on it, a sling with Talurits and
shackles can be used. In other cases
long eyes are more versatile.
These eyes can be Talurit clamped,
but a Flemish eye, with a swaged
clamp is better.
A Flemish eye is a very simple but
very strong splice.
From a wire with an even number of
strands, the strands are separated
over twice the length of the eye.
Over that length the wire is split into
two sets of strands.
Half the strands are bent in one direc
tion, the other half in the other direc
tion, combining in opposite directions,
forming an eye.
The strands are wound into each
other, forming a wire.
This is the correct way of applying the A conical steel bush is compressed
wire clamps to a cable (all U-bolts on onto the wires where they come
the non-pulling part of the cable) together, preventing the wire ends
from jumping loose.
The strongest sling is the grommet.
Steel wire clamps A wire is turned around a circular rod, Cable-laid sling
A steel wire clamp can be used to about six times the circumference
quickly make an eye in a cable. forming a cable, after which the rod
The U-bolt of the clamps should be is pulled out, and the wires, acting as
attached to the part of the cable that strands, remain, turned around them
is free from pulling forces. selves. The ends are tucked inside
Steel wire clamps may not be used the rope.
for lifting purposes, except with guys A grommet is very flexible and
and wedge sockets to make sure that strong. The heaviest grommets, for
the cable does not slip. offshore lifts, reach a calculated MBL
of 7,500 tons.
Testing is not possible, but the MBL of
the individual wires is a known figure,
found from a test sample.
Cable-laid slings are very heavy

cables, constructed from steel cables
with varying diameters, to fill the
available diameters as solidly as pos
sible. Eyes are spliced at each end.
The rope diameters can go as high as
350 mm. The calculated MBL can beas
high as 4,000 tons.
(Compulsory) wire clamp on a keg Fabric Slings

socket Apart from the fabric slings, slings
are made from very long strands of
Slings dyneema or similar material laid into
Slings are often used when lifting an endless loop, similar to a steel wire
objects. A sling is a wire with an eye grommer, and protected by a canvas
spliced or clamped at each end. type cloth. These slings are very light
The eye can be long or short, depend and flexible. They are produced with
ing on the purpose. a high MBL (up to 2,000 tons at pre
sent, but this figure is expected to Lower block with hook, SWL 6,000 tons
increase).

4.5 Forces and stresses The load-stretch diagram shows that
the tested chain actually failed at a
Definitions higher load than the MBL.
- Safe Working Load (SWL) or The diagram also shows that proof
Working Load Limit (WLL) is the loading by the manufacturer is done
maximum acceptable load on an 2.5 times the safe working load.
item (shackle, hook, wire, derrick, For a re-certification test, the proof
crane, etc.). load will be 2 times the SWL.
Minimum Breaking Load (MBL) Figures normally used for the ratio
is the guaranteed minimum load WLL/MBL (or SWL/MBL) are:
at which an item, when tested to - chains: 1 : 4
destruction, will fail. So, on aver - steel wires / shackles 1 : 5
age, most items will fail at a higher - ropes: 1 : 6 or 1 : 7
load.
Load/stretch diagram of a grade 8 chain
For heavy or large loads spreaders are used.
The figure shows the forces in a wire

when a weight of 1,000 N is lifted,
and how the force in a rope or wire
increases as a function of the angle
between the components. When that
angle exceeds 90° the increase is
excessive.
Between 120° and 150° the forces
run up to 1,950 N. The angle is there
fore not allowed to exceed 120°.
Heavy cargo gear blocks with rams horns (400 tons SWL)

ENGINE ROOM
11
1 Engine room 1.1 Propulsion
The various components for propul Normally propellers are used for ship
sion, ship's operations and power propulsion (instead of thrusters, pad
generation are located in the engine dle wheels or jets) and in the case
room. The location of the engine room of cargo ships where money is more
depends on where space is needed important than manoeuvrability and
ENGINE ROOM for cargo. Many cargo ships have the high speed, ships typically have only
engine room aft to limit the length of one propeller. The propeller is driven
1 Engine room 260 the propeller shaft. This is especially by one or two engines via the propel
important to prevent vibration prob ler shaft and its blades can be fixed
2 Valves 282
lems due to the length of the propeller or adjustable. Fixed propellers, in
3 Bilge line 284 shaft. combination with a reversible engine
On passenger ships, Ro-Ros, dredgers or a reversing gearbox, are found
arrangement and offshore vessels, the engine room in coasters and large ships with low
is often spread over the length of speed engines.
4 The ballast 286
the ship either to limit the height, or Other ships have controllable pitch
arrangement because there is much more machin propellers or CPP.
ery than on cargo ships. With a controllable pitch propeller, the
5 Fire-fighting 287
pitch of the blades is mechanically or
arrangement Air conditioning machinery for the hydraulically adjusted to control the
accommodation may be fitted in a speed (forward and backward) of the
separate room in or close to the ship.
accommodation. The engine runs at constant speed
The AC compressors can be placed in and a shaft generator can be con
the engine room, and the air handler nected to a shaft from the engine.
is placed outside engine room. With fixed propellers the engine speed
Many ships have one or more bow alters continuously and thus generat
thrusters and some passenger ships ing a constant voltage (shaft genera
have stern trusters. tor) is not possible.
Tankers and dredgers have separate However, in combination with a fre
pump rooms. quency converter a shaft driven gen
Most ships also have hydraulic units erator can also be used in combina
for cranes, hatch covers, ramps and tion with a fixed propeller and varying
valves. RPM.
For other vessel types, diesel electric
All engine rooms contain at least: power generation may be utilised.
- main engine(s) (propulsion), This gives more flexibility and redun
- auxilliary engines (power genera dancy for applications like dynamic
tion), positioning (offshore vessels) or if
- cooling water system, there is a large variation in electrical
- lubricating oil system, consumption (cruise vessels, tankers,
- fuel system, suppliers).
- compressed air system (starting-, In recent years, hybrid propulsion has
control- and working air) made great strides. Hybrid systems
- potable (fresh) water system, can be designed in various ways:
- sewage system, bilge system, bal - traditional mechanical propulsion
last system, with the possibility of using the
- boiler (heating of tanks, accommo shaft generator as a shaft motor,
dation etc.), - using diesel electric propul
- refrigerating system, sion combined with batteries for
- firefighting system, absorbing peak consumptions or
- storage tanks for lubricating oil, having zero emissions in port or
hydraulic oil, fuel oil. coastal areas.
Hybrid propulsion is applied on tugs,

ferries and short sea shipping like
platform supply vessels.
60 11. ENGINE ROOM

1. Rudder
2. CPP-Controllable Pitch Propeller
3. Propeller shaft
4. Shaft coupling
5. Reduction gearbox
6. Shaft generator
7. Flexible coupling
8. Propulsion diesel engine
9. Turbo charger
10. Auxiliary diesels engines
11. NOx catalytic converter
12. Exhaust gas economiser
13. Silencers auxiliary engines
14. Silencer main exhaust
2. Shaft generator
3. Main engine
4. Inverter
5. Batteries
6. Generator
11. ENGINE ROOM

Overview diesel - mechanical propulsion on a dredger
Overview diesel - electric propulsion
62 11. ENGINE ROOM

1. Main engines 9. Propeller shaft
2. Diesel main generators 10. Controllable pitch propeller (CPP)
3. Diesel auxiliary generators 11. Rudder
4. Shaft generator 12. Dredging pump
5. Gearbox 13. Propulsion electric motor
6. Main exhaust lines 14. Urea mixing unit
7. Auxiliary exhaust lines 15. Nox catalytic converter (SCR)
8. Silencers
SCR = Selective Catalytic Reduction
11. ENGINE ROOM 263

1.2 Engine types
Diesel engines can be engines can be two-stroke or four-stroke.

Two-stroke means that it takes two movements of the piston, down and up, to complete one combustion cycle.
With four-stroke engines, it takes four strokes.
Two-stroke engine: Four-stroke engine:
1. The piston moves down in the cylinder. The outlet 1. Piston moves down. Open inlet valves in the cylin
valve in the cylinder cover is opened just before the der cover and air is forced through the turbocharger
lower dead centre. As soon as the piston passes the through the inlet valves into the combustion chamber.
inlet ports of the cylinder liner, fresh air is forced 2. The piston rises, air is compressed, fuel is injected
into the combustion chamber. just before the piston is injected up and combustion
2. The piston rises and passes through the inlet ports takes place.
of the cylinder liner. The outlet valve is closed and 3. The piston moves downwards.
the fresh air is compressed. 4. The piston goes up. Exhaust gases are expressed to
3. Fuel is injected just before the piston is up. the combustion chamber via the exhaust valves in the
Combustion takes place. cylinder cover.
Two-stroke engine Four-stroke engine
Two stroke engines are always in-line Engines are characterised by their 1. Crank shaft with counterweight
engines. Four stroke engines can be speed: 2. Main crank shaft bearing
in-line engines or V-engines. High-speed four-stroke engines - 3. Connecting rod
In-line engine: the cylinders are RPMs above 960. 4. Piston
placed in-line with each other. Medium-speed four-stroke engines - 5. Piston ring
V-engine: the cylinders are placed RPMs ranging from 240-960 6. Cylinder liner
alternately at an angle of 45° to 90° Low-speed two-stroke engines - 7. Exhaust valve
from the vertical on opposite sides. RPMs below 240. 8. Fuel injector
A 12-cylinder V-engine is the length of 9. Cylinder head
a 6- cylinder engine. The high-speed and medium-speed 10. Cylinder cover
A 12-cylinder V-engine is cheaper than engines drive the propeller through a
two 6-cylinder in-line engines. reduction gear box.
In-line engines have a maximum of 14 The low-speed engine is directly cou
cylinders, V-engines up to 20. pled to the propeller.
RPM: Revolutions Per Minute
64 11. ENGINE ROOM

Common rail fuel system are fitted, which are under a constant tion can be adjusted when the engine
Instead of one fuel pump per cylinder, high pressure. The fuel is supplied to is running, resulting in lower fuel
producing a high pressure peak in a the injectors through solenoid valves. consumption and a lower mechanical
fuel line to an injector, accumulators The quantity and timing of the injec- stress due to lack of pressure pulses.
1. High pressure fuel pump,

driven by camshaft
2. High pressure fuel accu
mulator
3. High pressure fuel line
4. Solenoid fuel valve
5. Fuel injector
6. High pressure pipes
7. 3 lobe - cam
8. Camshaft
6 cylinder Common Rail engine
1. engine block
2. crankshaft with counterweights
3. connecting rod
4. piston
5. liner
WWTSILA
Medium speed V-engine.

Four-stroke engine
11. ENGINE ROOM 265

66 11. ENGINE ROOM
Low-speed crosshead engine.
Two stroke engine
1. Turbo-charger 10. Cylinder liner 19. A-frame

2. Exhaust gas receiver 11. Scavenge air receiver 20. Camshaft
3. Exhaust valve actuator 12. Piston rod 21. Lube oil sump
4. Fuel pump 13. Crosshead bearing 22. Torsional vibration damper
5. Exhaust valve 14. Cylinder cover 23. Turning gear
6. Lube, oil pipes 15. Connecting rod 24. Foundation bolt
7. Cooling water pipes 16. Crankcase door 25. Bedplate
8. Piston 17. Crankpin bearing 26. Cooling water pipes
9. Crankcase explosion valves 18. Crankshaft
Crank/valve train VDZC engine range
Cycle: 4 Stroke
Rpm: 750-1000
Cylinders: 12 & 16 in \
Bore: 256 mm
Stroke: 310 mm
Power: up to 4000
Swept volume: 191,5 1(121
255,2 I (16V
lm
68 11. ENGINE ROOM

1. Crank shaft a. Turbo charger
2. Conrod b. Cylinder head
3. Piston c. Crankcase breather
4. Piston pin d. Water return pipe (21)
5. Liner e. Exhaust manifold (19)
6. Anti polishing ring f. Intergrated charge air manifold (20)
7. Cylinder head g. Oil cooler
8. Cooling water jacket h. Charge air cooler
9. Lube oil sump i. Speed governor
10. Main bearing bolt j. Support charge air cooler
11. Cam shaft k. Flywheel
12. Fuel injection pump I. Intergrated gear case for camshaft gear drive
13. High pressure fuel oil pipe m. Crankcase
14. Injector n. Injection pump (12)
15. Push rod o. Oil pan (9)
16. Rocker p. Fuel Filter
17. Exhaust valve q. Pump drive gear case
18. Inlet valve r. Box engine control unit
19. Exhaust gas collector s. Lube oil filter
20. Charge air manifold t. Cooling water pump
21. Cooling water circuit u. Lube oil pump
22. Lube oil centrifuge filter
23. Explosion relief safety valve
24. Lube oil collector
11. ENGINE ROOM 269

1.3 Fuel 1.3.1 Oil Usually heavy fuel is used for medi
um-speed and low-speed engines,
The type of engine to be installed Fuel oil has to be heated to 40° C and diesel oil for high-speed engines.
depends also on the type of fuel which (in the bunker tanks) before it can Fuel is supplied by bunker ships, barg
is convenient to the owner. Generally be pumped, whereas diesel oil is still es or trucks and is stored onboard in
fuel can be divided into: liquid at zero degrees Celcius. HFO bunker tanks. From the tanks it is
Marine Diesel Oil (MDO) or needs to be heated to a minimum of pumped to the settling tank(s) in the
Marine Gas Oil (MGO) 120° C before it can be injected. MDO engine room, where water and dirt
Heavy Fuel Oil (HFO) does not need to be heated, instead can settle down to the bottom of the
Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) it can require cooling to stay above settling tank and get drained down
Heavy fuel oil has a much higher vis lower viscosity limit of engines. A vis from the tank. A good settlement is
cosity (60-380 centiStokes) than die cosity control unit is installed before only possible if the temperature of
sel oil (2-14 centiStokes), at the same the engine in combination with an the tank is high enough and the set
temperature (50° C), and produces a HFO-heater. tlement time is long enough.
lot more sludge and dirtier exhaust Ships that have their engines running From this tank the oil is pumped
gases, but it is cheaper than diesel oil on heavy fuel oil require exhaust gas through separators (purifiers) to the
and has a higher combustion value. boilers and auxiliary boilers that heat day tank (clean oil tank). The water
Diesel oil requires separation in a thermal oil or produce steam. Heating and dirt end up in the sludge tank.
separator to eliminate water and dirt of the heavy fuel oil by hot water or Sludge can be discharged ashore or
particles, but heavy fuel oil requires electric heaters is usually not suf burnt in an incinerator.
not only separation, but heating as ficient.
well.
From
centrifuges
Diesel oil
Heavy fuel oil
Automatic de
areating valve
Venting box
Diesel oil Heavy fuel
service
tank service tank
For GenSets
(port service)
Full flow filter

Main Engine
Ï Booster
1
Pre
Supply pumps Circulating heater
pumps
GenSets
■0*1
Fuel oil
drain tank
To F W cooling pump suction
Fuel system for larger vessels
70 11. ENGINE ROOM

Bunker fuel manifold on a
large container ship
The clean oil from the day tank is

pumped by a feed pump (low pres
sure) and a circulating pump to the
fuel pumps (high pressure) on the
engine. Each cylinder has its own
fuel pump which pumps the fuel to
its injector. Surplus fuel circulates via
the mixing tank and circulating pump
back to the settling tank.
1.3.2 Fuel gas Purifier room
In shipping, gas is mainly stored as Two-stroke engines come in two The proportion of the MDO or HFO
LNG. types, high pressure injection, and mixture with LNG is controlled by a
low pressure injection. They run on computer, which depends on the out
Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) the diesel principle. The gas is sent as put required by the engine.
Dual fuel engines capable of working a high-pressure liquid, 300 Bar, to the LNG is a very clean fuel, can be used
on liquid fuel (MDO of HFO) or on pump injector, which injects it into the in ECAs and fulfils Tier III require
gaseous fuel (LNG) are a relatively cylinder at 1,600 Bar. ments (see chapter 6, Marpol Annex
new development gaining popularity 2-Stroke engines use the Diesel prin VI).
in recent years. Gas is fired in a ratio ciple of combustion (pressure only).
of 95-99% LNG with 5-1% MDO or The gas is pumped as liquid from the Small ships, which need only small
HFO as pilot fuel. storage tank which pressurizes the quantities, can take bunkers by
liquid to some 300 Bar. trucks. Transport of larger volumes
Due to current availability of bun Compressed to 600 Bar it is led into of LNG is done by dedicated bunker
kering of natural gas, there is still a the cylinders of the diesel engine barges.
significant amount of diesel bunker through a separate pump-injector. A disadvantage is the required space
ing capacity onboard. The amount of In order to create the correct com for LNG storage, a factor 2.5 larger
vessels of running on LNG is increas bustion timing MDO is injected, in than for oil.
ing, so is the amount of bunkering a quantity of approximately 1-5 %.
stations around the Emission Control LNG is not ignited when under high
Areas (ECAs). pressure, you need a spark or MDO
injected to get an ignition.
The combustion principle is differ This fuel burns by the compression in
ent between 2-stroke and 4-stroke the cylinder, and is a pilot burner for
engines using LNG. the LNG.
4-Stroke engines use the Otto prin Another 2-stroke combustion system
ciple of combustion, (external heat injects the LNG low in the cylinder,
source) where the LNG is lead into and uses the compression of the LNG/
the cylinder at low pressure via the air mixture created by the piston.
combustion air flow. Here also MDO injection creates the 1 litre of liquefied natural gas at
combustion timing of the fuel. -163°C equals 600 litres of natu

ral gas at O°C.
11. ENGINE ROOM 271

1. Bunkerstation
2. Fuel storage tanks (natural gas)
3. Tank connection space (TCS)
4. Outside piping (single wall), min. 6 bar
Two examples of Dual Fuel propulsion system
5. Indoor piping (double walled)
6. Dual fuel auxiliary engines
7. Gas valve unit (GVU)
8. Dual fuel main engine
9. Glycol water unit
10. LNG bunker pipe (liquid)
11. Gas return pipe
12. Tank connection pipe (gas)
13. Gear box
11. ENGINE ROOM

A Tank Connection Space (TCS) is The LNG is fed by the pressure in The inner pipe carries natural gas,
welded to, or placed closeby the LNG the tank to the main gas evaporator. outer pipe is ventilated and detected
storage tank. The TCS ensures vapor The LNG is then vaporized and fed to for gas content.
izing of LNG and regulates the tank the engine gas regulation system or The gas valve unit (GVU) regulates
pressure. The maximum tank pres to other consumers through fuel gas the gas pressure to the engine(s), to
sure is 10 bar. piping. create sufficient overpressure com
The pressure build-up system consists The piping is single walled in outside pared to the charge air pressure.
of a pressure build-up evaporator that areas, indoor piping is double walled As the charge air pressure is engine
keeps the pressure in the LNG storage due to safety regulations. load dependent, the fuel gas pressure
tank at a sufficient level. needs to be variable.
Dual fual cylinder head
1. Gas manifold 6. Rocker arm

2. Gas admission valve 7. Scavange air pipe
3. Injection valve 8. Exhaust port
4. Inlet valve 9. Gas admission pipe
5. Pilot fuel valve
11. ENGINE ROOM

Gas tanker
3. Tail shaft
4. Dual-fuel two-stroke main engine
5. Four-stroke auxiliary engine
6. Funnel
7. Rescue boat crane
8. Vertical hanging, cylindrical type-C fuel gas tank
9. Tri-lobe type-C cargo tank
10. Cargo compressor shelter
11. Hose handling crane
12. Cargo Manifold
13. Various deck pipes/ lines
14. Tank dome incl. all tank connections, deep well
pump and safety devices
15. Ventilation mast
16. Bow thruster
Information about the ship:

The accommodation is located forward (resulting in reduced required ballast water capacity) .
The gas tanker has a loading capacity of 36,000 m3.
Designed by HB Hunte Engineering GmbH
The vessel has a 15 Year Time Charter for the transport of Ethane
This has also been the reason why MAN was asked to design an engine that is able to be
fuelled with ethane.
Length o.a.: 188 metres

Width: 29 metres
Depth: 17,50 metres
Design drauft: 9,50 metres
Speed: 16 - 18 knots
Crew: 23
<%
11. ENGINE ROOM 275

1.4 Cooling 1.5 Lubrication 1.7 Exhaust gas
All diesel engines produce heat and Pressure for lubrication of the bear Combustion of fuel in the engine pro
need cooling. This can be achieved ings, cylinders, valves, rocker arms, duces exhaust gases.
by air cooling, but more commonly by fuel pumps, injectors and gear train These are a mix of carbon dioxide,
liquid (water) cooling. is provided by a lubricating oil pump. nitrogen oxides (NOx), unburned fuel,
Most ships use a closed-circuit cool 4 stroke engines are usually equipped lubricating oil, surplus oxygen, sul
ing system with water containing with engine driven lubricating oil phur dioxide, water and carbon.
inhibitors to protect the diesel engine pumps. 2 stroke engines usually have The sulphur oxides and water form
against corrosion. external electrical driven lubricating corrosive acids. Carbon dioxides and
The closed circuit cooling system oil pumps nitrogen oxides are harmful to the
consists of a high temperature (HT) Oil is sucked directly from the crank environment. Marpol Annex VI has
and low temperature (LT) cooling cir case or from the sump tank below the set a maximum global fuel sulphur
cuit. The LT system cools the engine engine. It is then pumped through the limit of currently 3.5% in weight for
lubricating oil and charge air, the cooler and one or two filters (auto any fuel used on board a ship. From
HT system cools the cylinder liners. matic l.o. filter and duplex filter), back 1 January 2020 this will be further
Larger engines have double stage to the engine. After lubrication the oil reduced to 0,5% globally, to reduce
charge air cooling, in this case the HT drips into the crankcase or sump the emission of sulphur oxides into
system is also equipped with a charge tank. The oil from the sump continu the air.
air cooler. ously circulates through a lubricating Scrubbers are allowed as alternatives
The cooling liquid is cooled in a heat oil separator, which cleans the oil of to low sulphur fuels.
exchanger outside the diesel engine, combustion products. Lubricating oil The IMO Tier 2 NOx emission stand
typically by sea water. The sea water also has a cooling function. ard is currently in force globally.
for cooling from the sea chest, passes Cylinder lubrication is, similar to com The IMO Tier 3 NOx emission stand
through a strainer and a sea water mon rail, upgraded by using quan ard effective date started from year
pump, goes through the cooler, and tification in relation to the engine 2016 and applies in designated emis
then gets discharged overboard. A load, also resulting in less cylinder sion control areas (ECA) such as
separate seawater pump is required. lubricating oil consumption. The oil North-America, Carribean Sea and in
In some ships the heat exchanger is injected by high pressure piston future North Sea and Baltic Sea.
can be installed on the outside of the pumps exactly on the correct timing NOx can be reduced by using LNG as
side shell or the bottom shell which between the cylinder wall and piston main fuel, or by means of exhaust
has natural circulation from seawater. and creating a lube oil film between after-treatment NOx reducers.
Such external heat exchangers are the inner cylinder wall and piston on The heat from exhaust gases can
known as 'keel coolers' or 'gridcool- two stroke crosshead engines. On be used to regenerate energy which
ers' and do not require a sea water trunk engines injection is not used as would otherwise be lost into the air.
circulation pump. the lube oil of the crank case will take This is done in a heat exchanger
care of an lube oil film on the inner in the exhaust gas pipe, called an
The cooler, pump, and often the filters cylinder wall. exhaust gas boiler or economizer.
are installed in pairs with the neces The exhaust gases heat up thermal oil
sary valves to enable maintenance 1.6 Combustion air or produce steam.
and cleaning in service. Apart from this, ships need oil-fired
The air needed for combustion in the boilers using diesel oil or heavy fuel
engine cylinders is drawn by fans oil that provide heating of accommo
from outside into the engine room. dation, sludge and fuel tanks in port
This air also cools the whole engine or when the engine is on low load.
room. The cylinders are supplied with Exhaust gas boilers which heat ther
an overcapacity of air to improve the mal oil or produce steam are mostly
combustion process and to cool the found on ships which use heavy fuel
exhaust gases and dramatically raise oil with a viscosity of more than 180
the output of the engine. centistoke.
Therefore the air is compressed in the When lighter fuels are used, hot water
turbocharger which is driven by the produced by heat from the engine
velocity of the exhaust gases. cooling water, is sufficient for heating
After compression, the air is cooled accommodation and tanks.
in the air cooler by cooling water,
to regain its cooling function and
increase its density.
Cooling water pumps
76 11. ENGINE ROOM

1.8 Starting 1.9 Shafting
Ships' engines can be started by an electric or air-driven Shafting consists of a tailshaft and mostly of one or more
starting motor (auxiliary engines for main and auxiliary intermediate shafts. The tailshaft is at the after end pro
engines today up to 6,000 KW) or by starting air (main vided with a conical part, where the propeller is pressed
engines). on, or with a flange where the propeller is bolted onto.
When the engine is electrically started, batteries charged The stern tube is sealed by two seals. The outer seal
by an alternator mounted on the engine, supply the prevents seawater entering and stern tube oil leaking
energy. out into the sea.
When the engine is started by air, air from air receivers The inner seal prevents oil from leaking into the engine
is released by a manually or electrically controlled valve room.
(start button). See further chapter 12 par. 2.10
When an electric or air starter is used, it turns the engine
through a gear wheel until cylinders start firing.
When the engine is started by starting air an air distribu
tor driven by the engine camshaft supplies air (via start
ing air valves) above the pistons in the same sequence
as the combustion sequence.
The air in the starting air receivers is kept constantly
pressurized at approximately 30 bar by a starting air
compressor. Although the engine starts at a pressure of
10 bar, a pressure of 30 bar is obligatory, to allow the
engine to be started many times in succession.
Starting air receivers with main stop valve
1. Flywheel casing Shafting looking aft

2. Bearing
3. Shaft flange
4. Shaft
5. Shaft earthing device
Starting air compressors
Shafting arrangement of a large container ship, looking aft.
Topside of a seven cylinder MAN-B&W main engine.
78 11. ENGINE ROOM

1.10 Gear boxes and In small cabinets, the wheels turn
couplings partially in the oil, thus providing
lubrication.
If the number of revolutions per min The frequency of the current gener
ute (RPM) is greater than the desired ated by the shaft generator, 50 or
speed of the propeller, a gear (reduc 60 Hz, determines the ratios in the
tion) box must be installed between gearbox. The engine can run within
the motor and propeller shaft. certain limits, the propeller, a CPP,
A gear reduction gearbox consists of has an ideal speed, but the genera
a steel gearbox, in which at least two tor must run its speed very precisely.
gear wheels turn on each other, one This is provided by the regulator
small and one large. which controls the speed of the diesel
The large wheel is connected to the engine, and therefore of the other
propeller shaft, the small wheel to the components.
engine. The reduction of the speed of Many variants are possible such as:
rotation is obtained from the ratio of several motors that drive one axle
the number of teeth on the wheels or together combinations with electric
the diameter of the wheels. motors or even with gas turbines.
A possible shaft generator is driven This requires couplings, pneumatic
by the large wheel via its own, small or hydraulic, with which the motor
gear. or generator can be connected or
The cabinet is partially filled with disconnected. These couplings are
lubricating oil. Lubrication of the often integrated with flex! elements to
teeth and bearings is achieved by prevent torsional vibrations. At very
Various methods of driving a shaft
a built-in oil pump, which sucks the large capacities and large differences
generator, the 'power-take-off' or
oil into the housing, and injects it in speed, several reduction stages are
PTO
through pipelines onto the teeth and used, or planetary gearboxes.
into the bearings. For large cabinets, A diesel engine is not running uni
there is also an external pump that formly. Each piston during the com This gives a highly complex torsional
provides lubrication before the engine bustion speeds up the rotation of the (and bending) vibration image for
is started. crankshaft and slows down the rota engines with many pistons. This is
tion during compression. reduced by flywheels. In addition,
many engines are equipped with tor
sional vibration dampers. Flexible
couplings prevent these vibrations
from continuing in the gearbox and /
or propeller shaft.
1. Generator 5. PTO - shaft (for generator)

2. Engine 6. Intermediate shaft
3. Gear box 7. Shaft coupling
4. Propeller shaft 8. Propeller
11. ENGINE ROOM 279

1.11 Heating 1.12 Heat exchangers 1.13 Pumps
Heating is required for heating of the In heat exchangers heat is exchanged A large diversity of pumps is present
accommodation and other spaces on between media having different tem on a ship.
the ship (bow thruster room, steering peratures. Hand wing pump:
gear room etc.), water for domes On one side the colder medium heats Small portable pump for emptying
tic use, fuel, lubricating oil, sludge up, on the other side the warmer barrels. Also used for pumping oil
and so on. Accommodation are typi medium cools down. from storage tanks/engine sumps
cally air conditioned, by blowing hot If the main purpose of these exchang and as small bilge pump.
or cold air into the accommodation ers is cooling, they are called coolers. Membrane pump:
spaces. The central air conditioner Otherwise they are called heaters. Suitable for oils and water.
has a heating and a cooling function. Used as a bilge pump.
Some ships may use central heating There will be various heat exchangers Centrifugal pump:
with circulating hot water through in the engine room: Suitable for all liquids. Relatively
radiators in the heated spaces as in - fresh water coolers small sized pumps with few moving
most houses. preheaters - heating the engine parts deliver a large varable flow.
cooling water at standstill Used as: cooling water-, ballast-,
The heating medium can be steam, lubricating oil coolers - cooling the fire fighting-, condensate-, cargo
hot water or thermal oil. engine lubricating oil pump, etc.
Ships have exhaust gas boilers and lubricating oil heaters - heating the Piston pump:
oil fired boilers (they run on HFO or lubricating oil before the purifiers These pumps are suitable for liq
MDO) that heat up thermal oil or pro and at standstill uids. They can deliver a high pres
duce steam. air coolers - cooling the combustion sure, and almost constant flow
If the heating medium is hot water, air after the turbine-compressor. for a given pump rpm. Used as:
ships have heat exchangers in which - air heaters - for general heating/ bilge pump, high pressure cleaner,
the water is heated by engine cooling air conditioning hydraulic power jack, high pres
water, and oil fired boilers to do the - fuel oil heaters - heating fuel oil sure fuel pump.
same in port. before the purifiers and before the Gear pump:
Hot water as a heating medium will engine. Medium-pressure pump for liq
be used on ships with engines that uids. Used as fuel pump, steering
run on the lighter fuels, because its Heat exchangers can be straight-tube, gear pump, hydraulic oil pump,
heating capacity is less than steam U-tube or plate type. lubricating oil pump.
or thermal oil. Steam systems are - Screw pump:
more complicated than thermal oil Constant flow pump for liquids.
systems, but the advantage of steam Used as lubricating oil pump, fuel
is that it is not flammable. pump.
Hot water for domestic use is heated Diaphragm pump:
in a water heater by steam, thermal Usually air driven, portable pump
oil or electricity. used as bilge-, sludge- and oil
pump.
Small boiler Centrifugal pumps
80 11. ENGINE ROOM

1.14 Alarm system 1.15 Automation Evaporator
Seawater is pumped into the evaporator
Most systems in the engine room are Most systems in the engine room are and, at the same time more seawater is
provided with sensors that measure controlled automatically. This means pumped through an ejector which cre
their actual temperature, level, pres that systems maintain themselves ates a partial vacuum inside. The seawa
sure or other value. more or less at their set point. ter in the evaporator is heated by steam
These signals are continuously com If, for example, the desired (set) tem or engine cooling water to a temperature
pared with their set (desired) values. perature of fresh cooling water into of 40 °C.
If a certain deviation occurs, an alarm the engine is 70 °C and it leaves the In the vacuum, water evaporates at 40
is activated in the central alarm com engine at 90 °C, a regulating valve will °C. The evaporated water (vapour) is
puter or panel in the engine control send enough cooling water through cooled at the top of the evaporator, and
room. the cooler to return it to 70 °C. caught in a tray from which it is pumped
In the engine room itself lights flash If, for example, the desired viscosity to the fresh water tank. The remaining
and horns sound to attract the engi of fuel into the engine is 20 cSt at 130 salts (brine) remain in the bottom of the
neer's attention. °C, the fuel will be heated to obtain evapourator and are pumped out.
There is a certain number of critical the right viscosity. Reverse osmosis
alarms, like ’low lubricating oil pres Before the fuel enters the heater, its This is a natural process (as in plant
sure1 and 'cooling water high tem viscosity is measured. cells), in which water flows from a weak
perature' which automatically stop A signal directs a regulating valve to er solution through a semi permeable
the engine. supply more or less heat. membrane to a denser (saline) solution
Other important alarms warn of high Another example is filling the settling until an equilibrium is reached between
bilge levels or indicate fire. tank with fuel from a bunker tank. concentrations and pressure on both
Alarms on the fuel and lubricating oil When the level in the settling tank is sides of the membrane. The pressure
filters to the engine warn before the low, a low level switch starts the fuel difference between the solutions is called
the filters clog. transfer pump. osmotic pressure. If a pressure greater
The more complicated the alarm sys The pump stops when the upper float than the osmotic pressure is put on the
tem, the more sensitive it becomes. switch in the tank is lifted. most concentrated solution (salt water),
It is not unusual for ship vibration or A high-high level switch above this water is forced through the membrane
electronic disturbances to result in float switch activates an alarm if the to the other side (fresh water). Because
failure of part of the electronic sys pump fails to stop. salts cannot pass through the membrane
tem, causing false alarms. they are left behind. The salt water,
If a ship's engine room complies with 1.16 Fresh water which has become even saltier in the
the rules for an unmanned engine boiler, is drained to outboard.
room, it means that the necessary Ships that spend enough time at sea This is called reverse osmosis.
alarms are installed for the space to or use a lot of water ( livestock-, pas
be unmanned at night and redundan senger ships), make their own fresh
cy for essential systems exists. water from sea water.
When the engine room is unmanned, There are two ways of doing this: by
alarms will come through to the alarm evaporating seawater, or by reverse
panels in the messroom, engineer's osmosis.
cabins and bridge.
Reverse osmosis plant
Tank level control panel. Alarms are built in against overflow of each tank
Fresh water generator / evaporator
11. ENGINE ROOM 281

2 Valves 2.3 Globe valves
In ships many pipe systems are installed to trans Since globe valves started to
port various fluids (liquids or gases), most com be used at the beginning of
monly: oil, water, steam, compressed air and the industrial era in steam
hydraulic fluids. engines its 'classic' design
In all those systems valves are necessary and never changed. The main
therefore fitted in large numbers in order to stop feature is that the flow pat
and/or control flow, to connect to numerous spaces tern makes a 180° turn. This
or to isolate spaces from other systems including results in a higher pressure
the open air. Most often, valves are made from loss when compared with the
bronze, cast iron, steel, stainless steel and brass. gate, butterfly or ball valve.
The internal valve parts, sometimes called valve The outstanding feature of
trim, which includes the valve spindle, seat and the globe valve however
disc, are made of bronze, stainless steel, rubber or is that due to its metal-to-
in various combinations of these materials depend metal seats, the globe valve
ing upon the service conditions. can be used for high pres
sures and temperatures and
2.1 Butterfly valves for any medium. Where leak
tightness is an issue, special Globe valve
Nowadays, butterfly valves can be considered as the choice of seat ring materi
1. Housing 3. Disc
'workhorses' amongst the valves in ships. The con als can guarantee an almost
2. Separation 4. Spindle
struction is simple and robust, the soft seat guaran zero leakage or as an old
tees a leak tight shut off and the weight reduction engineer once said 'the tight
in comparison with for instance gate valves is enor er you turn the spindle the
mous. The 90°C rotation of the valve disc (butterfly better the valve closes'.
valves as well as ball valves are therefore also called
quarter turn valves) makes the butterfly valve ide
ally suited for actuator operation. This can either
be open/close or in control applications. A favour
able aspect of butterfly valves is that maintenance 2.4 Diaphragm valves
is for most types rather simple and can be carried
out on board. In this valve type the flow path is
closed by a diaphragm (or mem
2.2 Ball valves brane). We distinguish two types
of diaphragm valves the Weir type
Like butterfly valves the ball valves belong to the and the 'straight through' type.
class of the quarter turn operated valves. The For both types the flow resistance
construction is simple and robust. Ball valves are is minimal.
mainly used for higher pressures.
1. Housing
2. Wedge
3. Spindle
4. Sealing rings
5. Plug
2.5 Needle valves
Needle valves can be considered

as miniature globe valves in which
the disc has been replaced for a
needle. They are used as instru
ment valves for instance in com Diaphragm
bination with pressure gauges or
Ball valve
for taking samples. Hydraulic sys
tems also frequently
Sea valve
use needle valves. Pressure range
a valve in the bottom or side of a ship com
can be exceptionally high (10,000
municating with the sea.
psi.).
2.6 Non-return valves 2.7 Safety valves and other Pressure vacuum valves (PV valves):
(Check valves) spring-loaded valves This is special group of safety valves
and safety devices designed to blow off large amounts of
Two main types are to be distin vapours and gases at over pressures
guished: the piston type check valve Safety valves are not valves in < 1 bar and to prevent vacuum build
and the swinging disc model. One the normal sense. They are preci ing in tanks.
thing must be very clear: they are sion instruments designed to open at Miscellaneous valves and installa
not and cannot be considered as stop a preset value (pressure) operating tion parts.
valves. Classification societies recog independently of the system and its We will mention the (valve) type and
nize this and will therefore not ask for environment. They protect installa give a short description.
seat tightness tests as this is useless, tions, vessels and personnel against - valve chests:
because once dirt collects at the seat dangerous over-pressures. The safety an arrangement of stop and SDNR
rings the check valve is bound to leak. valve design is always angled. valves combined in one casting to
To overcome this problem the ship Safety valves protecting these instal handle pump discharge or suction
builders use the so-called screw down lations have a small inlet and a large from or to various pipelines.
non-return valve or SDNR valve. outlet: for instance a safety valve - Strainers and Filters:
for steam with a 1' inlet will have an Basket filters are generally directly
outlet of 1 1/2' or 2'. This allows for connected to the seawater inlet valves
the inevitable expansion of the steam, and must filter out whatever is float
vapour or gas. ing in the water.
They must blow off in the open - Couplings:
air, never in closed spaces (remark: this varies from pipe repair clamps to
dangerous gases and fluids must be high-tech high-pressure compression
blown off in a closed system where fittings.
the medium is neutralised). Safety - Steam traps:
valves for gases and vapours are of special devices, which are designed
the full lift design. to separate condensate from steam.
Other spring-loaded types are: They work automatically without using
- The overboard discharge valves. external energy. Wherever steam is
They are usually used to blow off used for (amongst others) heating
excess water from pumps to allow purposes steam traps will be found.
for a constant flow rate through - Hose valves:
Two types of non-return valve.
the pump. The application is non special class of globe valves specifi
specific. They usually blow off at cally designed for fire-fighting (Fi-Fi)
0.5 bar. systems
- The overflow or pump protection - Vent heads:
valve. These are valves designed These are devices that allow for a per
to open at high(er) pressures and manent ventilation of spaces below
to handle a specific flow rate. deck. Most types have a float that
prevents sea water from entering.
Pressure reducing valves: Most are made of cast iron, but some
These valves reduce the upstream or times aluminium. Vent heads made
high pressure to a lower pressure and of sea water resistant aluminium are
do this at any flow rate. The pres to be preferred in case corrosion is
sure can be set at any required value an issue.
within the design specification of the - Quick Closing Valves:
valve. Reducing valves are designed These are spring-loaded (globe)
to operate continuously. valves which are typically shut off
locally by hand and often operated
Pressure regulating valves: remotely (hydraulically or by a system
These valves are intended to maintain of cables and pulleys). Once this valve
the upstream pressure at a preset is actuated, the mechanism is blocked
value at any flow rate. They can and can only be reset by hand. The
operate continuously. They must not main application is for shutting off
be confused with the overflow valve, fuel lines either entering or leav
1. Hinge point
2. Direction of flow which is not intended for continuous ing the engine room. The control
use. It must be stressed that both board with the operating mechanisms
3. Closed valve (dotted lines
the reducing valve and the pressure for the Quick Closing Valves must
indicates open valve)
regulating valve will leak if there is be located outside the engine room
no demand. (SOLAS).
11. ENGINE ROOM

3 Bilge line The bilge arrangement has to be The pump capacity of the bilge
arrangement capable of pumping bilge water from pump is between 100 and 300 m3/
any individual cargo hold. hour. A hole in the side of the ship 5
3.1 General To determine the amount of fluid metres below the water line means
inside a bilge well or a ballast tank that a certain capacity, depending
The bilge line arrangement is an one of two systems has to be present: on the size of the hole is needed
important safety system that is - Manual - sounding with sounding to remove the amount of incoming
required by law. The purpose of the tape using a sounding pipe that water. The formula to determine
bilge line arrangement is to pump ends in a tank or a bilge well to the capacity needed is:
excess water out of the ship. measure the height of the fluid.
Rules made by governments and clas - Remote measuring system - the V = a x ^2 x G x D
sification societies have to comply fluid level can be read from an
with international SOLAS rules. SOLAS indicator in the engine room or V = volume in m3/s incoming
states that the bilge line, ballast line elsewhere (remote control). A float water
and fire-fighting systems must be is placed in the bilge well and when a = area of the hole in m2
three independent systems which can the fluid level rises, so does the D = depth of the hole below
each take over the work of the others float. When the float reaches a the surface
if necessary. certain level, an alarm is activated. G = Gravity (9.81)
Small amounts of water can accumu
late in the ship as a result of conden The water levels in ballast tanks can In the example this means that a
sation, leakages of pipes, from wash be measured using electric membrane hole of 5 x 5 cm makes up for 90
ing or rain, especially in 'open ships'. pressure sensors, by electric level m3/hour and a hole twice that size
Ships without hatch covers, or 'open gauge or by air bubbling systems. (7.1 x 7.1 cm) produces 180 m3
ships' have to have additional pump In case of bubble pipes systems the water/hour flowing into the ship.
capacity in the bilge line arrangement pressure needed to blow air to the
to remove incoming seawater or rain bottom, against the water pressure, is V= (0,05 x 0,05) x\/(2 x 9,81 x 5)
(SOLAS art 59 sub 2). picked up by a transmitter. The signal = 0,0025 xV^8?l
As soon as the holds are emptied and is displayed in the cargo control room. = 0,025 /second
cleaned, the bilge line arrangement Also electronic devices like radar sen = 90 mVhour (0,025 x 3600)
has to be tested. When it has been sors can be used.
found to be in order, it is noted in the
ship's log.
1. Pump suction
Valve chest that can be fitted with non
2. Suction from the bilge well
return valves (bilge arrangement) or
3. Hand wheel to operate the valve
stop valves (ballast arrangement).
4. Stop valve
84 11. ENGINE ROOM

3.2 Parts of the bilge line: an engine room suction. In the case Bilge water separator
of a major leak, the large capacity of The MARPOL Convention forbids
- Bilge pumps the cooling water pump can be used engine room bilge water from being
These pumps have to be available as an emergency bilge pump. The pumped overboard.
for immediate use. However, they emergency suction valve is manually All bilge water from engine / machin
may also be used for other purposes operated, with a large diameters red ery spaces has to go through a sepa
according to the regulations. hand-wheel above the floor plates. rator to separate any oil from the
A bilge pump must be self-priming. - Suction lines water. Under certain circumstances
This means that it does not need The cargo holds are provided with 4 the water can then be pumped over
help to start drawing water from the bilge wells, one in each corner of the board. The oil goes to a dirty-oil tank.
intended compartment. hold. They are each provided with a These separator, with an oil-content-
Mountings (fittings) suction to the main bilge line. Which metres and alarm, is compulsory for
Mountings are ordinary valves, safety well collects the water depends on the ships of more than 400 GT.
valves, plugs, filters, distributors, etc. list and trim. The water pumped overboard may
Several suction lines are mounted on - Bilge well not exceed 15 ppm (parts per million)
a manifold. The suction lines are fitted A bilge well has two compartments, of oil. (see Chapter 6, Regulations/
with valves to open or close the lines. separated by a bulkhead that extends Marpol)
Check valves are used as non-return half or three quarters of the height of
valves. the well. A lid with small holes covers
Example: the well. As soon as the water reaches
The liquid removed from a bilge well a certain height, it flows to the well Condensation can occur when
must not be allowed to flow back to next to it. warm air hits a cold surface. In the
that bilge well. A non-return valve is The suction part of the bilge line is most favourable circumstances the
placed in the suction line. situated in that part of the well. water flows down the sides into the
Main bilge line - Ejector bilge well and can be pumped over
The main bilge line is situated in the An ejector creates a vacuum by the board. When the water remains on
engine room and runs from the mani speed of the water flowing through (relatively cold) cargo or seeps into
fold to the suction side of the pumps. it. This can be used for pumping the cargo, damage to the cargo may
The suction lines run from the mani bilges, for instance in chain-lockers. occur.
fold to the connected compartments. The pressure of the water flowing
The bilge arrangement in the engine through the ejector is created by the
room consists of one (compulsory) fire pump, which can produce a higher
direct system and one indirect sys pressure than the bilge and ballast
tem. The indirect system operates pumps.
through a manifold. The suction side The bilge water goes overboard
of the main cooling water pumps has together with the driving water.
High level
alarm
1. Cover with (right) small holes

Schematic representation of the various
2. Bulkhead
options for mounting the float switch
3. Bilge line
11. ENGINE ROOM 285

4 The ballast An anti-heeling system is used to Nowadays the ballast system is often
arrangement minimise the list in port. Pumps with designed as a ring main.
a large capacity (1000 m3/hour) are Remote controlled valves are used to
The ballast system is used to pump installed between two tanks (one port empty or fill the ballast tanks.
seawater (weight) in or out of the side and one starboard).
ballast tanks. The rules for the ballast These pumps can transfer water from Ballast lines inside the double bottom
system are less stringent than the one tank to the other at great speed. may be made of synthetics.
rules for bilge systems. The system is fully automatic and For fire safety the bulkhead penetra
much used on ships with cranes, on tions have to be steel.
Reasons for taking ballast on board container vessels and Ro-Ro vessels
or shifting ballast once it is on board to reduce the list that can occur dur The images show ballast / salt water
are: ing cargo handling. cooling water systems from different
- to improve stability of the ship, Fore and aft peak tanks, deep tanks, views.
especially when the ship is not double bottom tanks, and wing tanks 1. Ballast pumps, valves in engine
carrying cargo are usually used for ballast water, room
- to put the ship deeper in the water, depending on the ship's type. 2. Main ballast line to tanks
to improve sea-keeping. Bulk carriers often use one of the 3. Crossover to side tanks
- to alter the trim holds for ballast, during a ballast 4. Ballast pumps
- to reduce bending moments or voyage. 5. Pump inlet filters
shear forces An advantage of using ballast instead
- to control the list during loading of fuel in the double bottom is that
and discharge. Many ships use welding is allowed on the tank top. Synthetics for piping systems.
an anti-heeling system for this The designer determines the ballast More and more pipes on board
purpose capacity to meet minimum opera are made of synthetics, not only
- to improve manoeuvrability. tion draught requirements imposed for accommodation and sanitary
by Class / IMO. The duration of the use but also in ballast systems.
voyage and the purpose of the ship is The main advantage is the cor
taken into account when deciding on rosion resistance of synthetics.
the available space for ballast and the Its light weight is another advan
capacity of the ballast pumps. tage.
In small ships, the ballast pumps are The pipes are easier to handle on
usually suitable as bilge pumps. board as well as in the yard and
This makes the ballast system an the reduced weight allows the
integrated part of the bilge arrange ship to carry more cargo.

ment, to the extent that a ballast Disadvantages are sensitivity to
pump may even serve as main bilge temperature changes and lower
pump. strength compared to steel.

Unlike the valves in the bilge arrange Classification societies often state
ment, the valves in the ballast that 'synthetic pipes may be used
arrangement have to be two-way when they have no adverse effect
valves as the tanks must be filled and on the continuity of vital instal
emptied. lations in case of fire or break
down'.
When a vessel makes use of syn
thetic pipes it is compulsory that
she carries means for their repair.
86 11. ENGINE ROOM

5 Fire-fighting A minimum of three fire-fighting The emergency pump may not be
arrangement pumps is compulsory on all ships. driven from the engine room, but
One of these pumps, the emergency independently by a diesel engine else
Fire has probably caused greater loss fire-pump, must be situated outside where or electrically from the emer
of ships than grounding, collision or the engine room, with a direct con gency switchboard powered by the
bad weather. nection to the deck fire main. emergency generator.
A good fire-fighting arrangement, Both main fire pumps must have suf
conforming to legal requirements, is Between the engine room and the ficient capacity and pressure.
therefore a necessity. deck fire main, an isolation valve has This pressure should be enough
The fire-fighting arrangement has to be installed, in such a way, that in to provide a minimum pres
to transport seawater to the fire case of fire in the engine room, and sure of 4 bar at the highest
hydrants. The system consists of consequently possible damage to fire point on the ship. There must be
lines, pumps, valves with couplings, lines in the engine room, the deck fire enough hydrants to ensure that every
hoses, nozzles and spray installa main can be pressurised by the emer location on the vessel can be reached
tions. gency fire pump. by at least two hoses.
ENGINE ROOM MAINDECK

DELIVERY RECON DELIVERY YARD
Fire-fighting arrangement
BOWTHR. ROOM
DELIVERY RECON
BILGE SYSTEM FORESHIP

SEE BLAAUW DWG. F. F. FORESHIP
1. Arrangement in the engine room

2. Arrangement on deck
3. Filter
4. Isolating valve
5. Hydrant
6. Supply from general service pump
7. Main fire pump
ALL PIPE-LINES MADE OF MILD STEEL AND
HOT GALVANIZED AFTER MANUFACTURING 8. Suction
DIMENSIONS ACCORDING "RECON" STANDARD
LIST R-STD-1002 "NORMAL WALLED" COLUMN 1 9. Emergency fire pump
^C.506 > SUCT. FROM CROSS OVER SEE DWG: 36-1 10. Sea valve
< C 505 < DRIVING LIQUID TO BILGE/BALLAST EJECTOR SEE DWG: 35-1
11. ENGINE ROOM 287

STERNTANK Bilge and ballast arrangement on a container feeder
dn 100
BSE
AS THE VESSEL IS SUITABLE FOR CARRYING DANGEROUS GOODS

ACCORDING IMO REG. 54, THE VALVES MARKED WITH ƒ MUST HAVE PN 12$
POSSIBILTY TO BE BLOCKED IN CLOSED POSITION (6x)
SUCTION I DISCHARGE TO BE DONE WITH

TWO BALLAST TANKS SIMULTANEOUS (=2X DN125)
ALL LINES MADE OF MILD STEEL AND

HOT GALVANIZED AFTER MANUFACTURING
DIMENSIONS ACCORDING "RECON" STANDARD
LIST R-STD-1002 - "NORMAL WALLED" COLUMN 1
< C.606 SUCT. FROM CROSS-OVER SEE DWG: 36-1 (2x)

^C.505 > DRIVING LIQUID FROM Fl-Fl PUMP SEE DWG: 35-2
88 11. ENGINE ROOM

DIRECT BILGE
E.R FORE P S
ENG. ROOM (DEL. RECON) HOLD (DEL. YARD)
501
DN 100 BILGE HOLD (FR 31 PS)
(THROUGH DOUBLE BOTTOM)
DN 100 BILGE HOLD (FR 100)
DN 100 BILGE HOLD (FR 83 PS)
DN 100 BILGE HOLD (FR 83 SB)
DN 100 BILGE HOLD (FR 31 SB)

(THROUGH DOUBLE BOTTOM)
510
DN 125 W.B W1NGTK. 8 PS
DN 150 510
DN 125 W.B. DB. TK. 5 PS
DN 150
510
DN 125 W.B. D B. TK. 4 PS
522 510
DN 125 W.B D.B. TK. 6 PS
510
DN 125 W.B D.B. TK 3 PS
524 507
O
PIPELINES THROUGH PIPE TUNNEL)

504 510
DN 125 W.B. FOREPEAK r
o
504 UI
DN 65 —I
m
505
504 o
DN 65 o
0
DN65 BILGE TUNNEL
Fr 26-28 O
(SEE DETAIL) o:
504
510
DN 125 W.B. DEEPTK. 1 0
LU
510
DN 125 W.B. DEEPTK. 2 UI
504 Ol
510
DN 125 W.B D B TK. 3 SB
2 516 510
s DN 125 W.B D.B. TK 6 SB
DN 150
510
DN 125 W.B WING TK. 7SB
510
DN 125 W.B D.B. TK. 4 SB
BILGE
510
DN 125 W.B. D.B TK 5 SB
E.R. FORE S B.
510
DN 125 W.B. WING TK. 6 SB
1. Bilge arrangement 6. Suction distributor chest

2. Ballast arrangement 7. Direct bilge arrangement from the
Eng. room
3. Engine room bulkhead engine room
Dry-space / 4. Main bilge line, from distributor to 8. Overboard (for bilge and ballast)
tunnel ejector and overboard 9. Ejector
5. Engine room bilge line, port side,
starboard side, mid ship and aft.
All are fitted to the main bilge line.
11. ENGINE ROOM 289

1 Ship resistance d. Added resistance in waves
12 The engine power required to move

a ship through the water depends on
the propulsive efficiency and the total
resistance of the ship.
Resistance is a complex function of
displacement, shape and speed.
This type of resistance is caused by
the pitching, heaving and rolling of
the ship.
e. Air resistance
This depends on the vertical area
above the waterline, which varies with
the draught.
PROPULSION AND The various components of resistance N.B. With regard to frictional resist
STEERING GEAR can be divided as follows: ance, the newest hull paint, so-called
non-stick paint, is silicon-based.
a. Frictional resistance This paint does not allow fouling of
1 Ship resistance 292 The friction between the water and the paint and keeps the frictional
the ship's shell is the resistance. resistance and fuel consumption con
2 Propulsion 293
The water in the boundary layer stant throughout the lifetime of the
3 Propeller shafting 305 is accelerated by the ship's speed, paint. It is, however, a very expensive
dragged by the molecular friction. system, only paying off on large, fast
4 Stabilizers 308
This boundary layer is thicker, and ships.
5 Rudders 308 the resistance higher when the shell
is fouled. Resistance is least directly
6 Steering gear 313 after delivery of the ship.
7 Hydraulics 316 During the ship's lifetime, the rough Looking at oil tankers, bulk carriers
ness of the hull normally increases, and container ships it can clearly
due to paint-layers covering older be seen that the bulb reduces the
paint-layers, damage, corrosion, etc. increase in pressure near the bow.
This results in a gradual drop in speed The improved streamlining of the
and efficiency. ship's underwater body reduces
the wave system around the ship.
In suppliers and hopper suction
dredgers, there is a large wave
system.
The wake of the ship
1. bow 3. boundary layer

2. stern 4. wake
b. Pressure (form) resistance

The ship's momentum pushes the
water aside at the bow and, as a result
the pressure of the water increases.
This increase in pressure also occurs
aft. The pressure will drop where the
boundary layer is released.
c. Wave resistance
This is a result of wave systems along
the hull that originate from the differ
ences in pressure.
On certain ships the use of a bulb at
the bow can significantly decrease the
wave-making resistance.
The bulb generates its own wave
system, which is designed to inter
fere negatively with the ship's wave
system. The two wave systems then
neutralize each other.
Container ship with a well-designed
bulb
292 12. PROPULSION AND STEERING GEAR

1. Engine
2. Engine shaft and flexible coupling
3. Reduction gear box - reduces the
number of revolutions of the engine
(e.g.1000 rpm) to an acceptable
rotation rate of the propeller (e.g.
200 rpm) The reduction is 5:1.
4. Shaft generator; this supplies
the ship with electricity when the
The propulsion system engine is running
Based on the shape of the aft of the 5. Stern tube with bearing
2 Propulsion ship the ideal propeller accelerates 6. Propeller shaft
the water that is being dragged in the 7. Propeller
boundary layer of the ship and pro
2.1 Propellers duces a minimal and evenly spread
excess velocity of the water in the The propeller pitch is the distance in
For a ship to obtain a certain constant wake behind the ship. direction parallel to the propeller shaft
speed, a force needs to be exerted on For a given ship speed and power, if that a point on the propeller covers in
the ship. The magnitude of this force the diameters of the propeller increas one revolution in a solid substance.
depends on the ship's resistance at es, the rotations per minute decrease; Similar to a point on a corkscrew turn
that speed. this generally increases efficiency and ing in a cork. When rotating in a fluid a
When the ship is moving through the thus reduces fuel consumption. propeller will have a (small) slip.
water at a constant speed the force Briefly said, the diameters of the pro Rotations or revolutions per minute
exerted on the ship equals both water peller should be as large as possible are abbreviated as 'rpm1.
and wind resistance of the ship. so that a maximum amount of wake,
The force that moves the ship can caused by the ship's hull, is used.
come from an outside source like a The choice of high efficiency with a With increasing computer power it
towing line or the wind, but gener large-diameters propeller and a low becomes possible to allow for more
ally it is generated by a power source number of revolutions per minute is complex analyses in the propeller
(engine) in the ship itself. easily justifiable, but requires a sig design. With help of CFD (Compu
The propulsion system usually con nificant investment. tational Fluid Dynamics) the flow
sists of an engine or turbine, reduc The ship's draught may also limit the around the ship can be simulated,
tion gearing and if applicable, a pro size of the propeller diameters.If dur resulting in a high amount of knowl
peller shaft and propeller. ing certain loading circumstances the edge and insight in the ship's resist
The efficiency of a propeller holds propeller tips are reaching the water ance and local flow around append
an important place in the design of surface the propeller efficiency drops ages. The CFD calculations also result
the propulsion because its efficiency sharply. in a so called wake field which contains
and the ship's fuel consumption are RPM and the number of blades influ the direction and speed of the water
directly related. ence vibrations on board and the at the location where the propeller
Efficiency depends on the flow field of resonant frequency of the ship. rotates. With this information the flow
the propeller, which depends on: Most small single screw ships use a around the propeller can be precisely
- the shape of the ship's underwater 4-blade propeller, while 5-blade pro predicted, resulting in an accurate cal
body pellers are more common on bigger culated propeller thrust and possible
- the power delivered to the propel ships where more power (20,000 kW) cavitation behaviour. The latter can
ler is necessary. However, today, more then be influenced (and sometimes
- the number of blades and more ships use the 5-blade ver removed) by modifying the geometry
- rotations per minute sion, even when less power is needed, on specific locations. By modifying the
- the propeller diameters to reduce vibration. shape of the propeller the maximum
- the blade surface area and smooth 3-blade propellers are used on twin thrust, efficiency and comfort can be
ness of the blade screw vessels and on ships with a high achieved.
- the ship's speed. number of revolutions per minute and Before these kinds of calculations were
low power (700 rpm, 600 kW). possible, to achieve knowledge about
In general it can be stated that the the wake field, costly tests in a spe
highest efficiency in propulsion is If the rate of flow of water (or air) cialised tank (under pressure) had
achieved when the largest possible is higher, then the pressure will be to be carried out, with an accurately
quantity of water is moved with the lower compared to the pressure shaped model of the stern area and
smallest possible acceleration. in parts of the water where the an even more accurate model of the
This means that the configuration of rate of flow is lower. Therefore, proposed propellor. Alterations in the
a propeller has to be such that it pro in waves, water in a trough has a shape of the stern and the shape of
duces a minimal excess speed in the higher speed than water in a wave the propellor meant making new mod
wake of the vessel. top. (see chapter 4 'design' and els of stern and propellor.
Bernoulli's law).
12. PROPULSION AND STEERING GEAR

1. Cross-section of propeller blade
2. Propeller shaft
3. Suction side
4. Pressure side
5. Leading edge
6. Trailing edge.
Drawings of the upper fixed propel-

ler blade of a right-handed propeller
2.1.1 The shape of the blades 2.1.2 Pressure and suction
seen from above
sides of the propeller
Every propeller is designed individual
ly as a compromise between the level The approach velocity of the water
of efficiency and the cavitation-related is a result of the ship's movement
side effects such as the excitation through the water. If the ship has
of vibration or the danger of erosion zero speed, this Ve = 0.
damage. Approach velocity can be calculated
The remarks for each shape of blade by subtracting the wake velocity from
apply to both fixed and controllable the ship's speed.
pitch propellers. The speed of rotation of the propeller
1. The standard blade. Still often used and the approach velocity result in
on ordinary ships although other the speed (V).
shapes are chosen for particular This V hits the propeller blade at a
reasons. certain angle:
2. Highly skewed, reduces vibration a = 5°-7° at service speed
and noise. The speed of the incoming water cre
3. Higher area (Fa/F), low pressure, ates underpressure on the forward Forces on the upper propeller
thus reduces cavitation. side of the blade (suction side) and blade when the propeller is rotat
4. Typical blade for use in nozzles. pressure on the aft side of the blade ing and the ship is moving
5. Also for use in nozzles, but pro (pressure side).
duces less vibration and noise. The propeller blade acts similarly to Ve = approach velocity = ship's
a wing profile. Propellers are usually speed - wake speed
viewed from aft, therefore the pres U = speed of rotation of the
sure side is also called 'the face' and propeller
the suction side 'the back'. d)xr = angular velocity x radius
V = resulting speed
A = lift
W = drag
Fa = projected blade area. P = resulting force
F = area of the surrounding circle. S = propulsion force (thrust)

T = shaft moment.
Left: Different types of blades

attached to a hub. This combination
can never be used for actual propul
sion

2.2 Fixed pitch propellers
The propeller blades of a fixed pitch propeller have

a fixed position. Therefore the speed or direction of
rotation of the propeller has to change for the ship
to stop or go astern. This is achieved by a revers
ing gear box or a reversing engine. The diameters
of fixed pitch propellers varies between 25 cm and
12 metres. The choice of a fixed or a controllable-
Cavitation damage on a propeller blade on a CPP due to missing plug. pitch propeller (CPP) depends on, among other
things, the need for a shaft generator and the need
2.1.3 Cavitation for easy manoeuvring qualities.
The propeller thrust of a rotating propeller is not just the result of Advantages of a fixed propeller over a control
the water-pressure on the pressure side, but also of the underpres lable pitch propeller are:
sure on the other side of the propeller. Propellers that rotate rapidly - they are less vulnerable to damage
can create under pressure that is so low that water vapour bubbles - the propeller does not revolve when not produc
form on the suction side of the propeller. These gas bubbles implode ing power, so it imposes less danger to mooring
again when the pressure rises, continuously on the same spot. When boats and there is less risk of ropes getting
this is located on the blade surface, it causes damage to the suction entangled in the propeller.
side of the blade. This is called cavitation. Disadvantage of the fixed propeller over a CPP are:
Severe cavitation results in: - in adverse weather, the propeller may have too
- increase of blade roughness many RPMs, which can hamper propulsion
- a reduction in propulsive force - fixed propellers also have a limited range of RPM
- wear of the blades for manoeuvring and power
- vibrations that bend the blades - less efficient when sailing astern
- noise in the ship
- high costs.
A properly working propeller often shows light cavitation at the blade
edges which is not harmful.
2.1.4 The influence of the propeller on manoeuvring
Propellers can be divided into right-handed and left-handed propel

lers. Ships with a fixed-pitch propeller usually have a right-handed
version. A right-handed propeller can be recognized by standing aft
of the propeller, while looking at the face and holding on to the top
blade with both hands. If the right-hand side of the blade is furthest
away, it is a right-handed propeller. If the ship is going ahead, a
right-handed propeller rotates clockwise. When a propeller rotates,
the ship has a tendency to turn to a particular side, even if the rudder
is in the midships position and there are no additional forces acting
on the ship. This effect is called the propeller effect or wheel effect
(see section on manoeuvring).
Propellers with adjustable blades (controllable-pitch propellers,
abbreviated CPP) are often left-handed. When the propeller is in the
astern mode, turning anti-clockwise, the effect of the propeller is the
same as in a right-handed propeller going astern, also turning anti
Fixed right-handed propeller of a container
clockwise. When moving forward, they have the same effect as a left
vessel (GT 80942) with a reversing engine.
handed propeller. When going astern, the efficiency of the propeller
The propeller weighs 95 tons, has 6 blades
can drop below 50% of efficiency when moving forward, depending
and a diameters of 8.95 metres.
on the type of blade and propeller.
Propeller Turning direction Sailing direction Direct propeller effect Indirect propeller effect
Aft Fore Aft Fore
right-handed right ahead starboard port
right-handed left astern port starboard port starboard
left-handed right astern starboard port starboard port
left-handed left ahead port starboard
Wheel effect of propellers

2.3 Controllable pitch The most striking feature of the con The figure (below, left) shows cross
propellers (CPP) trollable pitch propeller is that it only sections of a propeller blade and the
rotates in one direction, making the forces that act on that part of a rotat
The blades of this type of propeller reversing clutch or reversing engine ing propeller blade.
can be turned around the blade-axis, unnecessary during sailing astern. On the left are the cross-sections and
thus changing the propeller pitch. Unlike the fixed pitch propeller, the forces when the ship is going ahead.
These propellers have complicated controllable pitch propeller is an inte All the vectors point backwards while
internal systems. The mechanism grated part of the propulsion system. the ship is going forward.
that adjusts the propeller pitch is This makes it possible for power and Now the blades are rotated towards
located in the propeller hub. It is necessary propulsive forces to be the zero position. This means that the
activated from the engine room and controlled by simply changing the propulsive forces above and below
remotely controlled from the bridge positions of the blades. are equal in magnitude, but opposite
or the engine control room. in direction. The net propulsive force
is zero, but the propeller still absorbs
a large amount of energy that is con
Forward Neutral Backwards
verted to turbulence of the wake.
To go astern, the blades are rotated
even further, resulting in a forward
propulsive force.
Safety precautions
- The position of the blades can be
changed manually without loss of
propulsive force.
- If the hydraulic system fails, the
blades can be locked in the ahead
position.
Drawings (left) of a single propeller

blade and its cross-sections. The pic
tures show the controllable pitch pro
peller; the upper blade is the blade in
the drawings.
Stainless steel controllable pitch

propeller. The blades are damaged.
296 12. PROPULSION ANO STEERING GEAR

When a shaft generator is fitted which Positioning. Then the fixed propellers The shaft generator can supply
can also work as an electric motor are driven by frequency controlled the electrical power for a ship as
with a power supply from the auxiliary electric motors. long as the main engine keeps
diesel generators, the electric motor The system is sometimes used on running.
can produce propulsion power, i.e. for small ships. With controllable pitch propellers
emergency propulsion in the event of A shaft generator can produce elec the generator frequency can be
major main engine failure. tric power during manoeuvring also, kept constant because the rpm of
Also fully electric propulsion is used which is economically advantageous. the engine remains constant.
where a very good manoeuvrability is The engine drives the shaft gen
necessary for, instance with Dynamic erator via the reduction gear box.
Advantages of a controllable pitch

propeller:
- it can propel the ship at all speeds,
even at very low speed without
stopping the engine
- it can change quickly from ahead
to astern and vice versa
- improved efficiency on ships such
as fishing craft and tugs with
changing power demands
- it can easily be combined with a
shaft generator
- it can stop a ship with maximum
power
- in case of propeller damage,
changing a blade is often possible
afloat, depending on the ship's
type and trim possibilities.
Disadvantages:
CPP systems are vulnerable due
to the hydraulic components and
many sealing rings.
A damaged sealing ring can result
Installation of a controllable pitch propeller with shaft attached in oil pollution.
- price
- more maintenance.
Drawing (below) of a controllable pitch propeller with propeller shaft.
The pitch adjustment of the blades is done via oil pressure through the
hollow shaft. The figures apply to a propeller with a diametre of
2.5 metres.
1. Propeller blade
2. Boss or hub
3. Watertight / oil tight seal
4. Stern frame
5. Propeller shaft
6. Stern tube
7. Intermediate shaft (to engine shaft)
8. Reduction gear box
(for example 1:2.5)
9. Mechanically driven lubricating oil
pump
10. Collar shaft (thrust)
11. Actuating motor, coupled to a
mechanism of bars that serves the
blades.

2.4 Nozzles The combination of a propeller in a Nozzles are fitted as:
nozzle is often called a ducted pro - fixed versions
The purpose of a nozzle is to increase peller. In principle, the nozzle can be - nozzle rudder propellers: the whole
the propulsive force. This increase used on every type of vessel except system including propeller can
results from the fact that the propel on very fast ships like high-speed rotate around a vertical axis, 360°
ler forces water to flow through the ferries where they have no increasing - nozzle rudders: Propeller fixed,
nozzle. This water flow has a higher effect on the propulsive force. nozzle can turn as a rudder (35°
velocity in the nozzle than the water If the frictional resistance (caused -40° max.).
outside and the resulting pressure by the nozzle) becomes larger than
difference then creates the additional the increase in propulsive force, the One particular type of fixed nozzle is
propulsive force. The efficiency of the nozzle is not effective. Nozzles are the wing or Schneekluth nozzle.
nozzle is at a maximum when the often used on inland vessels, hopper This nozzle is fitted in two halves,
water can pass unobstructed. suction dredgers, tugs, fishing vessels with different axis angles in relation
This is why the top of the nozzle and suppliers. The advantages and to base line and centreline.
should always be as free as possible disadvantages of fixed or controlla The nozzle is anti-rotating and brings
in relation to the aft of the vessel.. ble pitch propellers are the same for water to the top half of the propel
Not only does a nozzle increase the propellers with a nozzle and propel ler circle, where the velocity of the
propulsive force, it also reduces noise lers without one. For shallow draught incoming water in a full ship is low.
and vibration levels. Furthermore, the ships the same thrust can be deliv In spite of its modest dimensions, this
incoming water flow is more homo ered with a smaller system diameters. still increases the propulsive force if
geneous in a nozzle, minimising local the speed exceeds 12-14 knots.
pressure differences responsible for
Two rudder propellers which can rotate 360°.

2.5 Rudder propellers The most important advantage of a
rudder propeller is its ability to give
The main characteristic of rudder pro optimal thrust in any rudder position.
pellers is their ability to rotate like a With the exception of the tunnel
rudder, if unobstructed, the full 360°. thruster, all rudder propellers can
Rudder propellers are also called 'azi- steer the ship through 360°, thereby
muthing thrusters' or 'Z-drives'. giving the ship excellent manoeuvra
To achieve this freedom of rotation, bility.
a right-angle underwater gear box is Today, modern electronic equip
driven by a vertical power shaft. ment for satellite navigation can be
This vertical shaft is centreed in the employed to couple the rudder pro
rudder stock. A gear driven by a pin pellers to the dynamic positioning
ion is attached to the top of the rud system (DP-system).
der stock. This makes the unlimited This can keep a ship in a pre-deter
rotation possible. mined position irrespective of the
influences of currents, waves and
Nowadays, rudder propellers can have wind.
a power up to 7,500 kW. Retractable thrusters are often used
There are several versions of rudder for this purpose.
propellers, namely: When the ship has arrived at its
1. A fixed unit assembled in an position, the azimuth thrusters are
assembly box - it can be equipped lowered and the ship switches to DP.
with a depth adjustment system. Other advantages of the rudder pro
When the ship is empty, the pro peller are the very compact engine
peller can be lowered in order room (because there is no need for a
to get sufficient propulsive force long propeller shaft).
efficiently without the need for This results in lower installation costs
ballast. as compared to a conventional pro
2. Deck units - the diesel-drive units peller. Cross-section of a rudder propeller
are placed on deck; the rudder
1. Driveshaft from engine, with gears
propeller is attached to the back Rudder propeller installations are
2. Vertical driveshaft
of the drive unit. These types can often used on cable ships, floating
3. Propellor shaft with gears
also have a depth adjustment cranes, suppliers, dredgers, tugs etc.
4. Kort Nozzle
system.
5. Rotation point in ship's construction
3. A retractable unit. It can be with
6. Controllable Pitch Propeller
drawn entirely into the ship and
7. Hydraulic lines to CPP
is only lowered when the ship
8. Oil-Filled gearbox.
is at sea. When in top position,
the propellers can then be part
of a tunnel thruster and are then
called 'retractable thrusters'.
Not used for main propulsion.
4. Bow thrusters or stern thrust
ers. Also called tunnel thrusters.
They are based on a transverse
propeller and a right-angle under
water gear box.
These are used exclusively to
position the ship by a starboard
or port side thrust.
When the ship's speed is above 6
knots, their influence is negligi
ble.
Types 1 and 2 function as main pro

pulsion units, while type 3 is an auxil
iary propulsion unit.
Type 4 is for low-speed manoeuvring.
Tug boat equipped with two azimuthing thrusters and a bow thruster

2.6 Podded drives The propeller is then located at the Advantages are:
back or front of the pod, respectively. - it is possible to separate the power
(Brand names: Azipod, Dolphin, Mer The electric rudder propeller does not source and the propulsion system
maid, SSP) require gear boxes, clutches, propel - it can combine the power supply of
ler shafts and rudders. the auxiliaries and the propulsion
The difference between the rudder The diesel generators can be placed system
propeller and the electric rudder pro anywhere on the ship, as long as - few vibrations and little noise
peller or podded propulsor is that there is space available, unlike the - excellent manoeuvring capabilities
the latter has its propulsion engine ships with a mechanical drive where - due to the low losses (no losses
located outside the ship's hull. the engines are connected to the pro from the magnets) no additional
The electrical engine with adjustable peller by a long shaft and other parts. cooling from the ship through the
RPMs is placed in a pod attached to This makes this propulsion system a rotation part is necessary. The sea
the bottom of the ship. Every pod compact system that simplifies the cooling water flow at the outside is
has a propeller attached to it, driven design and construction of the ship as enough (SSP).
by the electric motor inside the pod. compared to conventional propulsion
There are two main types: a fixed systems. Disadvantage is:
pod with a rudder or a 360° rotating Although the system was originally - the rotor is difficult to dismantle
pod without a rudder. Both types can developed for icebreakers, it is now due to the strong magnets which
either push or pull. in use on suppliers, cruise ships, have to be in the centre during
tankers, ferries and ships with a DP- dismounting (SSP).
system.
Control network
Power network
Arrangement of a diesel
electric propulsion system
using electrical azipods,
with the power supply by
Large pod diesel generators.
1. Diesel engines
2. Generators sets
3. Main switchboards
4. Propulsion transformers
5. Frequency converters
6. Automation
7. Propeller
8. Azimuthing bearing (360°)
9. Bearings and shaft seal
10. Electro-motor
3°0 | 12. PROPULSION AND STEERING GEAR

The turning circle of a ship with electrical rudder propellers as compared to the sister ship that uses separate rudders
and propellers
Drive via rudder propeller Direct-drive engine to propeller Diesel-electric drive
Aerial photograph of a ferry showing thruster wash A cruise ship with three electrical rudder propellers
that can rotate 360°.

2.7 Voith Schneider
Propellor
The Voith Schneider Propeller

generates thrust by the sideways
movement of vertical blades at an
angle to the intended direction of
the thrust. This similar to sculling
(in rowing) and means that pro
pulsion can be in any direction.
The vertical blades are fitted in the

perimeter of a circular box, which
is fitted in the bottom of the ship
(flush with the ship's bottom plat
ing). The box rotates at a constant
relatively low speed. This can be
diesel direct-driven, electric or hy
draulic drive. Each blade can ro
tate around its own vertical axis.
The blades have an angle of at

tack as they move in the water.
This creates propulsive thrust. The
direction of thrust is controlled by
changing the angle of attack of the
blades.
Here is an example for forward
thrust:
1. The blade in aft position has a
positive angle of attack: this
pushes the water in an aft
direction.
2. The blade in side position has
a zero angle of attack: no
thrust.
3. The blade in forward position
has a negative angle of attack:
this pushes the water aft.
4. The blade again in side posi
tion has zero angle of attack:
no thrust.
By adjusting the angle of attack,

changing the direction and magni
tude of propulsion is very fast and
stepless. It also allows the vessel
to steer without the use of a rud
der. Voith Schneider Propeller pro
pulsion provides extreme manoeu
vrability. The system is ideal for
harbour and escort tugs, fireboats
and DP systems.
1. Rotor casing 8. Bevel gear
2. Blade 9. Driving sleeve
3. Kinematics 10. Control rod
S Rotating parts 4. Thrust plate 11. Servomotor
5. Roller bearing 12. Gear pump
Steering parts 6. Propeller housing 13. Control shaft
7. Reduction gear 14. Indicator plate
2.8 Linear Jet Propulsion A nozzle is installed behind a special type of propeller. This
eliminates the swirl created by the propeller. Spade rud
Linear jet propellers can achieve higher speeds than nor ders are installed for steering. Linear jet systems can reach
mal propellers. speeds of up to 40 knots.
2.9 Water jet Propulsion The direction of the outflow is adjustable, similar to a
rudder. When the ship is at speed, the nozzle assembly
Water jet propulsion is based on the reaction force of a is above water; this makes it less vulnerable in shallow
high-velocity water stream through a nozzle at the stern of water. For reverse propulsion, the outflow is reversed by an
a light displacement ship. It is mainly used for high-speed external scoop. Turning and reversing is remote controlled,
craft, with speeds up to 75 knots achievable. Water is taken as is the engine and, therefore, the propeller rpm. Water
in from the bottom of the ship through a relatively large jet propulsion provides excellent manoeuvrability and high
opening, and accelerated by a ducted propeller / impeller propulsion efficiency.
through a nozzle in aft direction.
The water jet uses the same

principle as an aircraft jet
engine, but here water is the
medium instead of air.
The principle is based on New

ton's law F = m x a,
F = the force in Newton,
m = the mass of the water
a = the acceleration of the
water.
Ship driven by waterjet

propulsion

2.10 Various systems The design of the Kappel propeller
enables the following:
2.10.1 Kappel propeller design a. Reduced tip loss

Tip vortices are formed due to the
Geometrically, the Kappel propeller design is characterised by non-planar difference in pressure between the
lifting surfaces and blade geometry, by which the blade profile can be bet pressure side and suction side of the
ter aligned to the complex flow patterns in the wake field generated by propeller as the water will move from
the ship's hull. the high pressure area to the low pres
The Kappel design originally used design inspiration from birds' wing tip sure area. The pressure on both sides
feathers and principles of up-turned aircraft winglets. As a result, the near the tip will therefore equalise,
propeller blades are smoothly curved to the suction side, which provides a and the efficiency of the tip region will
higher lift with reduced energy loss from the tip vortex flow. decrease.
b. Less drag
Tip vortices are tubes of circulating
water that are formed at the tip when
the propeller generates thrust. Com
pared to a conventional propeller, a
Kappel propeller's reduced flow over
the tip and smaller tip vortices reduce
drag.
c. Increased efficiency and perfor
mance
Minimised flow over the blade tip
and the outer region of the propeller
geometry retain high efficiency. This
increases the total efficiency of the
propeller compared to conventional
propellers.
d. Reduced noise
In addition to higher efficiency, espe
cially for high-loaded propeller blades,
the design generally reduces pressure
pulses leading to reduced noise levels.
Kappel Controllable Pitch Propeller
Kappel blade geometry with surface pressure

distribution and streamlines. (Showing reduced
tip vortex and reduced energy loss)
Kappel Fixed Pitch Propeller
2.10.2 Fully twisted leading edge rudder & rudder bulb 3 Propeller shafting
Besides the function of the rudder for ship manoeuvering it can also be consid The ship's propeller is connected to
ered as an energy saving device. This includes the twisted leading edge of the the propulsion engine by shafting.
rudder as well as additional devices like a rudder bulb mounted to the rudder The weight of the shafts, which can
blade. be considerable, has to be carried by
bearings, which are supported by the
The conventional rudders are designed with symmetrical profiles and leading ship's construction. The aft end of the
edges and are not able to compensate the rotational flow of the propeller. Due shafting is supported by the stern
to these circumstances there are unfavourable pressure conditions on the lead tube bearings, which are located in
ing edge of the rudder blade. The possible results of these pressure conditions the stern tube. The stern tube is a
could be erosive damages on the rudder blade due to cavitation and a loss of thick walled pipe, welded in the stern
propulsion energy due to increased resistance. frame, and in the aft peak bulkhead.
The stern tube usually accommodates
The new 'bended' profiles optimise pressures and minimise the risk of erosive two bearings. The aft most bearing
cavitation and achieve significant energy savings on the delivered power in the has to take the weight of the shaft
propulsion system. The twisted leading edge design reduces the resistance of and propeller, and has a length of
the hull and lowers the noise impact of propulsion in the aft ship section. An two times the shaft diameters. The
execution of twisted leading edge as a smooth S-shape over the complete rud forward bearing is shorter, and is usu
der height achieves best results. ally only guidance for the shaft during
installation.
Adding a rudder bulb can lead to savings in the propulsion system. The rudder On completion of welding of the stern
bulb increases the efficiency of the propeller by absorbing the hub vortex and tube, it is machined in situ, in accord
avoiding negative thrust by splitting of contraction. A reduction of the cavita ance with the required alignment
tion on the rudder is a further advantage of the rudder bulb. Both technologies towards the driving engine or gear
(fully twisted leading edge and rudder bulb) are suitable for flap rudders as well. box.
To prevent water entering the engine
room through the stern tube, propel-
lor shaft seals / stern tube seals have
to be installed.
A sealing system must be able to

withstand extreme conditions such as:
- circumferential speeds up to 5 m/s
water pressure up to 3 bar
- axial and radial propeller shaft
displacements of approximately 1
millimetre
the ship's vibration
- 7000 hours of rotation-time per
year, over 5 years
Shaft alignment can be complex.
In small ships it is usually a straight
line, but in large ships with heavy
shafting systems, the alignment is
calculated and bored in accordance
with the flexible line of the installed
coupled shafting.
As a lubricant for the stern tube bear

ings, a few options are available: sea
water, fresh water, grease, mineral oil,
Fully twisted leading edge rudder & rudder bulb
and bio-degradable oil. Depending on
1. Full spade rudder 3. rudder bulb the selected lubricant the stern tube
2. Fully twisted leading edge should be closed at the engine room
side only (so called open system) or
should have a sealing device on both
sides (closed system). An open sys
tem can be used in case of water or
grease lubrication.

3.1 Oil lubricated
shafting
Approximately 70% of all ships

use oil as a lubricant for the
propeller shaft.
In that case, the bearing is usually
made of white metal, and sometimes
of synthetic material.
White metal is superior.
The disadvantage of synthetic materi 1. Rudder 6. Tail shaft
als is that they are bad transmitters 7. Forward stern tube seal
2. Propeller hub with cap
of frictional heat from the bearing 3. Propeller blade 8. Intermediate shaft bearing
and shaft. The oil-filled tube, with 4. Stern frame 9. Intermediate shafting
the shaft in centre, has sophisticated
5. Aft stern tube seal
seals at both ends to keep the oil in
the tube and the water out.
The after seal of an oil lubricated The header tank is vented, to allow for All the major seal suppliers have a
stern tube is in case of a conventional expansion of the oil due to heating. sealing system that keeps the oil pres
seal provided with 3 lipseals, two to The warm oil rises through the return line, sure equal to the water pressure.
keep the water outside and one te creating a natural circulation. Air with the same pressure is vented
keep oil inside the sterntube. More The small circulation tank just above between the oil- and water lip seals.
sophisticated seals are fitted with an the forward seal contains oil that pro This compensates for the pressure
additional sealring, as a standby seal, vides lubrication and cooling of the difference over the seals due to waves
to be used in case of failure of the oil forward lip seals. or loading, creating a longer seal life.
seal ring. Compressed air can be For filling the stern tube and header Some of the venting air takes all leak
used to activate a standby sealring. tank there is a fixed connection with age back into the ship to a drain tank.
Other systems are provided with an the main lubee oil storage tank. This creates a guaranteed leak-free
empty space between oil rings and Apart from the standard seals, seals sealing system, protecting the envi
water rings, to eliminate leakage pos for different applications have different ronment.
sibilities. properties. For example a Seaguard The amount of fluid in the drain tank is
Depending on the level of operation, has a back-up lip seal that is activated a measure of the wear of the lip seals.
the bush of a standard seal will be when the original oil seal fails. Seal maintenance can be scheduled
worn out by the rubber lip seals after based on the periodic checks of the
approximately five years. drain tank level.
After those five years, the bush will
be moved longitudinally or milled to a
slightly smaller diameters.
Bushes with hard coatings are also
available, and have a much lower
wear rate.
The aft bush is bolted to the propeller
hub and the forward bush is bolted
to a ring that is clamped around the
shaft.
The oil in the stem tube is kept at
a pressure of approximately 0.4 bar
higher than the water pressure. This
is achieved by a header tank situated
several metres above the load water
line.
The higher pressure prevents water
from leaking into the stern tube if
Valve - normal open
the seals fail. This is very important,
Valve - normal closed
because water will deteriorate the Flow restrictor
lubricating capacity of the oil. Safety valve
Without lubrication the bearings will Pressure switch
be destroyed and the complete shaft Level switch
will need to be overhauled. Flow switch

In the closed system, the water is pumped round the shaft, from for
ward to aft. This means that the water inside the stern tube always
has a slight overpressure. In some countries water lubrication is com
pulsory for local shipping to protect the environment.
Some seals at the forward end of the sterntube for water lubricated
outer seal systems are provided with an inflatable ring, which allows repairs to a
seal without drydocking or excessive trimming.
Propeller shaft
Steel bush or stern tube
Rubber bearing
inner seal
Bearing:
that part of a machine on which
a rotating part rests
Outboard water lubricates the bearing system, either by natural flow or

by force feeding. Especially for abrasive inland river conditions an addi
tional shrunk-on sleeve can be utilised to prevent wear of the shaft.
1. Propeller boss
2. Propeller shaft
3. Chrome steel liner
4. Seawater seal rings
5. Oil seal rings
6. Aft bearing
7. Stern tube
8. Clamped ring
9. Oil tank
10. Fastening at stern tube In open stern tube systems the same bearings and shaft liners are
11. Air release valve incorporated. In addition the forward stern tube seals are mounted
which feature an inflatable service seal and lubricating connection.
3.2 Water as a lubricant
When water is the lubricant for the

propeller shaft, the bearings are
made of rubber, plastic or composite
material. Water lubrication can be
achieved with both open and closed
systems. In the open system there
must a flow, usually generated by a
pump, through the stern bush from
Mounting both forward and aft seal on either end of the stern tube
forward to aft, thus preventing seawa
creates a closed water lubricated systems. Forced water lubrication is
ter from entering the ship.
a improvement.
4 Stabilizers acceleration of the ship's side. 5 Rudders
The angle of attack of the fin is
Stabilizers can reduce the rolling of a adjusted to the flow direction, upward The function of a rudder is to develop a
ship by as much as 80 - 90%. or downward, depending on rolling transverse steering force on the aft end
Fins with the configuration of a flap speed and interval and ship's speed. of a ship, using the reaction force of the
rudder mounted horizontally use the The fin is oscillated by a hydraulic water flowing along the ship and over
velocity of the water streaming along piston or vane-type motor. the rudder. The rudder is usually located
the ship's side to reduce rolling. The angle of attack and the rotation in the water flow astern of the propeller.
They protrude from the bilge strake speed and period are dictated by a Depending on the type of ship, the area
and rotate around a shaft. computer, receiving signals from sen of the rudder ranges from 1.5% to 10%
The maximum rotation angle is sors in the rotating shaft comparing of the underwater lateral area (length x
approximately 25° up or down. When the produced force with the required draught).
at an angle they produce lifting forces force, and from a gyro. The rudder should be shaped in such a
similar to a rudder. When a ship is The working force is maximised, but way that the water flow can be deflected
rolling, water flows along the sides in cavitation is prevented. as effectively as possible, in combination
an undulating way. They are used in passenger ships and with minimum resistance.
The fin is operated such that at any yachts for the comfort of people on These requirements can be satisfied by
moment, a reaction force is produced, board, and in ro-ro ships and con giving the horizontal cross-section of the
upward or downward, contrary to the tainer ships to reduce the acceleration rudder a wing profile. In fact, the rud
forces on the cargo. der is a vertical wing, on which a lifting
Some heavy cargo ships use stabiliz force is generated by the water flow in
ers for the same reason. the same way that an aeroplane wing,
A decrease in fuel consumption is also propeller blades and nozzles obtain lift.
claimed. This is known as rudder force.
Normal installation comprises one fin The drag should be as low as possi
on each side, but four fins can also ble. The rudder force gives a turning
be used. moment around the ship's centre of dis
When not in use the fins are retracted. placement, and rotates the ship.
For slow-speed manoeuvring the rudder
1. Bridge control unit should cover the propeller diameters
2. Main control unit as much as possible in order to make
3. Pump motor starter optimal use of the water flow of the
4. Local control unit propeller.
5. Fin
6. Stabilizer machinery unit The force that the steering engine must
7. Oil header tank exert depends on the torque (force x
8. Hydraulic power unit distance) that must be applied to rotate
the rudder. This force is the resultant
(N) in the drawing. The total moment
depends on:
- the position of the rudder stock com
pared to the point of application of N
- the distance between the rudder
stock and the leading edge of the
rudder (balance).
When the rudder is free-hanging (spade

type), the rudder stock must also be
able to absorb the total bending forces
of the rudder.
Depending on the rudder profile, the
rudder stock is located 25 - 40% abaft
the leading edge of the rudder.
Most rudders are hollow and empty. The
inside is stiffened with horizontal and
vertical profiles.
The next sections will describe only free-
hanging rudders. In smaller vessels like
fishing boats, however, rudders are still
supported in specially constructed heels.

Fitting ring
< ■ i.
locking bar
Conical keyless connection between

the rudder stock and rudder blade
The rudder blade is fitted to the rudder

stock by a disconnectable connection
that can transmit the torque. A con
nection method that is often used is
the keyless fit.
The keyless fit of a rudder stock onto a
rudder (or propeller shaft to a propel
ler) is based on the expansion of the
conical hole in the rudder (or propel
ler) hub by high oil pressure applied
through oil channels (10). Simultane
ously, the rudder hub casting (7) with
the conical hole is being pushed onto
the shaft by the hydraulic piston (11),
which is built in the nut (9). 1. Transom
The required travel, and therewith the 2. Shell plating
grip of the hub on the shaft, is precal 3. Rudder horn
culated. When the required travel is 4. Rudder stock
achieved, the oil pressure on the hub 5. Hole for rudder pintle
is released, whilst the pushing force 6. (Mariner) Rudder
of the hydraulic piston is maintained 7. Rubber upper casting
for a certain time. The nut has to be 8. New pintle bearing bush
tightened up after releasing the push 9. Hydraulic nut
ing pressure. 10. Oil channels
11. Built-in push up piston
D = drag = distance between the rudder-stock

N = resultant force and the point of application of N
Top view
1. Transom
2. Steering flat
3. Aft perpendicular = rudder axis
4. Rudder
5. Rudder trunk
6. Space for the rudder stock
7. Ice protection
8. Rudder dome
9. Stern frame Side view of the ship's centre line
10. Centreline wash bulkhead
11. Stern frame
12. Centreline propeller shaft
13. Side girder
14. Floor plate
Construction of part of the

lower stern of a container
feeder
5.1 Most common rudder The flap rudder Advantages of flap rudders are:
types The flap rudder has a hinged flap at - extra manoeuvrability (that is, if
the back of the rudder blade. the main rudder blade is as large
Spade rudder This flap is moved mechanically by as the spade rudder)
In terms of construction, the spade the flap guide at the top of the rudder - course corrections can be per
rudder is very simple because it has in such a way that the flap's turning formed with smaller rudder angles
no external supports. For this reason angle is twice as large as the turning This means that the ship loses less
it is a very cheap rudder and it is angle of the main rudder blade. speed and therefore consumes less
widely used, from yachts to fast fer The steering methods of the flap differ fuel.
ries and tankers. per type of flap rudder.
The rudder usually becomes narrower When the maximum rudder angle is Disadvantages are:
from top to bottom to reduce the 45°, the flap has a maximum angle of - price
bending moment in the rudder shaft. 90° with respect to the ship. - vulnerability
In this rudder position it is possible - the larger rudder forces require the
that 40% of the ship's propulsive rudder stock to be bigger
force is directed sideways.
In combination with a bow thruster
such a ship can manoeuvre sideways.
A spade rudder, freely suspended

from the rudder trunk
1. Rudder blade
2. Hinge line
3. Flap
4. Rudder stock in
rudder trunk
5. Flap actuator
6. Bearing
7. Rudder dome
8. Steering engine
foundation
A flap rudder under a large cargo ferry Flap rudder

Mariner rudder
The mariner rudder 1. Rudder blade

The Mariner rudder is used on 2. Rudder horn
large ships like container ships, 3. Rudder trunk
bulk carriers, tankers and pas 4. Seal
senger liners. 5. Carrier
The rudder horn is integrated in 6. Vane type steering gear
the ship's construction and the 7. Draught marks
mariner rudder is attached to 8. Propeller hub
the stern post with the ability to 9. Propeller blade
rotate. 10. Stern tube
This results in a robust rudder. 11. A-frame
12. Skeg
Disadvantages of this construc 13. Zinc anodes
tion are that there is a larger risk
of cavitation at the suspension
points and that the cast construc
tion is more expensive.
Removal of com Fitting of pintles Alignment of rudder and stock in shop

plete rudder to new bushings (weight approximately 120 tons)
1. Rudderstock
2. Tiller
3. Ram (piston + cylinder)
4. Hydraulic lines
5. Electro motor
6. Hydraulic oil storage tank,
hydraulic motor is installed in
the tank.
Double-acting cylinders in a ram

steering gear of a small vessel
6.2 Ram steering gear Ram steering gears can have one
ram, two rams or four rams. If, in the
6 Steering gear In ram steering gear the rudder stock case of one or two rams, the cylinders
is rotated by a tiller that is controlled are double-acting the steering engine
6.1 General by rams. A ram consists of a cylinder can still operate through one of the
and a piston, the piston being moved cylinders if the other one fails.
To alter course, the automatic pilot or by hydraulic pressure. The tiller and A 4-ram system can be split in two
the helm is used to activate the steer the rudder stock are often linked by a and two for the same reason.
ing engine, which, in turn, rotates the conical connection. This is a SOLAS requirement.
rudder stock and the rudder.
The rudder carrier supports the rud
der stock and the rudder.
The rudder carrier also functions as
a bearing around the rudder stock
and seals the rudder trunk to prevent
seawater from entering the ship by
a gland.
SOLAS demands that every steering

engine be equipped with 2 sets of
pumps with separate power supplies,
and, consequently, with 2 servo sets,
serving the hydraulic pumps.
Both the ram and rotary vane steering
engines operate by hydraulic power.
Both types of steering gear are equal
ly common in shipping.
The magnitude of the steering or
rudder moment is expressed in kNm
(kilo-Newton metre).
In general the greatest rudder
moment occurs at 30°-35°.
Ram steering gear of a large ship

6.3 Rotary vane steering
gear
A rotary vane steering engine con

sists of a fixed casing, with a rotor
to which wings are attached inside
the casing. The casing is provided
with two similar fixed wings as on
the rotor. This arrangement divides Rotary vane:
the housing into four chambers, two 1. Rudder stock
high pressure and two low pressure 2. Rotor with wings
ones. A valve block directs hydraulic 3. Fixed division blocks with
oil at high pressure into the chambers oil lines
simultaneously, pushing/rotating the 4. Chambers (filled with oil)
rotor and subsequently the rudder. 5. Electric motor
If the rudder is rotated to the other 6. Hydraulic pump
side, the high pressure chambers
become low pressure chambers and
vice versa. The rudder stock is locat Below:
ed in the centre of the rotor; the rotor 1. Rudder
is pressed onto the conical section of 2. Rotary vane steering gear with valve
the rudder stock. The wings and the block
fixed division blocks are provided with 3. Electric motor with main hydraulic
spring-loaded plates which are the pump
seals between the high and low pres 4. Power units (to supply the hydraulic
sure oil chambers. power to operate the valves in the
valve-block)
Advantages of a rotary vane 5. Hydraulic oil tank
steering gear engine over a ram 6. Emergency control console
steering engine are: 7. Electric motor starter boxes
- takes up less space 8. Bulkhead between engine room and
- easier to build in steering gear room
- has an integrated bearing 9. Ship's bottom
- has a constant rudder moment 10. Entrance from engine room
11. Hydraulic oil lines and cross connec
Disadvantage: tions.
- repairs are quite complicated

Flap rudder, disconnected from rudder kingpost, being lowered in dry dock. Note the temporary welded flap securing.

7 Hydraulics The disadvantages mentioned are also important
when designing, operating and maintaining hydraulic
systems. Pollution in a hydraulic system reduces the
7.1 Introduction efficiency. Therefore, when building or repairing a
system, extreme care must be taken to prevent dirt
Hydraulic systems are used throughout the entire maritime in every part.
industry. Air or other gases in a hydraulic system make the
Hydraulic systems are based on Pascal's law: that states that system unreliable because gases are compressible.
a pressure change at any point in a confined incompressible Hydraulic systems should be carefully deaerated
fluid is transmitted throughout the fluid such that the same after filling. Oil to water emulsions can be used as
change occurs everywhere. hydraulic fluid in applications where leakage of oil
Oil (mineral as well as synthetic ester) is by far the most com would cause a fire hazard. This is an important safety
monly used liquid in hydraulic systems. measure.
7.2 Working principle 7.3 Important components
The working principle of hydraulics is that the pressure

exerted at one surface of an incompressible liquid is equal to 7.3.1 Power pack
the pressure exerted on any other surface. This allows a small
force applied to a small area to be converted to a large force A hydraulic power pack on board consists of an oil
applied to a large area. reservoir under which or next to which the pump or
This principle is explained by the drawing below. pumps are placed. The pump is driven by an electric
1. A small force (Fl) is applied to the small piston. motor or a diesel engine.
2. This creates an equal pressure throughout the system. Ship systems are basically open hydraulic systems,
3. This pressure exerts a large force (F2) on the large piston. a pipeline system transfers the oil from the pump to
the end user(s) under (high) pressure.
In the hydraulic system, the pumps convert the supplied All system components (control valves, pressure con
energy (electrical or mechanical) into hydraulic energy. The trol valves, flow control valves, filters and coolers)
cylinders and the hydromotors convert this supplied energy are generally built on a frame.
back into mechanical energy. Valves are used to control and
control the volume flow.
7.3.2 Pumps
The pump draws the oil from the reservoir and sup
plies the oil flow into the hydraulic system. The pump
it a positive displacement pump. Pumps are driven by
electric motors or diesel engines.
Common types of pump are:
- gear pumps with external teeth
- gear pumps with internal teeth
- vane pumps
- piston pumps
Gear pumps are widely used. The flow rate is deter

mined by the size and numbers of the teeth and the
revolutions. The flow of vane pumps is determined by
the size and the number of the vanes and the revolu
Advantages of hydraulic systems: tions. The flow of piston pumps is determined by the
- Installations are relatively compact and lightweight, size and number of the pistons and the revolutions.
because of so called high power density components. The pressure is determined by the resistance and
- It is a very reliable form of energy transfer load on the cylinder and/or motor. Flows of Vane and
- Easy operation and distribution piston pumps can be variable. Pumps are selected
- Starting, stopping and reversing can be done quickly depending on the required pressure of the system.
(step-less operations are possible) The direction of the flow is done by means of control
valves. The pressure is controlled by pressure relief
Disadvantages of hydraulic systems: and/or pressure reducing valves. The amount of flow
- Energy loss due to pipe resistance can be limited by flow control valves.
- Piping is expensive
- Fire hazard and environmental pollution in the event of
leakage.
■I
7.3.3 Applications of
hydraulics systems
Hydraulic systems are used in a

wide range of applications. They
can be:
low pressure systems up to 75
bar
medium pressure systems up to
350 bar
- high pressure systems up to
700 bar
extreme high pressure systems
>700 bar
Low pressure systems are recogniz

able by large pipe diameters. And
are in general applied for powering
winches.
Medium pressure systems are 1. Piping
mostly used and have smaller pipe 2. pilot operated control valves
diameters. They, in general, are 3. Valve manifold
cheaper. 4. Pressure gauges
High pressure systems are used in 5. bypass filtration unit
tooling and safety equipment. 6. return line filter
Extremely high pressures are used 7. electric motor
in the offshore industry: blow 8. double pump (variable axial
out preventers work at 1,000 Bar, piston type)
sometimes at water depths of more 9. suction line
than 3,000 metres. 10. pressure line
Hydraulic systems are also a very

flexible source of power. One sin
gle system can supply more than
one type of actuator. For example,
operations on a dredger sometimes
need high forces at low speed,
and sometimes low forces at high
speed.
Typical applications on board a ship

are:
- Automation and Control Systems
Deck equipment (cranes, winch
es, mooring drums, hatch covers)
- Motion compensation systems
(cranes and gangways)
Actuators, valves and pumps
Engine room equipment
Stabilizers
Steering gear
- Bow thrusters
- Split barges.

ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS
13
1 Basics of electricity The behaviour of electricity can be
compared basically with a liquid sys
This chapter explains some basics tem. With a liquid system we assume
about electricity and how a ship's that litres are being pumped around.
electrical installation is designed, With an electrical system, electrons
installed, commissioned, tested and are pumped around. The voltage U
certified. It is the short version of the can be compared with the liquid
Electrical installations
publication: Ships Electrical Systems, pressure. The resistance R can be
also issued by Dokmar Maritime Pub compared with the diameters of the
1 Basics of electricity 320
lishers BV. hose. Depending on the voltage and
2 Power generation 324 the resistance, a certain current I will
Electricity is used to transport energy start running.
3 Distribution systems 330
in an efficient manner and comes in If the voltage or resistance changes,
4 Drive systems 336 two variants:: this will affect the current.
Direct Current (DC) The indication 'direct voltage', with
5 Automation 339 Alternating Current (AC). the abbreviation DV, would be more
6 Design of electrical 344 suitable because the direct current
1.1 Direct current (DC) (DC) is determined by the voltage
installations and the connected load. However, the
Direct current in the form of elec term 'direct current' has already been
7 Operation/ engine 352
tric charge or static electricity is the fully integrated into our language..
control only form of electricity that occurs
in nature. Two well-known examples The final amount of energy that a con
8 Testing and 356 are: ductor or device absorbs is expressed
Commissioning - Thunderstorms, in which a large in power (P). The power can be calcu
electric charge flows to earth in the lated by multiplying the voltage and
9 Maintenance 356 form of lightning current: P = U x I.
- If a person has walked on a syn The amount of power is expressed in
thetic rug and then touches a energy per unit of time: watts (W).
metal object. If the metal object is On board ships, there is usually talk of
in contact with the earth, the static kilowatts (kW) (1 kW = lOOOWatt).
energy will leave the body and the If the consumer requests lkW for one
person will experience a shock. hour, the notation is lkWh.
These formulas apply to a direct cur
The most important basic concept rent system where the voltage does
in electrical engineering is the rela not vary in polarity. This means that a
tionship between current, voltage positive (+) voltage does not become
and resistance. The current (I) negative (-) and vice versa.
(expressed in Ampere) that runs Because the voltage does not change
through a conductor (wire) depends in polarity, the current will also not
on the electrical resistance (R) change direction. It is of course pos
(expressed in Ohm Q) and the volt sible that the value of the voltage
age (U) (expressed in voltage) over changes, so that the current intensity
two points. If two of the three quanti is influenced.
ties are known, the missing can be
calculated at all times using the fol
lowing formula: U = I x R.
Electrical quantity Unit and symbol of measurement

Voltage (U) volt / V
Current (I) ampère / A
Power (P) watt / W
Resistance (R) ohm / Q
320 13. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

The first electrical installations on 1.2 Alternating current The constant voltage changing polar
board ships were based on direct cur (AC) ity influences the load. The load in
rent. However, the constant polarity turn also influences the current. The
of direct current systems causes a In contrast to direct current, with an indirect relationship between the volt
major drawback. alternating current system the volt age and the current returns when
Installations are protected by switch age does change polarity. Alternating determining the power.
es so that parts of the installation can voltage can be generated with a gen The relation between the voltage and
be disconnected if an error occurs, erator. A simple generator consists current is given as Cosine Phi (cos
such as a short circuit. Because a DC of a rotating shaft on which strong <p) and is included in the formula to
voltage does not change polarity, a magnets are mounted. To distinguish determine the power as follows:
voltage remains across the switch at between other forms of magnetism,
all times. As a result, an arc arises the term permanent magnet is used. P = U x I x cos <p
when the switch is opened. To stop The axis and the magnet together are
the arc, the conductive parts must be called the rotor. In addition, a genera In its pure form, a load can be ohmic,
removed far enough from each other. tor also consists of a stationary part: capacitive or inductive. An ohmic load
This process can be compared to elec the stator. is a pure resistor without a capacitive
tric welding. In order to switch high The stator consists of coils of copper or inductive element. In the case of
currents in direct current systems, wire. The ends of the copper wire are a purely ohmic resistor, the voltage
very robust switches are therefore used to connect the generator to the and current change synchronously. In
required. load. practice it is said that the voltage and
Because the permanent magnet is current are in phases.
Direct current is nowadays mainly rotated, it introduces a magnetic field
used to feed critical systems with in the coils of the stator and they An important advantage of an alter
24VDC. This is for systems with a generate a voltage. nating current system over a direct
low current that are relatively easy Because a magnet has a north pole current system is the zero crossing.
to protect. and a south pole, the voltage con This is the moment when the polarity
stantly changes polarity. changes and the voltage is zero for a
Within the 24VDC network, batter short period of time.
ies are used as a buffer, meaning The speed at which the polarity
that important systems remain active changes depends on the speed of the The possible arc that arises in a safety
when the on-board network (the pri rotating shaft. The speed is expressed switch is extinguished at this moment.
mary power supply) fails. in the number of revolutions per Thanks to this principle, an AC instal
Typical installation components are: minute. In practice, the English RPM lation is much easier and cheaper to
- Emergency lighting is used worldwide (Revolutions Per protect than a DC installation.
- Flight lighting Minute). Every rotation is made up of
- Security and alarm systems 360 degrees.
In recent years, however, ships have

been built with larger direct current
sources in the on-board network.
Large battery systems, for example,
make it possible to temporarily switch
off the combustion engines.
As a result, the emission of harmful
gases within sensitive trades can be
regulated. Despite these new appli
cations, most systems are nowa Principle DC generator with pulsating DC voltage.
days based on alternating current and
three-phase current.
1. Magnet
2. Shaft
3. Rotor
4. Stator
Principle alternator with alternating voltage changing polarity.
13. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

Alternating current is a very suitable
medium for transporting energy for
lighting, heating and control signals.
Single-phase alternating current is
also used as a power supply for alter
nating current motors up to 2.2kW. With a pure ohmic load, the voltage and current are in phase.
Common voltage levels are 230VAC
If a capacitor is connected (capacitive load), the voltage will lag 90° on
or 110VAC. For a voltage across a live
the current.
conductor, 'the phase' is indicated by
the capital letter L.
The zero 'neutral' is indicated by
the capital letter N. Consumers who
consume a higher power also require
more alternating, which requires thick
cables. Devices with a capacity> 2.2
kW are generally no longer connected
to one phase but to three-phase alter
nating current.
With a capacitive load, the voltage reverts to the current
In practice there are hardly any pure With an inductive load in the form of a pure coil, the current will lag
capacitive, inductive or ohmic loads. 90° on the voltage.
The installation is always composed
of a combination of different elements
such as coils, cables and capacitors.
Because large consumers such as
motors and transformers mainly con
sist of coils, most ship installations
have an inductive character.
With an inductive load, the current reverts to the voltage.
1. Positive charge connection

2. Negative charge connection
3. Dielectric
4. Metal plate
5. Aluminium
6. Plastic insulation
7. Aluminium body for heat dissipation
8. Cooling heatsink (aluminium)
9. Electric connecting lugs
10. Mounting feet
11. Copper wire
12. Core

1.3 Three-phase current
Three-phase current consists of three

alternating voltages. The three alter
nating voltages are evenly distributed
over a rotation; which means that Three phase system in which the three phase are shifted by 120 degrees.
they have been shifted by 120°.
Together they form a complete circle
of 360°. The phases are indicated by
LI, L2 and L3.
Just as with alternating current,
every individual phase of polarity also
changes in a three-phase system.
Due to the zero crossings, a three-
phase installation is relatively easy to
protect compared to a direct current Voltage level between the three phases LI, L2, L3 and N.
installation.
The direction of rotation depends on

the order of the phases. If it is found
that the direction of rotation of, for
example, an electric motor must be
reversed, it is sufficient to change two
of the three phases.
The voltage level between the three

phases varies per installation. In gen Equal direction of rotation 'both clockwise’ of the generator and the
eral, the level is between 380 VAC connected motor.
and 480 VAC, measured between the
mutual phases LI, L2 and L3. The
voltage level between the phases and
the zero 'N' is a factor of 1.73 lower
than the voltage between the three
phases themselves. This number is
equal to the root of 3.
Large consumers, such as electric

motors, are connected to all three
phases and load all three phases
evenly. Because the three separate
Opposite direction of rotation generator 'clockwise' and the connected
phases are shifted 120° with respect
motor 'counterclockwise'
to each other, the sum for equal
phase currents is zero. It is therefore
not necessary to have a zero 'N'.
It is possible to feed a single-phase

consumer from a three-phase instal
lation. The installation must then
have been carried out with a zero.
If several one-phase consumers are Evenly distributed and loaded phases LI, L2 and L3, no current flows
connected, it is important to distribute through the neutral conductor.
these as evenly as possible over the
different phases. If the phase cur
rents are not equal, a current will flow
through the zero.
Uneven load of the three phases, more current flows through LI than through L2.
This also causes steam to run through the neutral conductor.

2 Power generation 2.1 DC generators 2.2 Three-phase
generators
This chapter further examines the In the past, DC generators were
application of the components to gen used for the conversion to electrical Three-phase generators use a non
erate and store energy. On board energy. However, DC generators are contact transmission to transfer the
ships, combustion engines (diesel, maintenance sensitive. Namely, a generated power and are therefore
LNG, fuel oil) provide mechanical physical contact is needed to trans virtually maintenance-free.
energy in the form of a rotating shaft. fer the generated energy from the
The mechanical power supplied by the rotating part (rotor) to the fixed part A three-phase generator and an AC
rotating shaft is determined by the (stator) and the connection cables. generator generate voltage because
speed of rotation (co) (extracted in The transfer is realised by carbon the magnetic field of the rotor rotates
rad / s) and the torque (T) (expressed brushes resting on the collector of along the coils of the stator. The
in Nm). the rotor. The carbon brushes wear strength of the magnetic field is an
due to the effect of sparks on cur important factor for the power that
Generators convert mechanical ener rent passages. To ensure that con the generator can deliver. This prin
gy into electrical energy in the form tact still remains between the wear ciple is based on permanent magnets
of voltage and current. The efficiency ing carbon brushes and the collec that are stuck to the rotor. Electro
of the conversion can be determined tor, the carbon brushes are pressed magnets are also used to generate a
by dividing the electrical power by the onto the collector with springs. stronger magnetic field.
mechanical power.
When an electric current is passed
through the coil, the core generates
a strong magnetic field. The strength
of the magnetic field is proportional
to the strength of the current (the
stronger the current, the more power
ful the magnetic field).
Openwork DC generator
A generator with slip rings has no
1. Rotor coil 3. Collector The new generation of perma generator. The direct voltage from
2. Stator coil 4. Brushes nent magnets is so strong that the voltage regulator goes directly
large currents can be generated. to the slip rings.
Rectifiers installed directly in the
generators give a DC voltage
whose voltage level is proportion The stator is a tube of wound cop
al to the speed of the machine. per wire, inside which a magnet,
Batteries can be charged imme the rotor, rotates. The frequency of
diately with the electricity gener the voltage produced is expressed
ated in this way. in Hz or periods per second.

The electromagnets are powered via However, these brushes and slip rings A coil system runs within this stator.
the same principle as from a DC are a maintenance-sensitive part of The magnetic field of the stator gen
generator by means of slip rings and the installation. To make a generator erates an alternating voltage in this
brushes with an external direct volt without brushes and slip rings possi rotating coil, which rectifiers on the
age. However, the power of the elec ble, the internal generation has been rotor convert to a direct voltage. The
tromagnets is a fraction of the power developed by means of an exciter. poles of the rotor are energized with
generated. This is a rotating transformer whose this direct current. The rotor of the
electromagnet (in this case the sta generator thus becomes a rotating
tor) is standing still. strong magnet.
ROTOR
Generator with external DC power supply for magnetic field Generator with internal exciter for magnetic field
1. Permanent magnets (voltage generator) 7. Rotor coil (provides power to the stator coils in G3)
2. Stator coil (voltage generator) 8. Stator coils (power generation)
3. Slip rings (feeding the rotor coil) 9. Fan (internal circulation)
4. Stator coil (voltage regulator) 10. Bearings
5. Rotor coil (voltage regulators) 11. Heat exchanger
6. Rectifiers
The speed of combustion engines is expressed in revolutions per 2.3 Shaft generator system
minute. The frequency of alternating and three-phase generators
is expressed in Hertz (Hz) (the number of waves per second). The
frequency is determined by the number of revolutions per minute 2.3.1 Shaft generator
and the number of magnet poles of the generator. The frequency
can be calculated using the following formula: f (Hz) = pole pairs Within shipping, more and more attention is
x RPM I 60 being paid to the efficient use of fuel.
Two important motivations are reducing:
In general, the frequency of the electrical on-board network is 50 operating costs due to less fuel consumption.
or 60Hz. The standard speeds associated with these frequencies - emissions of harmful gases in order to con
are: tinue to comply with increasingly strict regu-
lations.
Number of pole pairs:
2 4 6 8 10 12
In order to reduce fuel consumption, an axle gen
On-Board network 50Hz: (rpm) erator is increasingly being used that is driven by
3000 1500 1000 750 600 500
the main engine instead of by a separate engine
On-Board network 60Hz: (rpm)
3600 1800 1200 900 720 600 in the form of a diesel generator.
The most important advantage is that there is no
need for a very separate combustion engine to
Compact and mobile generator sets are usually equipped with run the generator.
2-pole generators. Diesel engines cannot run as fast as they get In addition, a loaded main engine is more effi
bigger. Typical values for 50Hz generators are: cient because it operates close to the optimum
- < 25kW generator 3000 RPM working point. The optimum operating point is
- <= lOOOkW generator 1500 RPM determined by the most favorable speed for the
- > 6000kW generator 600 RPM ship and the associated torque. As a result, more
mechanical energy is produced from a kilogram
of fuel. In addition, the fuel (HFO) that a propul
sion engine uses is less processed than the fuel
that generator sets use and therefore cheaper. In
addition to saving the required fuel, lubericants
and maintenance are also saved. Different con
Observing the power- and propulsion control figurations occur in practice.

2.3.2 Power Take Off Sea-going vessels with a slow-run - It limits the number of running hours
generators ning, directly reversible propulsion of the 'normal' generator set (s).
engine sometimes have a PTO. - It limits fuel consumption because
Power Take Off (PTO) generators are A generator with a speed between 100 the propulsion engine runs at
powered by the ship's propulsion and 120 rpm is suitable for working a favourable operating point.
engine. This is done via a gearbox in combination with a slow-running Because the propulsion engine is
on the shaft that also drives the pro combustion engine. However, this is a designed for a specific working
peller. The propulsion engine is then hefty machine. A more compact gen area, the ratio between the power
usually a fast-running combustion erator can be used by increasing the supplied and the required fuel is
engine. These generators are used speed of the output shaft. optimal. The optimum working
to feed the entire electrical instal Increasing the speed can be achieved area is determined by the most
lation while sailing. The generator with an adjustable step-up gearbox or favourable speed for the ship and
sets driven by separate combustion a variable transmission with the help the associated torque.
engines can then be switched off. The of electronic converters. - In addition, the fuel used by a
generator sets are only used again Electrical energy obtained by a PTO propulsion engine is less than the
during manoeuvering. generator during normal sailing has a fuel used by generator sets and
number of advantages: therefore cheaper.
1. Propeller 4. main engine 7. Auxiliary generator(s)

2. shaft generator 5. frequency converter
3. Propeller shaft 6. main switch board.
Generator that is driven by the main engine via the propeller shaft

2.3.3 (PTI) Power Take In The frequency inverter can for example be used to feed the
battery from shore power.
It is also possible that the generator is used as an addi
tional motor. The motor therefore supplies extra torque (PTH) Power Take Home
to the propeller shaft. In this case, the electric motor can In the event of an emergency ((defective main engine), a
support the main motor. If the required power is limited, PTI configuration has the advantage that it is still possible
the main engine can even be switched off. The frequency to maneuver with the ship. You can sail to a port with a
inverters used to convert the variable frequency of the axle reduced sailing speed.
generator to the fixed frequency of the on-board network
can also be used when the ship is not sailing.
1. Propeller 4. Main engine 7. Battery storage

2. Shaft generator 5. Frequency converter 8. Auxiliary generator(s)
3. Gear box 6. Main switch board 9. Shore connection
2.4 Shore power

If it is not acceptable to switch volt When the load on the generator sets
When ships are in a harbour, the elec age-free, the on-board network must has been transferred to shore power,
trical installation can be connected to be synchronized with shore power. the energy sources are disconnected
shore power. This allows the generator This means that the frequency and the and the generator sets switched off.
sets to be switched off on board the phase angle of the on-board voltage This process, but in the opposite
ship. The combustion engines produce must be equal to the frequency of the direction, is also continued to discon
therefore no pollution in the form of roller voltage. nect the ship from shore power.
exhaust gases and noise. In general If the zero crossings take place at the Zero crossings from the voltage and
there is also a financial advantage same time (just like zero crossings of current of an ohmic load, the genera
because the electrical energy ashore the voltage and current of an ohmic tor set (s) and the shore power supply
can be produced cheaper. load), the generator set (s) and the are temporarily connected to each
For some smaller ships it is accept shore power are temporarily con other.
able that the electrical installation is nected to each other.
switched off (dead ship) to switch to
shore power.
328 . 13. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

2.5 Emergency power 2.6 Death ship startup
systems procedure
When the standard energy sources The power is based on the systems for The moment that there is no voltage
fail or become defective, essential which the generator is intended. The in an electrical installation, one talks
parts of the installation must remain power cables to the emergency users about a death ship. The energy gen
available. The emergency power gen must not run through the rooms con eration has stopped and the electrical
erator starts up in these situations. taining the main generators or main equipment is no longer active. It is
An emergency power generator has switchboard. important to be prepared for such
the same characteristics (voltage, fre Highly critical systems and users such situations with a clear plan how to
quency) as the normal generator (s), as a computer for an alarm and moni bring the ship back to life. Often peo
but the electrical power is limited. toring system or a fire alarm system ple start with the emergency power
The emergency switchboard provides are implemented with their own back systems and then start up heavier
energy for emergency users such as: up power supply. energy generators.
navigation lights, emergency light The back-up UPS ensures that the
ing, emergency fire pump, steering system remains active even during An emergency power generator must
machines. power supply interruptions and if the have two independent starting sys
The emergency generator is located emergency power generator has not tems. A hand-started diesel com
in a room separate from the main (yet) started. pressor with an air reservoir for air
generators and above the freeboard A UPS consists of: started generators or a charged, dry-
deck. The emergency generator must - a rechargeable battery with a bat put, second battery for electrically-
be able to work completely inde tery charger starting generators. A spring starter
pendently of any equipment outside - optionally an inverter that turns or a hydraulic accumulator are other
the emergency generator room. The direct current into alternating cur options. These starting options are
fuel tank, the starter battery or the rent. necessary in order to be able to start
starter air vessel, the starter relay The required capacity (capacity x a generator set via the emergency
box, the emergency switchboard with duration) is determined by the appli generator in the event of a complete
transformers and the emergency light cable regulations, a common period is power supply failure.
switchboard must all be in this room. 30 minutes.
This is to ensure the continuity of A ship generator must be able to
emergency power (for as long as pos operate without external assistance.
sible). Therefore, a small permanent mag
net is applied to the axis of such a
generator, which generates a voltage
in the primary stator winding. This is
rectified by a voltage regulator and
gives a direct current to the exciter
with which the stepped voltage gen
eration is initiated. Generators in land
installations draw the initial DC volt
age from outside the generator.
Shore connection plug and socket 125 Amp.

2.7 Batteries
Batteries and accumulators consist of It is a direct voltage that is brought Peak shaving is a typical application
two or more metals in a conductive, out via the poles of the battery or for capacitors. Generators provide a
usually acidic, liquid. A chemical pro batteries. The poles can be connected constant amount of energy for the
cess in which the metals dissolve and to a DC network. If the voltage across basic load of the users and the losses
ionize creates a voltage difference the poles is higher than the voltage in the installation.
between the mutual metals. of the network, the battery will dis The capacitors provide energy when
charge. The battery will charge in the the required power increases rapidly,
2.8 Energy storage reverse situation. for example by switching on large
consumers. With a power surplus, the
Energy is not only stored to guarantee Batteries are capable of storing a capacitors are also capable of absorb
the availability of critical systems such large amount of energy. Batteries can ing energy.
as communication systems and navi be fully charged and discharged in a Another practical example is heave
gation equipment). More and more period of 30 minutes to several hours. compensation. For example, to keep
often, energy is being stored tem The capacity of a battery or accumu a load in a crane at a fixed height.
porarily to reduce fuel consumption, lator is specified in Ampere hour (Ah). This makes it easier to place the load
emissions of harmful gases and noise. The actual capacity depends on the on a drilling platform. Because waves
Well-known storage media are batter discharge steam. Internal batteries make the ship move (cycle of a few
ies and capacitors. increase if batteries are discharged seconds), the crane has to keep the
The following two criteria are impor faster. load constant during hoisting.
tant when selecting the most suitable
energy carrier: For example, a battery can provide a 3 Distribution systems
- The energy density (Storage capac current of 3A for 20 hours, which cor
ity in relation to the dimensions) responds to 60Ah. The same battery When designing an electrical ship's
- The peak power (Maximum power can already be fully discharged after 3 installation, a number of imple
that a medium can absorb or deliv hours with a discharge current of 12A, mentation decisions must be made.
er) which corresponds to 36Ah. Because there is no contact with
earth on board ships, here we talk
Depending on the application, the Another factor with batteries is the about an ungrounded network (IT
method of how the energy carriers C rate. This is the discharge current system, French: IsoIe Terre). In an
can best be included in the installation that the battery can deliver for 1 hour ungrounded system, the hull func
is also examined based on capacity. A battery with a tions as a floating earth. In the event
capacity of 60Ah has a C rate of 60 of a (ohmic) closure, the potential of
Amps. If the battery is discharged the floating earth will become equal
with 2C, it it has discharge current to the potential of the live part of the
of 120A. installation. Safety and availability are
The batteries in a hybrid car two important factors of the electrical
are charged by a generator pow The lifespan of batteries is strongly installation on board ships.
ered by the normal drive engine. determined by the number of times If closure occurs, it is not always
The batteries support the normal that the battery is discharged and desirable to also switch off the rel
drive. Fully electric driving is only how deeply the battery is discharged evant part of the installation.
possible at low speeds and suf per cycle. If the propulsion system is unexpect
ficiently filled batteries. An elec edly switched off during a manoeuver,
tric car only has electric motors. 2.9 Capacitors this can immediately lead to danger
The batteries are charged and ous situations.
then the car can be used. The Capacitors, like batteries, are DC
energy runs through the batter sources and capable of storing an
ies at all times. To increase the electrical charge. Compared to bat
range, some cars are equipped teries, capacitors have a lower energy
with a range extender; this is a density. On the other hand, a capaci
small generator set with which tor can be charged and discharged
the batteries can be charged while faster and more often. Because of this
driving. characteristic, capacitors are suitable
as storage medium in electrical instal
lations with a rapidly changing power
A submarine uses the battery balance.
power for silent propulsion, the
combustion engines are switched
off.

3.1 Unearthed system
Earth faults occur regularly and often unexpectedly. It is important to locate and remove the closure as quickly as
In order to be able to dispose of the electrical instal possible so that the safety of the installation remains guar
lation in the event of an earth fault, distribution sys anteed. When a second closure to earth occurs at the same
tems are implemented in isolation. This means that time, a full short circuit to the hull will occur. The second
the phases and the star point (the neutral line) are closing means that power will actually start running, which
not connected to earth (the ship's hull). A closure to can cause damage or injury. In the case of a double closure,
earth does not lead to the switching off of the rel both involved installation parts will be switched off. The
evant part of the installation. However, the closure drawing '3-phase, 3-wire ungrounded system' shows how an
can be detected with insulation monitoring equipment isolated distribution system is constructed.
because a leakage current will start.
Main switchboard Starter
3-phase, 3-wire, unearthed system
3.2 Earthed system Despite the insulating jacket, energy The drawing (next page) '3-phase,
is transferred to the ship's hull. If an 3-wire grounded system' shows how
In practice in an IT system, there ohmic closure to earth occurs, this can an earthed distribution system is
are small leakage currents to, for directly lead to a current of a few to structured. The earth fault also leads
example, the ship's hull. These leak tens of amperes. to a higher voltage across the other
age currents are caused by couplings It is possible that if such a heat source phases, as a result of which the insu
installed in the installation to meet the is created that a fire is caused. By lation of the cables will age more rap
EMC requirements and the capacitive coupling the star point of the genera idly. Therefore, classification societies
operation of cables. A 'capacity' is a tor to the ship's hull, the relevant part set requirements for the maximum
conductor for alternating voltage; this of the installation can be switched off duration of an earth fault, per incident
creates a capacitive coupling between immediately in the event of an earth and in total per years.
the cables of the phase (s) and the fault.
ship's hull.

3.3 Combined unearthed and grounded To create a grounded star point at the secondary level,
system isolation transformers are used because they are equipped
with a grounded star point. In a secondary system, most
At the introduction of this chapter it was stated that safety earth faults will generally also occur (accommodation,
and availability are important factors in the design of an kitchen, etc.).
electrical installation. In practice, a mixed structure of the The drawing below gives an impression of the structure. An
distribution system is therefore often chosen, whereby the additional advantage of a mixed distribution system is that
most important consumers are fed from the non-earthed the low-voltage section has the characteristics of a land
primary distribution system. The other consumers are fed installation. The equipment that is normally used on land
from a grounded secondary distribution system. can therefore also be used on board the ship.
3-phase, 3-wire ungrounded main system with grounded LS system

3.4 Cables Some examples of systems
where "fireproof" cables are
Cables are used to distrib used are:
ute the energy in an electrical - fire pump supply from emer
installation between the gen gency switchboard
erators and the consumers. The - emergency lighting
cables and related work form an - fire extinguishing systems
important cost item in an elec such as FM200 and CO2.
trical ship installation by:
- The raw material prices This includes the cables for the
(many buyers) relevant warning systems and
- The man-hours required for cables from the fire center to
drawing, installing, connect alarm calls and public address
ing and testing. systems in different fire zones.
The motivation is that a fire in
Cables are available in various one zone does not switch off the
designs. PVC-insulated cables alarm systems in another zone.
are widely used for land instal
lation. This type of cable is rela 3.4.1 Selection of the
tively inexpensive but also has cable diameter
a number of disadvantageous
properties: Cable diameters are selected
- the insulation is flammable based on a number of factors
- the halogens release toxic including:
fumes during combustion - the amount of electrical cur
- a lot of smoke is caused dur rent that will flow through
ing combustion the cable,
- maximum conductor tem - the environment tempera
perature is 60 °C, the cables ture
can withstand low loads. - the way the cable is installed.
These PVC-type cables are not The thicker the cables, the
permitted by classification soci harder it is to install. The weight
eties in accommodations due and the minimum bending radi
to their unsafe properties. Most us both increase. In addition,
power and light cables on board connecting cables is also more
ships are nowadays equipped difficult.
with XLPE insulation (Cross In order to keep the cable
Linked Poly Ethene) that can work manageable, it is possible
tolerate a vein temperature of to choose to use several thin
up to 85°C. XLPE cables can ner cables instead of one thick
be loaded around 25% heavier one. The amount of electrical
than a comparable PVC cable current is the most important
and produce little smoke and factor in selecting the correct Some samples of ship's cables, from top
no toxic gases in the event of diameter of a cable. For large to bottom
a fire. Another category is the capacities one can choose to a. Normal three-core power cable
"fire-free" cables. By applying increase the nominal voltage b. Fire resistant screened power cable
micatape while wrapping the (U) of the installation to, for c. Fire resistant power cable
conductors, such a cable can example, 3,300 or 6,600 volts. d. Fire resistant control cable
withstand a fire with a tempera This saves considerably on the e. Double screened (EMC) power cable
ture of 1000 ° C for one hour. costs of cabling. However, the f. Overall screened signal cable.
These cables are used in safety other equipment must also be
systems such as general, alarm suitable for these higher volt 1. Core of twisted copper conductors
and fire detection systems. In ages and the personnel must be 2. Mica wrap
general, these cables are used in possession of specific certifi 3. Core insulation
when a system must continue cates to be allowed to work on 4. Filler
to operate in emergency condi the installation. 5. Inner sheath
tions. 6. Copper wrap
7. Braiding copper or galvanized steel
8. Outer sheath.

3.5 Switchboards etc. A ship's switchboard consists of inde
pendent vertical compartments, at
Switchboards, sub-switchboards, sec least one for each generator and two
tion boards and other assemblies for the outgoing groups. The separa
of switch gear are required to con tion between the compartments must
nect or disconnect generators and prevent damage to the adjacent com
consumers from the main distribu partment by an arc. Furthermore, the
tion system. Switchboards distribute rail system must be able to be divided
the electrical current and protect into two parts by means of a discon
the generators, cables, switchboards, nector, load disconnector or a power
and the consumers against damage switch depending on the power and
due to over current (overload) and the purpose of the switchboard.
short-circuit currents. Switchboards All important, and therefore double
contain the power switches and pro fitted, consumers, must be distributed
tection relays of generators, cables, over the two rail systems in such a
distribution rails and consumers. way that the failure of one rail system
One of the major differences between does not disrupt propulsion and live
an industrial switchboard or shore ability on board. International regula
switchboard and a ship's switchboard tions have now been adjusted in such
is the level of protection against a way that accommodation ventilation
liquids and / or dust, related to the in, for example, the galley may not
location in the ship. Because ships be switched off for a long time or as
can make unexpected movements, a whole. Synchronizing panel
protection against contact with live If parallel operation is necessary, two
parts is necessary, even during sim methods of synchronization must be Equipment in the central synchro
ple maintenance or repair work. present and a synchronization control nizing panel of a switchboard:
Doors must lock themselves in the relay must prevent incorrect switch 1. voltmetres - main bus bar
open position when they are opened, ing on. The rail compartment also 2. voltmetres - incoming generator
in order to prevent contact with live contains the central synchronization 3. synchronoscope
parts by tensioning the ship when the equipment. 4. frequency metres - main busbar
door is slammed shut. 5. frequency metres - incoming
Normal maintenance includes, for generator
example, changing a fuse or reset 6. generator breaker in/out
ting / switching on a control circuit pushbuttons
breaker. This is done with the door 7. generator selector switch.
open. An insulated hand rail must be
provided on the operating side of a
switchboard that the technicians can
hold onto.
1. Panels generator 1
2. Panels generator 2
3. Rail dividing compartment
4. Bow thruster compartment
5. Auxileries compartments
High voltage switchboard

A contactor, or magnet-switch is
3.6 Circuit breakers and designed to switch the starting cur
contactors rent of an electric motor hundreds
of times. The connecting part in this
A large air circuit breaker is designed case is pulled against the contacts by
to switch a short circuit on and off a a solenoid.
limited number of times. The moving Capacities for switching in and out
contacts are pushed against fixed con depend the circumstances. Some
tacts by a heavy high speed spring, times the maximum value for one
brought under tension by a separate time only is specified. The switch then
motor. This type of switch is not becomes in fact a fuse.
designed for an electric motor, as
these require switching hundreds of
times without maintenance to the
switch.
The smaller types of circuit breakers,
in particular the type which limits the
current, cannot be repaired.
Equipment in a generator panel

1. Ammetres, R-phase
2. Ammetres, S phase
3. Ammetres, T phase
4. Voltmetres with phase selection
switch
5. kW metres
6. Frequency metres
7. Signal lamps
8. Automatic switch on / off
9. Manual automatic switch
10. Standstill heating switch
11. Stand-by indicator lamp.
Large withdrawable air circuit breaker (5000A) with electronic protection unit. A
small standard circuit breaker with a rating up to 63A is shown in front.
3.7 Monitoring equipment
To guarantee the safety of the installation, it is necessary, among other things, to

be able to detect unwanted connections. In the case of an earthed installation, if a
live part of the installation makes unwanted contact with the touch-safe part of the
The short-circuit capacity is the
installation, people can come into contact with voltage
maximum current that an electri
To monitor unwanted connections, special insulation monitoring equipment is used
cal system can tolerate without
that continuously measures how much current flows from the voltage-carrying part
being thermally or mechanically
of the installation to earth. If there is an earth fault, the power supply of the relevant
damaged. This includes all com
part of the installation is switched off.
ponents such as rail systems and
safety devices.

4 Drive systems 4.1.2 AC motors
AC motors are powered by a voltage that constantly changes polarity.

4.1 Electric motors By energizing the windings in the stator with a varying voltage, a mov
ing magnetic field is generated in the stator. Because the magnetic field
An electric motor is a machine that converts rotates around the coils of the rotor, the rotor, including the axis of the
electrical energy into mechanical energy motor, is set in motion. On board ships, in most cases these are motors
through a spinning shaft. When selecting that are powered by three phases or three-phase motors. The direction
an engine it is important that the engine of rotation of the motors can be changed by reversing two of the three
turns the right number of revolutions (n) phases. AC motors have the advantage that they are relatively cheap
and delivers sufficient torque (T) can deliver and require little maintenance.
to the machine to move and to hold. Using
these two quantities, the following formula
can be used to calculate the nominal power
(P) expressed in kilowatts (kW). torque (T) (Chapter 16, part 2.5) in Nm
T x 2n x n
P = ---------------
60
Engines are made for horizontal or vertical

mounting in different standard enclosures.
Production is standardised to simplify
exchanges, but the same standards are not
used worldwide. For example, the IEC/DIN
Standards are used in Europe, while America
uses the NEMA Standards and Asia the JIS
Standards.
When selecting electric motors other crite
ria also play a role. When selecting electric
motors other criteria also play a role; such
as the method of cooling or in which location
the engine is installed. The behaviour of the
ship will also influence engine selection.
It is practical for a winch drive to the engine
with a mechanical brake and a position sen
sor (encoder) perform while this for one sea
water pump is not required.
The method of steering also has influence on
implementation. Engines that are controlled
by frequency converters should be about
windings have an increased insulation class
(F) to ensure that the insulation material is
not damaged due to the block voltages of
Explanation torque / Number of revolutions
the frequency inverter.
The graph shows how a three-phase motor behaves. The rotor of
an unloaded motor turns a fraction slower than the magnetic field
4.1.1 DC motors in the stator. This difference in rotation speed is called slip. As
the torque that the motor must deliver increases, the slip increas
DC motors were in the frequently used in the es to a maximum of a few percent. In addition, the graph shows
past for adjustable drives. The engines are the locked rotor torque of the motor(l). The locked rotor torque
relatively compact and deliver high torque, indicates how much torque the motor can deliver to move from
even as the engine turns slowly. Because a standstill. The graph also shows that motors can deliver more
the control technology has continued to torque (tipping torque) (3) than the specified nominal torque. The
improve, it is also possible to use AC motors pull up torque (4) indicates how much torque the motor can deliver
in combination with high frequency invert when it starts running slowly. Due to thermal aspects, overloading
ers with to achieve low speeds. Because is only possible during short periods because this extra heat must
DC motors, just like DC generators, require be removed (3). To prevent damage to a motor, motors are often
more maintenance, they are hardly ever equipped with a thermal sensor to monitor the temperature of the
used in modern installations. coils and / or bearings.

4.1.3 Permanent magnetic This means that the cooling fan is 4.2.1 Direct on Line (DOL)
motors driven separately. It is also possible
to cool engines with a liquid circuit In addition to the methods described
The rotor of a permanent magnet system. Generally, such engines are in this chapter, starting methods can
motor is equipped with magnets smaller than air-cooled engines. The also connect a low capacity engine
instead of coils. This makes the motor cooling installation, however, is more directly to the electrical network.
more energy efficient and often also complicated because pipework must Because the current is not limited, the
more compact compared to a stand also be installed. engine will almost immediately (<1.5
ard AC motor. However, the motor seconds) run at a nominal speed. This
is less suitable for running above its 4.2 Starting equipment creates a high peak current (> 7 x the
nominal speed. The motor is designed nominal current I) of the motor. Fur
so that the nominal voltage is gen Starting equipment can be installed if thermore, mechanical shock, caused
erated at the nominal speed. If the it is desired to influence the start-up by the sudden speed change, will
speed increases, the voltage level process. This is because high starting occur in the installation.
will also increase, which can cause currents can influence other users and
damage. can even cause generator failure. It
may also be desirable for the ship to
4.1.4 Cooling extend the start-up time; mechanical
shocks can cause excessive wear and
Engines with the cooling fan mounted / or damage. Starting equipment is
on the shaft have a higher air flow installed between the electrical net
causing the engine to run faster. This work and the engine. Extending the
method is adequate for many appli engine start time limits the required
cations such as pumps, although a starting current. By the time the
stationary engine will not be cooled. motor is running at a nominal speed,
Therefore, engines that have to deliv in most cases it is directly connected
er a lot of torque at low speeds have to the engine via a bypass circuit.
forced cooling.
A squirrel cage rotor 1 Connection box 4. Squirrelcage rotor

2. Shaft 5. Stator winding
3. Ballbearing 6. Ventilator

4.2.2 Star delta circuits This can cause malfunctions in the 4.2.6 Rotating converters
electrical installation. This starting
To reduce the effects of switching on, method is therefore mainly deployed Generators are generally powered by
a star / delta circuit can be used to to reduce the mechanical load. combustion engines or turbines. How
bring the motor up to speed (start Recently, the prices of frequency con ever, it also happens that a generator
ing). When switching on, the motor verters (<15kw) are almost the same is driven by an electric motor. This
is powered via a star circuit. This as the price of softstarters. Partly arrangement is used, for example, to
reduces the voltage on the motor because of this, the use of a frequen feed a part of the installation with a
by a factor of 1.71 in comparison cy converter is being increasingly different (or possibly even variable)
with the standard delta connection. chosen to start engines in a controlled frequency. In addition, it is also pos
The starting current and the start manner. sible to separate a part of the instal
ing torque is limited by this. After a lation from the rest of the installation
few seconds of starting, the circuit is 4.2.5 Frequency converters (galvanic isolation). As a result, for
switched to a delta circuit. The peak example, voltage distortions are not
current during start-up has now been Frequency converters are used to transferred between different parts of
reduced to about 4 times the nominal control the speed of AC motors. This the installation.
current (I) of the engine. Of course, applies to both standard AC motors
this starting method also reduces the as permanent magnet motors. A fre
mechanical shock. quency converters changes a volt 4.2.7 Pre-magnetization of
age from a fixed frequency to a varia transformers
4.2.3 Auto transformers ble frequency. It is therefore possible
to regulate the speed of the engine Non-rotating devices such as large
Another way to reduce the volt between stationary and the nominal transformers sometimes also need
age when starting is to use a auto speed. It is also possible to regulate starting equipment. Large transform
transformer. The effect is comparable the engine speed above the nominal ers require a considerable amount of
to a star delta circuit, but the volt speed. Since engines are designed for energy to magnetize their core. The
age can be controlled more precisely a certain capacity, it is important to magnetizing current of large trans
because the number of taps used on note that operations above the nomi formers can be so high that the circuit
the secondary side of the transformer nal speed must be reduced to prevent breakers respond and the supply volt
can be selected. This makes it easier thermal damage. age temporarily drops. To limit the
to control the desired start-up time This relationship is shown in the for inrush current, series resistors are
and the peak current. Starting up mula: used which are connected between
with an auto transformer is only suit P = T x N the mains and the transformer. After
able if only a limited starting torque (mechanical power = torque x speed) a few seconds, the transformer is
is required, such as with unloaded magnetized, after which the series
engines, fans, pumps or propellers. If the speed is increased, the torque resistors are bridged.
(current) must be reduced. Inciden
4.2.4 Softstarters tally, at lower speeds the current
cannot be proportionally increased.
To start engines in a controlled man The windings of the motor can with
ner, softstarters can be used. During stand a certain maximum current;
the start-up of an AC motor, a soft- the insulation material will melt if this
starter blocks part of the sinus; this is exceeded. Various engine adjust
principle is called a phase change. ments can be carried out to optimise
With every period a larger part of operations. In this way, a motor
the sinus is allowed through; effec can be equipped with position feed
tively increasing the voltage on the back. Because the frequency control
engine. During the start-up period (in ler knows exactly where the windings
practice between 5 and 15 seconds) in the motor are located, it has more
the engine delivers more and more control over the motor. This makes it
power. The disadvantage of soft start technically possible to keep a contain
ers, however, is that the type of volt er hanging in the air without using a
age is significantly changed by the mechanical brake. If this is permissi
phase change. ble regarding safety reasons depends
on the installation design.
5 Automation could in most cases be easily located. Automation is extremely suitable for
Thanks to the rise of electronics and carrying out operations that are too
Preface ultimately computers, systems have complex to be performed by hand.
Over the years, ship installations have become increasingly sophisticated. In addition, automation also takes
become increasingly complex. Auto The application of modern technology over simple tasks from staff. A major
mation supports the crew by taking blurs the separation between tradi advantage is that an automation sys
over actions, simplifying the opera tional fields. Fewer and fewer people tem has no fatigue. For simple controls
tion. The first automation systems are needed on board and the involve such as local operation of a winch, a
based on 'PLCs' (programmable Logic ment of people stationed ashore is simple Programmable Logic Con
Controller) date from 1970. Before increasing. Over time, systems have troller 'PLC' is generally sufficient.
that, switching functions were set up also become increasingly reliable. In the PLC, a program based on the
with electronically operated switches As a result, ships have entered service status of the inputs (sensors) and the
or relays. The installations were sus that can sail autonomously (inde programmed conditions determined
ceptible to malfunction due to the pendently). The expectation is that how the outputs (actuators) are con
mechanical parts in the relays. automation will increasingly have an trolled.
By measuring directly on the metal impact on the operations on board
contacts of the relays malfunctions and ashore.
Automation system helps inland shipping with determining the most efficient route Photo: Argonics
Different subsystems on board a ship.
1. Thruster 4. Ballast system 7. Thruster

2. Winches 5. Lifting equipment 8. Rudder
3. Alarm & monitoring 6. Engine room 9. Bridge
5.1 Sensors Sensors are also used for specific 5.2 Actuators
measurements such as the number of
Sensors are the senses of an automa soot particles in exhaust gases or the Actuators are devices and compo
tion system. Digital sensors measure number of iron particles in hydraulic nents in an installation that influence
whether or not a condition is true. For oil. In the case of an analog voltage the environment. It can be about
example, whether a door is closed or signal, the range is generally 0 to 10V. triggering a mechanical movement by
not. Digital signals are based on a A disadvantage of a voltage signal means of a motor, cylinder or pump.
logic 0 or 1. In practice, this usually is the sensitivity to interference. In
corresponds to a direct voltage of 0 addition, a voltage drop occurs when The movement can then be stopped
volts or 24 volts. bridging long distances because the again by an actuator in the form of
To prevent a sensor from being read cable acts as a resistor. a brake or a shut-off valve. The cat
incorrectly, a bandwidth is defined for On board, a current signal with a egory includes devices such as lamps,
a logical 0 (for example -34VDC to range of 4 to 20 mA is often chosen. heating elements and a ship's horn.
+ 5VDC) and a logical 1 (+ 15VDC In addition to the standard analogue Due to the required power, actuators
to + 34VDC). The area in between signals, temperature sensors have are often connected indirectly to the
prevents the signal from commuting special characteristics. For example, PLC.
between both conditions. a PT100 temperature sensor is based For example, the PLC controls an
Analogue sensors measure physical on resistance values that vary with interface relay. A contactor is ener
quantities such as temperature and the ambient temperature of the sen gized by means of the interface relay,
pressure, electrical voltage and cur sor. Sensors are usually connected which switches on the power supply
rent. directly to the PLC. to an actuator.
Gyro Compass Wind Sensor Visualization Masterstick
STB Panel (group 3)
PS Panel (group 2)
Main Panel (group 1)
Portable Panel (group 5)
Linking different systems via a central PLC.

Cycle (1) all data is read at
The image above shows that the PLC is used to Read data the same time. (2).
connect the joystick and some nautical sensors The control task is hand
to the thrusters. The PLC incorporates logic that led, (3) all data is written
supports the operator in the operation of the
2 Processing simultaneously.
ship. For example, the control task in the PLC
ensures that the position of the joystick is trans
Write data
lated to the correct speed of the thrusters.

5.3 PLC technology In addition to selecting the primary Example walkway.
function of a channel (such as the For an advanced application such
The central point of a control system function of the sensor, measuring as the accurate compensation of
is the processor of the PLC (pro temperature, measuring vibrations or a ship's rolling movements, fast
grammable logic controller) that measuring a position), an IO (input control is essential.
ensures that the control tasks are and output) module can also be used A walkway to drop people off a
performed. A simple form of a control to signal for editing. For example, moving ship at a fixed landing
task is an input that is transferred by adjusting (scaling) the measuring point on, for example, a windmill
to an output with a time delay. For range or by filtering noise on the sig is a typical application example.
example, to ensure that a machine nal. The advantage is that deviations Sensors take care of the registra
will not start running until the 'on' from the measured signal do not have tion of external influences such as
button has been intentionally pressed to be taken into account in the control ship movements. The hydraulic
for two seconds. A more complex program. cylinders ensure the correct posi
control task is for example a ’Dynam tion of the walkway.
ic Position System’ (DP) that controls There are several options for bringing Since the span of the walkway
the rotation and speed of the azimuth various systems into contact: is several metres, a small devia
thrusters to keep a ship in position. - A separate connection can be tion at the point of engagement
This is typically an operation that is used for each signal. The status is of the hydraulic cylinder results
too complex to perform by hand. passed on through 'hard contacts'. in a large deviation at the tip of
This can be an on / off status which the walkway. A fast and stable
5.4 Architecture is exchanged by applying or not operating system is essential for
applying voltage to the contact. such applications. After all, it is
PLC systems can generally be - In the case of measured values, not enough if the rolling motion
expanded so that the number of con analogue signals are used that can of the ship is read four times per
nected sensors and actuators can assume a random value between second at a random moment and
also be expanded. Often there are two limit values. the actuators are given a new set
also modules available for connecting point four times per second at a
special sensors and actuators such 5.5 Communication random moment.
as speed metres 'encoders', vibration protocols The controller will attempt to
sensors or hydraulic valves. The more correct the position change with
systems on board that have to work With bus systems it is possible to large steps, resulting in a rest
together, the more control systems exchange information from multiple less and unstable behaviour and
that are built up in an integrated contacts or multiple measured values the installation may even start to
manner. There are various options: through a single physical connec oscillate.
- one central PLC handles all logic tion. Some examples of bus systems To be able to control the system
- several PLCs work together, parts are Modbus, CANbus, Profibus and stably, it is important that the
of the control are handled autono Profinet. cycle times are short and con
mously. stant. This can be achieved by
5.6 Performance using a powerful PLC that can
The modules with which an operat handle the cycle of reading of all
ing system can be expanded have The required performance of a PLC sensor data, processing the data
become increasingly flexible over the depends on the type of application. and controlling the actuators with
years. The diversity of sensors that In particular, the size of the project a fixed (cycle) time.
can be connected to a module has and the required response time are
greatly increased. This brings the fol important factors.
lowing benefits: For example, to register whether a
- installations have become more hatch is open or closed, it is not nec
compact essary to read the value of the prox
- fewer spare parts needed on board imity sensor every 1 ms.
- a possible extension is easier to
realize.

5.7 Programming In the examples below, each time a situation is pro
grammed in which a lamp (C) must come on when
The control tasks are written by a PLC programmer. The someone presses a button and sensor (B) does not
programmer is basically free to choose which program measure daylight. Every language has its advantages.
ming language is used to program the PLC. Programming on the basis of a Ladder Diagram (LD)
For most PLC systems a number of different languages and working with relay circuits has many similarities.
are available, each with its advantages and disadvan Working with ladder diagrams has been very popular for
tages. A control task (see text below drawing) of a PLC a long time because the switch is relatively easy.
can be designed in different languages. The way in The size and complexity of automation projects is con
which a PLC is programmed is laid down in a standardi stantly increasing.
sation (IEC61131-3).
Instruction List (IL) Structured Text (ST) Sequential Function Chart (SFC)
LD A C:= A AND NOT B
ANDN B
ST C
Function Block Diagram (FBD) Ladder Diagram (LD)
The above images show how programming a condition 'C' is true if 'A' is true and 'B' is not true.
JS pLC Navgato. 6 % ” = B Pump.cfc SI Bltnlccfc S3 63 □

v PlcApplication 1 FUNCTION BLOCK Blink a
> bin 2 - VAR INPUT (2 J
3 enable : BOOL; f* enable blinker *)
v £> Source
4 interval : TIME; (* blink interval *)
FEI Blink.cfc
5 ENDVAR
10 Pump.cfc 6 w VAR^OUTPUT
v Variables 7 signal : BOOL; output signal *)
GlobalVariables.gvl 8 END VAR v
■ PLC.PRG.cfc
> 0$’ Configuration
v x Libraries
> K Standard.plclib VI.19 Release
v Project A
> bin
v Continuous Function Chart
CFC_Function_Block.cfc
CFC_Function.cfc
jS| CFC.Program.cfc
v (cfa Structured Ted
|=^ ST_Function_Block.$t
ST Function.st
§ ST.Program.rt
@ GlobalVariables.gvl
§ Main.st
> (£■ Configuration
> \ Libraries
v Project B
> bin L*. Problems Task: 0 Console % -*br^^|C!$i©,’r'3're=’S
GlobalVariables.gvl PLC Build Console
§ PLC.PRG.st #15: Compile info: MSYS version 3.85.05 Beta is required at least to load m-file '
> Configuration #15: Compile info: 'A:\temp\PlcApplication_1937840974928980645\PlcAppli.m' was created (5 J
> X Libraries
09:31:59.273 - PlcApplication - Build finished in 4 seconds
build location: A:\temp\PlcApplication_1937840974928980645

Incremental Build took (4s)
Build successful
1. Project navigation 4. Operating system

Editor for programming a
2. Declaration of variables 4a. Variables (input)
control task in a ladder.
3. 'Building blocks' 4b. Function block
4c.Variables (output)
5. Diagnosis and monitoring
With Structured Text (ST), programs can be written more 5.8 Visualization
compactly, making this language increasingly popular.
One important part of the development software is the pro A visualization is used to give the user insight into
gram editor. The illustrations (page 342) show the light sensor, the status of the installation. In the simplest form, a
push button and lamp described above. Three variables that signal lamp with different colors can indicate whether
are included in a string (programming line). a machine is active, stationary or has a malfunction.
The following is specified in the string: If input A is high and If the status readout and operation of several machines
input B is low then output C becomes high and the lamp lights must be done at one location, a visualisation screen is
up. often chosen.
Control elements can be adjusted in this screen and it
A number of things are recorded within the programming envi is, for example, possible to switch between different
ronment. The most important are all 'variables' (the inputs and views.
outputs) that will be used in the control program. All kinds of On board ships, all alarms are often displayed in a list
information are processed within the control program. A switch so that the user can see the status of different systems
can only contain two values 0 or 1 (off or on). on board in one overview.
An analog sensor can accept more than 10,000 values. Data For some applications it is useful to have insight into
types are defined for this. A so-called Boolean is sufficient to historical data.
display a 0 or a 1. By means of 'trending' one or more values can be
A temperature sensor that can assume more than 10,000 val stored for a certain time. This gives the user, for exam
ues requires a so-called integer, consisting of several bits, to ple, the option to view the fuel consumption of the past
present all possible values. 7 days.
Thrusterl STW ECS
Thruster2 Existing warnings

27.4 kn
06-06-07
UTC 12 :54 : 58
RPM PITCH POD Fwd
120 28.2m/sec
LAT
150 Activ
LON 039ü32.85' W
PITCH
True Relative 024.0 % COG 084.0

RPM
SOG 024.0 kn
Winch Information 84.0 rprr
180
Load Avail HDG 086.0
Wire Lenght
Order 086.0
Drift 279.6 Set 003.6 kn
Wire Speed
Route Information
7.2 m/min
Steering Mode Heading
Order ROT 7.2 °/min
ROUTE Atlantic
lllllllllllllllllllllllll llllllllllllllllllllll To Waypoint 0004
HHMIHHHH Track Course 087.3
Depth Below Keel Port Rudder Stb Rudder Distance to WOL 009.0 nm
Time to WOL 000.0 h
Depth 017.0 m Level
(ECDIS) Bearing to WP
RPM PITCH PITCH RPM Activ
Planned Radius 000.3 nm
180
Virtual display of essential information regarding navigation and manoeuvring
■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■
-
■■■ESa
6 Design of electrical installations Because business operations depend on the availability of
electrical installations, special regulations apply. Classifica
tion societies determine whether the electrical installation
6.1 Preface of a ship is safe enough. Which regulations apply depends,
among other things, on the type of ship, the dimensions,
Generators generate electricity on board ships. The energy the loading capacity and the work for which the ship is to
generated is distributed to consumers via switch boxes, be used. To guarantee availability and safety, the electri
transformers and electrical cables. cal installation must be able to remain operational in the
Consumers include communication systems, navigation event of a single fault. Essential elements must be redun
systems but also heavy users such as electrical thrusters dant; this can be done by performing a single component
and winches. twice or by performing a part of the installation twice.
Thrusters 2-10
Crane vessel
6.2 Regulations 6.3.1 The functional The power balance can be used to
description determine how many gen erators
The basic design of an electrical instal should be available for each situation.
lation must comply with certain rules. The functional description is deter
The applicable rules are determined mined by the requirements of the The power balance is also used to
by a number of factors including: classification society and the Flag determine the power of transform
- the sailing area State. The requirements of the Flag ers for lighting and other low-voltage
- the way of operation in the engine State are generally determined by consumers and the required cabling.
room and on the bridge IMO and SOLAS rules and may often Simultaneousness factors are used
- the risks of the operations and the also be checked by the classification for the selection of transformers and
desired availability of redundancy society. cable diameters.
The final basic design factors are The functional description describes 6.3.3 Short-circuit
derived from the desired class formats. how the installation on board will calculations
Important regulatory authorities work. It concerns a description of the
are: operation, the automatic operation Short-circuit calculations serve to
IMO: Makes agreements at interna and the functionality of the installa determine the switching capacity of
tional level between the participating tion. The automation software is writ switching material and the mechani
member states and focuses on guar ten based on the functional descrip cal strength of the switchboard.
anteeing and improving safety and tion. When the installation is deliv Low voltage switchgear material
environmental friendliness. ered, tests are used to test whether is normally made for a maximum
SOLAS (covered by the IMO) is the final operation corresponds to the switch-off capacity of 100 kA.
an international convention for the initial functional description. This limits the maximum generator
protection of human lives at sea. power to 5000 - 6000 kW at 400 -
National Flag State Authority the 6.3.2 Power balance 480V, 50-60HZ.
country where the ship is registered. If more energy is required, the instal
The classification societies draw up The power balance is an analysis of lation must be shared or high voltage
rules that are practically applicable the required electrical power under must be selected.
during the design and construction of different operating conditions such Typical high voltage values for ships
the installations. as: are: 3.3 kV, 4.16 kV, 6 kV, 6.6 kV and
Classification agencies are also active - lying still in the harbour or at 11 kV. The maximum permitted level
ly involved in designing and building anchor is 15 kV where the voltage class for
the installation. After the completion - loading and unloading materials must be 17.5 kV.
of the test (s), the classification socie - manoeuvring
ty hands over a certificate. During the - sailing 6.3.4 Single line diagram
life of a ship, periodic checks are car
ried out by the classification society. The power balance can look com A single line diagram schematically
pletely different for each type of ship. shows the main distribution of the
6.3 Basic electrical design Dredgers are equipped with large electrical installation with the voltage
electric sand pumps. These pumps levels, capacities and locations.
One of the first drawings to be made consume a lot of power during dredg The following devices and systems
for the electrical design is a single- ing for a long time. Heavy cargo ships are indicated:
line diagram. The main structure of are often equipped with large cranes - generators
the distribution system, based on so that the ship can load and unload - switches
the basic design factors, is laid down itself. During loading and unloading, - important consumers such as elec
on this. The drawing on the previous the cranes cause high and rapidly tric motors or machines
page shows a single-line diagram for varying power peaks on the on-board - links to important sub switch
a large crane vessel. network. boards
Small consumers are also part of - link to the emergency switchboard.
The basic design of the electrical the power balance. For example, low
installation must be sent to the Clas voltage consumers are also included.
sification society for approval and Because not all consumers will be
consists of: switched on at the same time, simul
functional description taneity factors may be used.
equity balance The required generator capacity is
short circuit calculation determined by determining the maxi
- single line diagram mum expected simultaneous power
- selectivity scheme with a margin for switching on large
- classification drawings. consumers.
6.3.5 Selectivity diagram overload or short circuit is detected. By coordinating the settings, it is
The selectivity diagram shows the possible to disconnect the installation
A selectivity diagram shows the time settings and margins between the dif quickly and close to the error that
flow graphs of the main power switch ferent circuit breakers. occurs. This prevents other consum
es. Power switches are used to discon ers from being switched off unneces
nect parts of an installation when an sarily.
Circuit breaker trip curves with overload zone Circuit breaker trip curves with short-circuit zone
highlighted highlighted
Environmental Example location Type protection Permitted

Condition Minimum Equipment
Switchgear Machines Other eqt

Danger of explosion
Zone 0 Tanks and holds dangerous goods Intr safe type la No Not Measuring
existing equipment
Zone 1 Tankerdeck Explosion proof Yes Yes
Zone 1 Paintstore Explosion proof No No Light only
Zone 1 Battery rooms Explosion proof No No Light only
Zone 2 Cardecks IP55 Yes Yes Above 45cm 1
Zone 2 Boatstores on yachts IP55 Yes Yes Above 45cm 2
Danger to people Dry spaces IP20 Yes Yes

No mechchanical damage Cabins IP20
Corridors IP20
Bathrooms IP34 No No Light only
Dripping water Engine controlroom IP23 Yes Yes
Light mechanical damage Navigation bridge IP23
Engineroom above tweendeck IP23
Switchboard room IP23
Splash water Enginerooms IP44 No Yes

Moderate mech.Damage Bathrooms IP44 Safe sockets
Galley IP34
Laundry IP34
Spraywater or dust Engineroom below floorplates IP55 No Yes
Solid water Foreship and opendeck IP67 No Yes

Underwater Submersible IP68 No Yes 3
Notes 2 Also gas detection

1 10 Airchanges per hour 3 Depth to be specified
The required protection class of electrical equipment on board ships depends on the location of the equipment on board
and is laid down in international standards. Other environmental conditions such as temperature and shock / vibration
are also described. EMC requirements come from another table but have been added here.
This overview applies to all electrical equipment and not only to rotating machines.

6.3.6 Layout drawings Redundancy is expressed in three classes:
- Class 1: a single fault may not affect the functioning of the ship.
Layout drawings show the locations of This is the most used class for normal ships. Computer operating systems
the important electrical components may be single-handed, but manual operation must be possible.
and cable routes on the ship. - Class 2 goes further and requires two switchboards and, if computer-con
The route of cables is especially trolled, two computer systems, each capable of doing the work automatically.
important on ships with an electric Class 3 goes further and requires such an installation that work can continue
propulsion or a DP notation. even if an entire space is lost due to fire or flood. There is therefore a second
Functional descriptions and detailed navigation bridge with a second operating system.
schedules must be self-explanatory
and address topics such as:
parallel operation of generators
synchronizing generators Obtaining redundancy is done, among other things, by duplicating systems.
- completeness of instrumentation. Examples of this are:
- power supplies for lighting
This also includes a description of the - power supplies for the steering machines
automatic start-up of the standby - 2nd pump that starts automatically when the 1st pump fails.
generator, automatic restart of essen
tial consumers and functions that 6.5 Influence of hazardous zones
are necessary for an uninterrupted
energy supply. A dangerous zone is an area where there are gases, liquids or dust with an
explosive character. To prevent an explosion in these areas, eg from sparking
6.4 Redundancy contacts or a high surface temperature of a device, only equipment that has
been designed and tested for failure to cause an explosion may be installed.
Redundancy is applied to guarantee
availability and safety on board ships.
This means that parts and some
times complete systems are executed
multiple times. By having a back-up
system at the moment that the pri
mary system fails, the crew maintains
control of the ship. It can be a double
pump or generator.
The most extensive form of redun
dancy means duplication of engine
rooms with generators and switching
material. For example, some types of
ships have redundancy to absorb the
effects of fire or flood.
Redundancy is also applied to the
routes of cables. The control cables
of certain devices may not be on the
same cable car as that of the backup
systems. Redundancy is checked with
so-called Failure Mode and Effect Ana
lyzes (FMEA) in which the effects and
consequences of a possible malfunc
tion are mapped.
An FMEA is performed for all critical
systems such as fuel, cooling water,
starting air, electrical installation, etc.
The paint locker is also a hazardous area

Examples of dangerous zones are: Zone 2 is accepted for dry cargo ships 6.6 Type-approved
tanks of a product tanker and the and for car decks of ferries, if suffi products 'type
deck space above at the hose con ciently ventilated. approval'
nections for loading and unloading Liquid natural gas (LNG) and kero
hazardous substances sene vapours are heavier than air Manufacturers have the option to cer
- pump chamber and can leak through an opening to tify their products for use on board
- car decks of a ferry where cars are a lower deck or room. It is therefore ships. This means that a product or
fueled important to use gas-tight cable and a complete product range is provided
- helicopter filling station on a ship pipe penetrations from the hazardous with a 'type approval'. The use of
- paint magazine to the non-hazardous areas. products with a type approval offers
clearing a ship with hazardous sub the advantage that the classification
stances. The cheapest solution is Gases are classified into the following society can assume that the product
not to install electrical equipment groups: is suitable for the conditions on board.
in hazardous areas. A zone sys Group I: Methane, as found in mines On request, classification societies can
tem is used to indicate the level of Group II:General industrial gases and make a list available with all type-
explosion hazard. These zones are gases from flammable liq approved components.
numbered 0, 1 and 2. uids and combustible solids If a component is not on the list, then
Group IIA: Propane it must in principle undergo a separate
Zone 0 comprises spaces and places Group IIB: Ethylene type inspection. This extra effort is
where an explosive atmosphere is or Group IIC: Hydrogen gas. preferably avoided.
can be continuously present. Ship conditions are defined as follows:
Examples are the cargo tanks and the The indicated gases are typical of the ambient air temperature: 45°C
surrounding ballast tanks of a crude groups. Gas group IIC is the most (other values possible for a limited
oil tanker, product tanker or chemical dangerous, with gases that easily sailing area).
tanker that carry flammable liquids ignite. Flammable substances such as - sea water temperature 32°C
with an ignition temperature below gases are also classified on the basis humidity maximum 95%,
60°C. of their (self-) ignition temperature. non-condensing.
Zone 1 includes places where an Six temperature classes are defined - trim: + / _ 5°
explosive atmosphere can sometimes as follows. - stamping: + / _ 5°
be present during normal operation. T 1: <450 0 C, side: + / _ 22.5°
Examples are: T 2: <300 ° C, rolls: + / _ 22.5° with a pendulum
spaces around tankers' cargo tanks T 3: <200 ° C, time of approximately 10 sec
that transport cargo with a ignition T 4: <135 ° C, - vibrate: depending on the place of
point below 60°C. T 5: <100 ° C, installation
- spaces separated from a zone 0 T 6: < 85 ° C. shock: depending on the installation
area by a single bulkhead or deck location
pump rooms and spaces through The surface temperature of electri
which charge pipes run. cal equipment, such as an engine, In addition, the following tests are also
spaces on the deck within a radius determines whether it can be used in carried out to obtain a type approval:
of three metres of a cargo tank a specific hazardous area. Delivery of interfering electromag
opening, cargo valve, cargo line The energy level of intrinsically safe netic radiation or guided interfer
flange, exhaust openings of pump circuits (IS circuits) is so low that ence.
room ventilation. it cannot cause a spark to ignite an Sensitivity to electromagnetic radia
- six metre radius from high pres explosive gas. However, this depends tion or guided interference (these
sure relief valves of cargo tanks. on the design of the IS circuit, taking tests are especially important for
Zone 2 includes spaces where an into account the cable capacity and electronic equipment).
explosive mixture is not present dur other parametres. Sensitivity to variations in voltage
ing normal operation or for a limited To prevent induction of energy by and frequency.
period. Tank level measurements must other (power) cables, IS cables and Sensitivity to voltage interruptions,
be intrinsically safe (blue cables), and equipment must be installed sepa in particular to PLC and PC systems
the controls must be explosion-proof. rately and with a blue colour. whose programs must restart safely
after an interruption.
- Measuring the harmonic distor
tion caused: for most industrial
equipment it applies that they are
designed for an electrical supply
voltage with a maximum distortion
of 5%. If the sine waveform deviates
more, greater heating may occur
and the device may malfunction.

1. Bridge wing console 4. 'Not under command' 6. Whistle
2. S-band radar lights 7. Satcom antenna
3. AIS antenna 5. Magnetic compass 8. X-band radar mast
6.7 Electromagnetic
Compatibility (EMC)
Electrical systems must not disturb

each other on board. Standards have
been drawn up to ensure that systems
and components do not adversely
affect each other. On the one hand,
the standard specifies the maximum
amount of interference that a product
or system may cause per frequency;
this is called emission. On the other
hand, it is also specified per frequency
to what level a product or system
must be resistant to interference sig
nals; this is called immunity. A safety
margin is applied between the maxi
mum emission and minimum immu
nity, as a result of which systems are
theoretically electromagnetically com
patible. For type-tested equipment,
both the minimum insensitivity and
the maximum disturbance have been
determined and recorded. Control system, EMC immunity test

EMC covers all equipment and sys 6.8 Harmonic distorsion on the ship's electrical system
tems on board and therefore a com
prehensive EMC plan must be made If a sinusoidal supply voltage is charged with a pure load such as, for example,
during design. This starts with an a resistor, coil or capacitor, a sinusoidal current will start whose frequency is
inventory of all sensitive equipment equal to the frequency of the supply voltage. However, loads built with power
and disruptive equipment. The dis electronics and / or switching power supplies do not absorb sinusoidal current.
turbing equipment is then assessed In addition to the basic frequency, there are also frequencies with a multiple of
for the occurrence of field strengths. the basic frequency. The deviating current consumption influences the shape of
Interfering fields are caused by radio the supply voltage. As soon as the supply voltage changes shape by the con
radiation and disturbances propa nected users, there is talk of harmonic pollution.
gated via the cables.
The EMC plan consists of a test matrix The degree of harmonic distorsion is given as a percentage. This indicates to
in which all measures are described what extent the shape of the voltage and current deviates from a pure sine
to achieve the desired goal. wave. A high degree of harmonic pollution has adverse consequences.
The grouping of cables, based on This results in additional losses, which means that more heat is developed in
the signals and the separation of the devices, cables and, for example, security equipment. This reduces the reli
routes of the cable groups is also an ability of an installation.
essential part of the EMC plan.
Specific EMC standards have been On board ships, large frequency inverters cause pollution on the on-board
developed specifically for naviga network. In addition to the load, the ratio between the available power of
tion and nautical equipment such the vehicle electrical system and the power consumption also influences the
as radars, echo sounders and GPS. degree of distortion. On board ships the maximum available capacity and the
Navigation equipment must comply maximum required capacity are generally close to each other. The higher the
with IEC standard 60945. relative load on the vehicle electrical system, the higher the level of distortion.
The specified specifications of type- In addition, the strength of the generators is an important factor. The strength
tested equipment apply to the stand or 'sub transient reactance' is indicated by XD. The lower the XD 'number, the
ard housing. When equipment is stronger the generator.
removed from the original housing, The XD' number is mainly determined by the amount of copper in the windings
for example to be built into a desk, of the generator. Land installations are much stronger (XD' = 4) than installa
it loses its type approval and EMC- tions on board ships (XD' = 12).
related properties.
Connection cables can also be part of The reactance of a generator can be calculated by the following formulas:
the type test, which is why they are
usually supplied by the manufacturer. Nominale stroom 3300
The supplier's instructions with regard Short circuit current = ----------------------- = ------------- = 27.500 A
to EMC must be followed where pos XD' 0,12
sible. If this is not fully possible, it
may still be possible to achieve good
EMC protection through additional Short circuit power = V3*480 * 27.500A = 22,86 MVA
measures. Aspects such as earth con
nections play an important role and
here too the supplier's instructions V2 230.400
must be followed. Reactance = = = 0,01Q
Furthermore, special RFI (radio fre 22,86 *106 22,86 *106
quency interference) filters are also
available for interfering equipment
such as frequency converters that can It can happen that devices that themselves hardly cause harmonic pollution are
contribute to increasing the electro sensitive to a polluted on-board network. All electrical equipment must work
magnetic compatibility of the instal smoothly, for example, a device must not fail or display incorrect readings.
lation. The quality of the supply voltage to equipment is also a part of electromagnetic
In addition to high-frequency distur tolerance (immunity). In practice, there are always harmonic distortions in the
bances, low-frequency disturbances network, mainly caused by frequency inverters. The maximum deviations of
also play a role on board ships. voltage, frequency and voltage form are laid down in standards.
The quality of the supply voltage is
also part of electromagnetic tolerance
(EMF).

If a large part of the installation consists of frequency con It is sometimes necessary to demonstrate that higher
trolled drives, it can be more cost effective to separate this harmonic distortion has no adverse effect on users. In
part from the rest of the installation. The components used that case, load tests are performed with a generator set,
such as generators, switchboards, inverters, cabling and a representative piece of switchboard, an inverter and an
drive motors are resistant to a higher degree of distortion. electric motor that are connected to each other. However,
A typical example is the electric drives of fixed screws with such extensive tests cost a lot of time and money.
a variable speed. It is also possible to reduce the influence
of large consumers by using additional transformers, intel
ligent input bridges or filters.
Current shape - Pure sine wave with a 100% ohmic Voltage form - 1,000 kW generator that is loaded
load of 500kW with a 500kW frequency inverter.
Channel Information Module Information Protocol Grid Statistics Limit State Average Values Diagram Simulation Online Parameters I/O Statistics Service Variables
■» Harmonics Voltage (Reference: Nominal)

Diagram Diagram Configuration
Harmonics: 2-29
Range [1 50) (eg. 2, 5.6-12)
Voltage: @ U-U
0U-L2
Values
Name Value THD THDn

U-U 5596.562 V 138% 191 %
U-L2 5647.717 V 1.43% 1.47%
U-L3 5550.38 V 132% 133%
Diagram Configuration
Harmonics: 2-29
Range (1 50) (e.g. 2,5.6-12)
Current S31-L1
01-12
01-13
Values
Name Value THD TDD

I-U 270.661 A 802% 2716 %
I-L2 9.817 A 11715 % 1.46%
■ I-Ll 1-12 ■ I-L3 1-13 641.311 A 231% 135%
In the case of switching power sup The created voltage form has been 60Hz) and multiple sinuses that have
plies and rectifier bridges, the shape converted from the sine wave based a multiple of the base frequency.
of the supply voltage is influenced. on the base frequency (for example

7 Operation/ engine The availability of such crew is anoth When only one person is in the engine
control er factor. The engine room is a noisy, room, that person needs to be pro
hot and humid environment. tected by a 'dead man alarm system’.
Engine rooms of modern ships are It is activated by the engineer when
normally not manned. The unmanned Modern automation and control sys entering the engine room. The activa
engine room is the norm, which means tems allow the engine equipment to tion will start a timer which is nor
that all equipment is automated. be monitored and controlled from a mally set at 27 minutes.
Manual action is only required if there control room for at least part of the
is a malfunction. The crew attends time. When the engineer resets an alarm
the engine room only for maintenance All systems must be designed and or resets the dead man alarm sys
and repairs. installed so that no intervention by tem the timer will start another 27
The Class notation for such an engine an engineer is required under normal minutes.
room is UMS or unattended machin steaming or manoeuvring conditions. After 27 minutes without manual
ery space. action, a pre-alarm in the engine
A manned engine room, which means During sea trials at the end of the room goes off.
that systems are monitored and con building period, 4 to 6 hours of oper If that is not acknowledged within
trolled 24 hours a day, requires more ation under varying circumstances three minutes, the general engineers'
crew, with the obvious financial con must be completed without alarms alarm goes off.
sequences. sounding and / or shutdowns.
Resetting the timer is possible at
various locations in the engine room.
Switching it off is only possible when
leaving the engine room.
Unmanned engine rooms require:

- fire detection,
automatic protection of diesel
engines, gas turbines and steam
turbines for propulsion and for
electric power generation,
remote control of propulsion and
steering gear from the bridge
- automatic starting and stopping of
air compressors and other machin
ery which does not run continu
ously,
automatic start of a stand-by pump
if a running pump fails,
starting of a standby generator if
the working set fails,
- automatic restarting of equip
ment in order of importance after
a black-out, including auxiliary
sytems such as lubricating oil, fuel,
HT (fresh) cooling water, LT (salt)
cooling water and ventilation.
Engine control room of yacht with notation UMS

Automatic start of an auxiliary gen Like the dead man alarm system in The Integrated Bridge, notation IBS,
erator and re-start of all essential the engine room, touching any button goes even further.
consumers in case of a blackout is also resets the timer. Similar systems Screens can show the electronic chart
a SOLAS requirement for all ships are in use on inland waterway ships with ship's position, radar picture and
where the steering and/or propulsion and railways, but with different time AIS information.
is dependent on electricity. intervals. Some Flag States do not Workstations allow for:
This also applies to ships with a allow only one man on the bridge, and - voyage planning,
manned engine room. on passenger ships it is forbidden. engine room information with main
When the load requires parallel opera and auxiliary systems,
tion of two or more generators a non- Further requirements: switching from one function to
essentiai tripping system must switch two radars (one with ARPA func another.
off the non-essential consumers if one tion)
of the running generators fails. - Automatic Identification System However, when one function fails, the
(AIS), transmitting in the VHF system automatically reverts back to
7.1 Bridge automation band: basics:
• name, - chart,
One man on the bridge (Notation NAV • identification number, - radar
1) is a further development of bridge • tonnage, cargo, - alarms.
automation. • loading and discharge port,
Besides bridge control of propulsion, course and speed. IBS requires a second DGPS and a
navigational equipment is also auto - echo sounder with shallow water second gyro compass.
mated. Paper charts are replaced by alarm,
electronic charts on a screen, which autopilot, with an off-course alarm Dynamic positioning ships, where
may also show radar information and independent from gyro keeping or reaching a certain position
the ship's position. - navigation lights with fault alarm has real priority, are equipped with
Dead man safety is similar to that - power supply failure alarms. even more backups: three gyros, a
in the engine room. A timer has to double vertical reference unit, double
be reset every 11 minutes. If it is wind measurement, double position
not reset within one more minute, sensors, etc.
a warning sounds in the officers'
accommodation.
Bridge control layout Mega yacht

7.1.1 Communication systems This saves time on watch keeping, Modern wheelhouses are equipped
and the data is recorded more often to be operated by one man only who
The decreasing number of staff makes and more accurately. However, these can navigate the ship and keep watch.
communications systems more and systems can never be the complete The view from the chart table has to
more important. replacement of a revolving operator be unobstructed.
Portable equipment has been devel who, for example, finds a small leak A good view from the communication
oped which, in addition to the usual in a pipe connection. console is also important.
talking and listening functions, The simplest systems display the An alarm system protects the navi
includes a number of alarms that can alarms with a flashing light and gational equipment and other associ
be read and acknowledged. a name plate, with a horn giving ated nautical tools like radar, echo-
There are systems which allow people a warning signal. If this alarm is sounders, gyro compasses, automatic
ashore, through satellite communica accepted, the light will stay on. As pilots, etc.
tion, to read the status of the auto soon as the alarm is gone, the light The radar is fitted with the ARPA func
mation. goes out. tion, which can be set to give a warn
This allows them to advise on neces ing signal when another ship comes
sary repairs. 7.1.3 Navigation equipment too close, or when the present course
Telephone, e-mail, and data commu could result in a collision.
nication via satellites have become An important part of the navigational The echo sounder must have an audi
common practice. equipment is the power supply. The ble shallow water alarm. When the
essential navigational equipment has ship deviates from the programmed
7.1.2 Alarm, observation and to be supplied from the emergency course, an audible alarm goes off.
control systems switchboard, to ensure power when There is a dead man's alarm, used
the main supply fails. when only one man is on the bridge.
Alarm, observation and control sys The maximum time delay is 11 min
tems are available in all types of sizes The equipment required depends on utes. When no acknowledgement or
and possibilities. The simplest alarm the size of the ship: reset is activated within 12 minutes,
system consists of a ten-channel unit - one or two radars, the captain and other navigating offic
for ten digital alarms with a common - two independent satellite ers are alerted.
output for an external alarm. positioning systems,
'Stop horn' and 'reset' buttons com - an echo sounder with recorder,
plement such a system. - a log, speed and distance indicator,
Alarm and observation systems are - magnetic compass,
intended to automatically observe, - a gyro compass,
record and show all deviations from - an automatic pilot.
all important data of the installation.

7.1.4 Voyage Data Recorder 7.2 Dynamic Positioning
(VDR)
Dynamic positioning or DP installations are state-of-the-art position control
Data recorders similar to the black systems, with satellite navigation and physical measurements as input.
boxes in aircraft are installed to help These systems keep a ship in position or moving along a preset track.
to establish the cause of an accident Every possible manoeuvre of a ship can be automated.
or near-miss. The bright orange float A command such as 'move transversely 25 metres away from quay, after
ing recorders store the essential data wards make turn 180° anti-clockwise with the stern as pivot point', can be
of the last 24 hours. programmed. Such a manoeuvre is perfectly executable for such a system and
The data comprises: there is no limit to automation, but a balance between cost and benefit has to
engine room data with alarms, be considered.
- navigation information,
- radar pictures, The rapid development of computer screens, presentation and software pack
- voice recordings of the ages, computers, programmable logic controllers, communication bus systems
conversation on the bridge. and intelligent data base and data programs make the impossible, possible.
Artificial Intelligence Systems are now developed instructing the operator to set
The recorder is normally positioned on the system in a way that the production under the momentary circumstances
the deck above the wheelhouse, free are optimised.
floating when submerged. With every advance, the question remains how to control the installation manu
When the data recorder is manually ally with partial or complete non-functioning automation.
activated or floating, a beacon signal It is therefore advisable to make an FMEA (failure mode and effect analysis) for
is transmitted to enable it to be found such control systems to gauge the effect of a malfunction.
easily. The FMEA comprises not only automation, but also the supply system, including
high-voltage, switchboards, transformers, UPS provisions, fuel, cooling water,
starting air, etc.
7.3 Internal communication systems
Talk-back systems, a microphone-speaker combination, have been replaced by

portophones (walkie-talkies) nearly everywhere.
Automatic telephone systems are powered from electrical UPS systems and are
thus acceptable for emergency communication.
Public-address systems are used to address passengers and crew members.
Walkietalkie
7.4 Lighting systems
In principle, these can also be supplied with three-phase current. Each phase
is then used in combination with the neutral conductor. The voltage between
phase and zero is a factor V3 smaller than the phase voltage. For example,
a 400V three-phase system will have a voltage of 230V between phase and
zero. A separate voltage transformer is not necessary in this case, which is
cost-saving.
A disadvantage of this system may be that irregularities in the main distribution
system, such as, for example, harmonic distortions, are transmitted directly to
the lighting system. If that is the case, an isolation voltage transformer can be
Voyage Data Recorder used between the two systems.

8 Testing and Generators, transformers, inverters 8.4 Sea trials
Commissioning and large electric motors receive a
heat test to determine the tempera A test drive or Seatrials Acceptance
ture rise and capacity / under load. An Test (SAT) is held after acceptable
8.1 Design criteria attempt should be made to function results from the HAT. The test run
ally test all equipment. shall demonstrate that the ship is
Commissioning of a ship is the pro functioning properly under operating
cess of insuring that all systems and 8.3 Harbour Acceptance conditions and includes speed tests,
components are designed, installed Test (HAT) manoeuvring tests, steering tests and
and tested according to the opera emergency stop tests.
tional requirements. At the end of the After the installation of the equip The reliability of the installations is
commissioning phase the ship should ment, while still at the shipyard, the tested with an endurance test of
be fully operational. harbour acceptance tests (HAT) are 6 hours during which alarms are
carried out. Components and systems checked and fuel consumption is
In practice, the commissioning pro are connected to each other, and to measured. Many data are collected as
cess involves the step-by-step inspec the ship's supply, and are tested again a reference for later.
tion and testing of every individual when finally installed. Also interfer The fire detection system is also
function, such as instruments and ence tests between systems have to tested with a smoke generator to
equipment, up to subsystems and in be carried out. determine that, with the ventilation in
the end complete systems. Systems from different manufacturers full operation, smoke is detected.
As the electrical installation is part are checked for compatibility.
of every larger system on board its Load tests of diesel generators, which 9 Maintenance
completion is vital for the commis have to run parallel or power manage
sioning of those systems. Nowadays, ment systems, are also carried out. To guarantee the availability of a ship
without electricity nothing will work. Propulsion motors possessing a gear during use, it is important to properly
Before commissioning, all equipment box with a controllable pitch propeller maintain the installation. Maintenance
should have been tested during the in combination with bridge control, consists of conditioning the electrical
Factory Acceptance Test (FAT). This have to be tested extensively. installations on board, but also replac
will avoid costly and time consuming Generator load tests are often per ing parts. With proper maintenance,
alterations on board. formed with a water resistance to it is essential to prevent malfunc
The Harbour Tests (HAT) and Sea Trial drain the generated power. All alarms, tions by performing maintenance on
Acceptance Test (SAT) complete the alarm systems and controls must be time. However, maintenance is also
commissioning. extensively checked. an important cost item. In practice,
Watertight doors, fire doors, fire the aim is to find an optimum point
8.2 Factory Acceptance detection, communication systems, between preventive maintenance and
Test (FAT) lighting and emergency lighting, auto the exchange of defective components
matically starting spare pumps, etc. and any costs for downtime. Modern
Factory acceptance test (FAT), is are also extensively tested. systems provide insight to approach
the final test of equipment before it this point as closely as possible.
leaves the factory. It concerns sin
gle components and whole systems.
Complete control and alarm systems
have to be temporarily installed in
the workshop, tested and accepted by
owners and Class.
Both main and auxiliary switchboards
also have to be tested and certi
fied. Alarm, observation and control
systems have to be combined in
representative modules, tested and
certified.
Large electric motors, generators and
diesel engines have to be load tested
and certified. High voltage compo
nents such as generators, switch
boards, transformers and frequency
converters first have an insulation
test and then, a high voltage test and
another insulation test.
Steering trials of a navy ship

9.1 Wear 9.2.1 Methods to monitor the condition of the installation
An installation is subject to wear For rotating machines, vibration measurements can give a lot of insight into the
and tear, various aspects influence wear of the machine. There are also simple components on board, the condition of
this: which can be monitored, such as:
- the type of components (DC - the pressure over an air filter
machines with carbon brushes - the contamination of oil by small metal particles.
or brushless AC machines)
- the heat to which the installa
tion is exposed.
- the degree of vibrations and
shocks that the installation is
confronted with.
It is important for a shipping

company to have insight into the
degree of wear and tear on a ship.
Wear can cause malfunctions. By
taking preventive action such as
exchanging nearly defective parts,
malfunctions are prevented and
costs reduced.
9.2 Condition
Humidity metre
monitoring
- Temperature (28.35 °C)
- Relative humidity (32.07%
There is an optimal balance
between the preventive replace
ment of components and the costs
due to machine failure.
Vibration level of ball bearing nominal speed 3.000 rpm
To approach this optimum point
as closely as possible, it is useful
to monitor the condition. Depend
ing on, for example, measured
vibration levels, it can be decided
whether a part must be replaced.
An accurate and reliable measure
ment can even be used to decide
whether to wait for another trip
before replacing so that, several
components can be replaced at
the same time. More and more
shipping companies are seeing this
advantage and need to be able to
monitor the condition of the ship
Mar 2019 | Apr 2019 | May 2019 | Jun 2019 Jul 2019 j Aug 2019 | Sep 2019 | Oct 2019 | Nov 2019 Dec 2019 | Jan 2020 Feb 2020
on board but also from ashore.
Q First indication @ Critical alarm level Q Repair or replacement
August 2019: Vibration levels start to deviate. This is the first sign that there
is a problem.
September 2019: Vibration levels are outside the specifications. Measurements
are taken more frequently and remedial actions are prepared.
October 2019: Vibration levels reach critical level. The risk of damage is large
and operations cannot be guaranteed.
November 2019: Ball bearing is replaced. Vibration levels fall back to within
specifications.

MATERIALS AND MAINTENANCE
14
1 Construction Depending on the type and quality of
materials for ships steel to be made, a refining process
is chosen (basic oxygen transformer,
This chapter is not about materials electrical furnace and open furnace
science, but about the materials used process) and completed.
in the construction of ships, and their The differences in tensile strength,
characteristics. hardness and welding qualities are
The emphasis will be on corrosion, established by adding special addi
MATERIALS AND prevention and maintenance. tives, such as carbon, silicium, man
ganese, nickel, chrome, etc. in com
MAINTENANCE
1.1 Wood bination with heat treatment when
1 Construction materials 360 making plate materials.

The only wood still found on mod
for ships ern ships is used for dunnage, deck Steel classification
covering, stairs and interior finishes, Most small ships, up to a length of
2 Corrosion 362
especially on yachts and cruise ships. approximately 80 metres are built of
3 Paint 363 Although there are some very hard what is commonly named steel 42.
woods that do not rot, most have to The value 42 refers to tensile strength
4 Cathodic protection 371 be protected against rotting. Wood (measured in kg/mm2).
5 Drones 375 used on decks does not get slippery Instead of working with this tensile
and, unlike metals, is not weakened strength value, the yield value is
6 Dry docking 377 by fatigue. used. The yield value refers to the
To avoid excessive corrosion a wood yield stress that the steel can handle.
7 Maintenance,repairs 379
en over-lay on a steel deck must Standard codes are used for this.
and conversion be laid with great care. Water must S235 and S355 are two common steel
not be allowed to become entrapped types. S235 has a yield stress of 235
between the wood and the steel. N/mm2- This is the yield strength
of steel 42. 355 N/mm2 is the yield
1.2 Steel strength of Steel 52, now S355 and
what is called High Tensile Steel and
has a tensile strength of 52 kg / mm2.
1.2.1 Steel quality Good properties for welding are very
important and are dependent on the
Steel is still the most popular material carbon content, which has to be
for the construction of ships because around 0.20%.
of its: 'Mild Steel' is a common name for the
technical and economical benefits good weldable steel that is most used
- strength in shipbuilding. S235 and S355 are
- suitability for welding both often called 'Mild Steel'.
adequate resistance to brittle Classification adds a letter to the yield
fracture value. This is A, B, D or E, which indi
- availability and low cost. cates the given yield stress, or
In the early stages of the design, Charpy-V value, at lower tempera
it has to be established what kind tures. Higher values are obtained by
of steel will be used. The higher adjusting the content of carbon, man
the tensile strength, the thinner the ganese, phosphors, sulphur, silicon
material can be, resulting in less and aluminium.
weight and a smaller displacement,
Yield strength is the maximum
or more cargo.
stress without creating plastic
deformations. It is used by design
The making of steel
ers to establish the dimensions of
The various types of steel are made
the actual structural member.
of iron (ore) and/or (steel-)scrap.
During the process, the basic materi
als are heated up to approximately Impact value
l,600°C after which the refining pro The Impact Value, or Charpy-V
cess starts. During the process a Value, is a measure for the energy
number of unwanted elements, such necessary to break a test bar of a
as carbon, sulphur and phosphorus certain material at a certain tem
are skimmed off as slag. perature.
360 14. MATERIALS AND MAINTENANCE

Grade A is steel is used most. D or E is 1.2.3 Stainless steel
used when thicker material is needed.
When H is used (for example, AH, DH, Stainless steel is an alloy of steel,
EH), followed by a number (for exam chrome (Cr) and nickel (Ni) and
ple, 32, 36 or 40) this indicates the sometimes other elements.
minimal yield stress at a given grain. The surface of the steel is a neutrali
sation layer, which is an oxidized skin
Steel grading is a specialist subject. the colour of the metal.
There are many parameters to be This protects the material beneath it
considered such as the Charpy-V test from oxidation (corrosion). Stainless
at certain temperatures and bending steel is more noble than ordinary
tests. steel and will therefore corrode less.
Higher rated steels are used in the 1.3 Aluminium and its
outer edges, where stresses are high alloys Flat bars and bulb flats, are being
est, of large ships. This includes deck lifted using a chain
plating (including longitudinales), bot Aluminium is a very soft metal, but by
tom plates, sheer strake and bilge choosing the right elements to form
strake. alloys, the strength and stiffness can 1.4 Copper and its alloys
be increased significantly. It is also
For large containerships, bulk carriers non-magnetic, making it suitable for Brass
and tankers, the use of high strength mine hunters. Even though it is not Brass is an alloy of the moderately
steel or high tensile steel is normal. a noble metal, corrosion is limited noble copper and the less noble zinc.
There are, of course, also disadvan because the metal is covered by a Aggressive water like seawater dis
tages when using stronger steels. The very dense oxide layer that protects solves the zinc leaving the remaining
vulnerability to fracturing is enlarged. the rest of the metal. If chemicals copper very porous.
or electric currents remove the oxide Therefore brass is never used for
1.2.2 Steel types layer, then corrosion will take place parts that may come in regular con
rapidly. The main advantage of using tact with seawater. Brass is suitable
Steel used as a construction material aluminium is its low weight. Despite for use in nipples, thermometers,
for ships and other structures can be the fact that aluminium is much soft manometers and many other shiny
subdivided into groups: er than steel, it is much more difficult appliances. For instance, the binnacle
to work with. fittings for the standard compass are
a. Plate materials and profiles A drill sticks easily, it is much more often made of brass.
Mild Steel (MS) difficult to smooth, a grindstone
Yield strength 235 N/mm2 quickly clogs and it is impossible to
High Strength Steel (HS) weld it with common welding appa
Yield strength 265 - 390 N/mm2 ratus. Aluminium is used, for exam
Extra High Strength Steel (EHS) ple, for complete superstructures of
Yield strength 420 - 690 N/mm2 passenger ships, for light high speed 1. Proportional point
craft and the main construction of 2. Yield point
b. Steel forgings mine hunters. 3. Lower yield point
Typical examples of forgings are pro 4. Ultimate strength
peller shafts, rudder stocks, engine
components such as crankshafts, pis
ton rods and cross heads etc.
c. Steel castings
Castings are fabricated for complex
configurations such as stern frames,
complex rudder components, anchors,
pump casings, etc.
Graph of tensile strength test of mild steel. A standard rod is subjected to

straight pull. Force is depicted against elongation.The yield point is located
between 1 and 2. The tensile strength is the highest load, point 4, devided by
the original area of the test rod.

Bronze (gun metal) On larger ships, synthetics are used The remainder of this chapter will be
Bronze is an alloy of the moderately for piping systems because they do devoted to steel corrosion, because
noble copper and the less noble tin. not conduct electricity and are not steel is highly sensitive to corrosion.
Bronze is seawater resistant and is liable to corrosion. To protect the ship against corrosion,
therefore used in propellers, valves, Paint is largely synthetic. the following measures or combina
coolers and almost all other parts Most ropes are of synthetic fibres. tions of them are taken:
that come into contact with seawater. They are sometimes flammable, but - applying a protective layer (paint)
Today, the ship's bell may be made of are always weakened by heat more - cathodic protection by using
bronze, but better alloys have been than metals. impressed current or sacrificial
developed for propellers. Metals like iron and aluminium can anodes
Bronze is still common in heat burn like torches and cannot be extin - the choice of materials to reduce
exchangers and pumps. It is more guished. Luckily metal constructions potential electrolysis.
noble than steel (iron) and can there do not catch fire easily.
fore affect the ship's steel. In very Glass-fibre Reinforced Polyester (GRP) 2.2 Protective layers
aggressive water, tin tends to slowly and Glass Reinforced Epoxy (GRE) are
dissolve. This causes a manganese- commonly used synthetic construction A protective surface layer can coun
bronze propeller to roughen slowly. materials in the maritime industry. teract, stop or reduce the extent of
They are composite materials, consist the corrosion process. One of the fol
Materials for propellers ing of woven or chopped glass fibres lowing methods can be chosen:
Today every propeller factory has its bound together by polyester resins. - temporary protective layers like
own alloys for different applications Other combinations of fibre and binder conserving oil or grease. This
of propellers. Usually these alloys are material are also used, but mainly for method is mostly used in spare
similar to bronze, but with a more high-tech applications. engine parts.
complicated composition. GRP is mainly used for parts where - inorganic top coats like an ano
In almost all cases the alloys contain weight or noncorrosive properties are dized layer (a very strong oxide
little or no iron (nonferrous alloys) important. It can be made into com layer) or enamel.
and behave as more noble than steel, plex shapes using moulds. Because - organic top coats like epoxy paint
which can cause corrosion of the the moulds are expensive, GRP prod (2-component) or conventional
steel. In exceptional cases, the pro ucts are usually standardised parts, paint (1-component).
pellers are made of stainless steel. produced in large series. Complete
The strongest today is a copper- hulls of smaller ships (e.g. lifeboats, The first coat used is a primer to ini
nickel-aluminium alloy. fast rescue boats, yachts, mine tially protect the steel against corro
sweepers) are built in GRP. sion. Ships usually have paint as the
Materials for heat exchangers protective layer.
The housing, pipes and tube plates 2 Corrosion
of a tube heat exchanger are almost
always made of copper contain 2.1 The corrosion process
ing nonferrous alloys. In plate heat
exchangers, the plates are made From metallurgy it is known that iron
entirely of stainless steel or titanium. is extracted from iron ore in blast fur
In both cases, the alloy used is nobler naces by removing the oxygen from
than steel, which can be degraded by ore with a carbon-excess (coke).
it. Heat exchangers are found in the Corrosion is the reverse of this pro
piping systems inside the ship, but cess; the metal recombines with oxy
also in a sea-chest, a box in the ship's gen or, sometimes, with other com
shell that is open to seawater. pounds. In many cases the result is
a dense oxide layer that protects the
1.5 Synthetic materials metal underneath. However, in the
case of iron the oxide is converted to
There are so many synthetics that it is a ferrous oxide by water.
impossible to mention them all in one This gives the underlying metal no
paragraph. In general, synthetics are protection against further corrosion.
not sensitive to corrosion. However, Corrosion can be accelerated if organ
ultra-violet radiation in sunlight and isms are present on the metal sur
ageing can both degrade the com face. Outboard, this fouling increases
pounds. Synthetics are a-magnetic the ship's resistance and inboard it
and cannot be welded. In yacht build can clog piping systems and exhaust
ing synthetics are common. boxes. Corrosion can also be accel GRE or GRP ballast line in a coated
erated by an electric current and ballast tank. The pipe clamp is not
structural stress. properly coated and starts to corrode.

3 Paint Chlorinated rubber systems and vinyl There are strict regulations for venti
systems are less used because of lation and breathing protection when
3.1 General the high content of volatile organic working with these compounds in
compounds (e.g. toluene, benzene). enclosed spaces.
Paint is a liquid product that is applied Restrictions, however, vary from
to objects in a usually relatively thin country to country. It is difficult to distinguish solvents
layer. During and after application it from thinners; the words solvent and
creates a film that tightens into a thin Water is the solvent in so-called thinner are often interchanged.
continuous layer. 'water-borne' paints or simply Thinner is a much used dilutent.
On drying, this film becomes a solid, water-based paints. A solvent is used for the cohesive
hard or tough layer that protects the These can be both 1-component substance. Thinner only dilutes the
surface it is covering from corrosion. acrylic paints and 2-component paint.
Paint is also used to decorate objects. epoxy paints. These products can It all depends on the kind of paint.
Paint can be divided into: be diluted with clean water and
Physical drying paint. The binder therefore no thinners or solvents Fillings and additives
will disolve in the thinner are used. Additives are used to influence the
- Oxidative drying paint characteristics of the paint like a matt
Chemically active paint or 2-com- surface, a rough surface (anti-slip
ponent paints. Base + hardener Binder agent paint), protection of the underlying
The purposes of the binder agent in material against heat, prevention of
Single pack paints, based on oxida the paint are: sagging and counteracting film form
tive drying are called conventional - coherence of the paint ing.
paints. The paint can be used imme - connecting the pigment
diately after the can has been opened - adhering the paint to the substrate 3.2 Two pack paints
and the contents stirred. Leftover - influencing characteristics like gloss,
paint can be stored in the closed can elasticity, mechanical strength, In two-component paints, the film
for future use. wear resistance, resistance against forming and drying are caused by a
The conventional paints dry because: chemicals and sunlight. chemical reaction between two com
- the solvent evapourates (physical ponents.
drying) Binder agents can be composed of A better name for these types of paint
- the binding agent reacts with oxy drying oils, synthetic resins, latex or would be 'chemically active paint'.
gen from the air (oxidative drying a combination of these. The components are the:
and / or polymerization). - base paint
Pigments - hardener.
Examples of conventional paints Pigments are solid powders that give The temperatures of the surroundings
used on board: the paint its colour and coating prop and the material to be painted have
- acrylic paint, physical drying, chlo erties. Furthermore, the pigments an important influence on the rate of
rinated rubber in the past often also prevent corrosion. the reaction.
- vinyl paint, physical drying Examples of these are: In two-component paints, the two
modified alkyd paint or alkyd resin, - zinc-phosphate, components are delivered and stored
chemical drying. - zinc powder (grey), in two different cans.
- aluminium flakes in primer,
In general, conventional paints - glass flakes. After the base component and hard
contain the following compo ener of the epoxy paint or polyu
nents: Pigments can also be additives that rethane paint have been properly
- binder/resin contribute to characteristics of the mixed, the mixed material should be
- pigment paint like gloss, filling, scouring and left to stand for a short period prior
- solvent strength. to application..
- additives and fillers.
Solvents and thinners Leftover paint hardens and becomes
Today, more and more environmental Solvents and thinners are volatile useless.
restrictions are being implemented liquids or mixtures of volatile liquids Examples of these types of paint are
related to the use of zinc chromates, that dissolve and dilute the binding polyurethane and epoxy paints.
lead, tar, lower VOCs (volatile organic agent. After the paint is applied, they
compound) etc. evapourate out of the solution.
In general the vapours are harmful to
health and the environment.
These compounds are almost always
flammable and can form explosive
mixtures with air.

3.3 Comparing the two 3.4 Painting It is mostly used for local repairs of
paint systems the paint layer and sometimes for the
treatment of welds and places already
The choice for a conventional or 3.4.1 Pre-treatment treated with an abrasive wheel.
2-component paint is governed by a
large number of factors. For good painting results it is impor Mechanical cleaning
The physical and chemical properties tant that the surface is clean of any This is done with mechanical scal
of 2 components are superior to the contamination. During application fol ing hammers, rotating wire brush
conventional paints. low the paint manufacturer's product es, abrasive wheels and abrasive
But a tougher layer, longer gloss instructions. discs. On board, needle scaling ham
and greater resistance to water and The pre-treatment is the foundation mers or chipping hammers are used
chemicals are not equally important of good protection for the steel. The almost exclusively. Of all the types of
to every shipping company. better it is cleaned, the better the mechanical scaling hammers, these
result will be. A good paint system on are the best, although not very fast.
Some arguments that can influence a bad substrate is of little value. The roughened surface gives a good
the choice of paint system are: The base material can be cleaned in anchoring for the paint layer.
- the price of the paint the following ways: Rotating wire brushes, abrasive
- price of the pre-treatment - with hand tools wheels and abrasive discs can yield
- purpose of the ship - mechanical cleaning the same result as the needle scaling
- is the painting done by the crew - chemical, especially degreasing hammer, with the difference that the
or a specialist, during a voyage or - thermal surface may become polished.
during docking. - sandblasting/grit blasting If the metal surface is too smooth,
- the use of a single component or - water jetting/hydro jetting. the mechanical bonding between the
2- component system metal surface and coating will be poor,
Hand tools leading in most cases to premature
This last point depends on: Manual cleaning is done with scal failure of the coating system.
- the number of crew members ing hammers, scrapers, sandpaper
- where will the ship be sailing: and wire brushes. This pre-treatment
• in tropical areas the crew can method is very labour-intensive and
do a lot of maintenance; qualitatively not very high-grade.
• in arctic areas maintenance
cannot be performed afloat, but
only in a dry dock.
Mixing with a mechanical or high speed

mixer until the paint has a uniform colour
Rust needs to be properly removed before repainting

Almost all methods of cleaning with
mechanical devices require breathing
and hearing protection. The waste
from old paint layers should be col
lected and disposed of properly.
Chemical cleaning
Chemical cleaning removes the layer
of paint and rust. For local paint
jobs, paint stripping compounds are
used. In manufacturing, the cleaning
is done either with acids or by sand
ing. In all cases the cleaned mate
rial should be thoroughly rinsed with
fresh water.
Grit blasting
Grit blasting is done by blasting gran
ular materials at high speed with
high-pressure air against the steel.
The material is cleaned thoroughly
and the surface is roughened, which is
essential to achieve a good mechani
cal bonding with the coating.
The roughness can be adjusted by
adjusting the size of the grit material
during the grit blasting.
The surface becomes covered with
microscopic pits that are good for the
adhesion of the paint layer.
The first layer of paint should be
applied immediately after grit blasting
to prevent moisture in the air forming
a new layer of rust on the bare steel.
Grit blasting is not done on a large
scale in service because it requires
special equipment. It can be done in
dry dock though. This method is suit
able for treating large areas; 6-20
m2 per hour is feasible depending on
the condition of the surface.
Another advantage of grit blasting is
that it can be used to remove the rust
from complicated structures, where
other tools cannot reach every nook
and cranny. However, removing thick
layers of paint or rust with this meth
od takes a lot of time and is therefore
not efficient.
In dry dock, grit blasting usually the
outside hull, cargo holds, cargo tanks,
ballast tanks and decks.
When grit blasting, it is important to
pay attention to personal safety pro
tection for the ears, eyes and lungs.
Water washing and hydro blast All these depend on the surface qual 3.4.2 Applying the paint layer
ing ity and the requirements. Water blast
Of these cleaning methods water ing production in m2/min or hour, is Before the paint is applied one has to
washing is the preparation method relatively low, set against grit blast make sure that:
most used. The installation consists ing. The skill of the blaster is impor the surface is free of moisture,
of a high-pressure pump, hoses and a tant. When blasting, a mist cloud dust and grease
gun or lance. obstructs the view, and causes missed - the surface shows no signs of con
spots. densation and there is no opportu
Low pressure fresh water nity for the forming of condensate
washing (LPFWW): Advantages of water blasting - the surface temperature should
• Pressure: > 350 bar against dry-blasting not exceed 40 °C, or fall below the
• Cleans: Surface salts, dust and - better removal of salt deposits. minimum processing temperature
very loose surface debris - little dust. of the paint. Some paints can be
High pressure fresh water - no damage to surrounding areas used even at -10 °C. Care must
washing (HPFWW): - feathering possible, the blasted be taken that there is no ice in the
• Pressure: 350 - 700 bar area can meet the existing coat pores of the steel
• Cleans: Salts, dirt, loose coat ing gradually. This means no hard the right paint is prepared; the two
ings, leached layer of anti foul edges. pack paint is mixed in the proper
ings and intact coatings - the water pressure warms the proportions
High pressure water jetting water, and so the surface. - the paint is stirred well before use,
(HPWJ): This reduces the flash-rust and preferably with an electric or com
• Pressure: 700 - 1,700 bar leaves a dry and clean surface. pressed air driven paint or mortar
• Cleans: All surface mate - the dry dock can be cleaned with mixer.
rial, thick coatings, corrosion water. Paint remains can be swept - the correct tools are used: brush,
scale, bare white metal can be -up. No large quantities of heavy roller or spray.
obtained at high end grit to be disposed of.
Ultra high pressure water jet Disadvantages: Paint spraying is only used for large
ting (UHPWJ): no anchoring pattern in the treat areas. Spraying makes it possible to
• Pressure: > 1,700 bar (normal ed steel, only the old pattern will distribute the paint evenly, and the
ly 2,000 - 2,800) bar remain layer thickness can be greater than
• Cleans: All surface material water accelerates oxide develop when a brush or roller is used.
to white metal. Also removes ment. For some kinds of paint this
heavy intact scale is not acceptable
- production speed is considerably
Salt contamination
less than dry blasting
The marine environment is corro
- tools are vulnerable to damage,
sive. Salt (chlorine and sulphate)
and difficult to repair.
deposits on bare steel prior to
Dry blasting requires simple tools
painting will produce an iron-chlo
and an ordinary air-compressor.
ride solution, leading to corrosion
of the steel. High pressure fresh
water washing and proper drying
prior to painting will reduce this
problem.
The material that is going to be

painted should be at least 3°C
warmer than the dew point of the
surrounding air.
The dew point is the tempera
ture at which condensation starts,
because at that temperature the
maximum water vapour pressure
is reached. The relative humidity
is then 100%.
If the temperature drops below
dew point, the water will condense
on the coldest surfaces.
Hydro-blasting

3.4.3 Thickness of the layer The reduction in coverage is influ - inside accommodation: 75-100
enced by the following factors: microns
The thickness of the paint layer can - shape of the structure - outside hull:
be expressed as the wet layer thick weather during application • vertical areas under salt attack:
ness or the dry layer-thickness, usu - experience/skill of the painter 200 - 300 microns outside
ally measured in microns or mm, - cleaning and use of remains of the • horizontal areas under salt
1 micron (Imp) = 0.001mm or 'empty' paint cans attack: 200 microns underwa
1000mM = 1mm - excess dft (dry film thickness) due ter,
This shows that if a paint with a high to overlapping • without antifouling: 250 - 500
content of solids is used, fewer litres microns inside cargo tanks
will cover more m2. Based on the use of epoxies, to (epoxy systems) 300 to 600
If the paint is applied by airless achieve proper protection of the steel microns.
spray, the coverage can be reduced the following minimum thickness is
by around 20% - 30%. recommended:
10 x solids in %
Theoretical coverage (m2/litre) = ———-----— ------
dryfilm thickness
Applying paint with a roller
Paint spraying
3.4.4 Types of paint 3.4.5 Painting systems The higher the number of layers and
the higher the total thickness, the less
A steel conservation system is built up is the permeability.
Shop primers with a primer, build coat and the top In general the selected coating system
Shop primers are used as a tempo finishing layer. This system combines and the area of the vessel (underwa
rary protection layer to protect the active (see section 5) and passive cor ter area / topsides / ballast tanks,
plates and profiles for a period of 3-6 rosion prevention. etc.) determine the number of coating
months. Mill scale is formed on the Passive corrosion protection means layers. Nowadays many Epoxy paints,
surface of plates and profiles by roll that the metal is sealed off from the primer and body (build coat), are in
ing hot material to a requested thick influence of water, air and chemicals. one. These products can be applied
ness. The mill scale is composed of Each type of paint protects passively directly to the metal in layer thick
iron oxides with a thickness of about to different degrees. The permeability nesses of 150-200 mu. They offer
0.1 mm. This layer is hard and nor of a dry paint film depends on the type complete anti-corrosive protection in
mally black in colour. of paint, but even more on the layer a single pass and can be painted over
Special shop primer plants remove thickness and the number of layers. with a cover layer if required.
the mill scale layer by grit blasting,
which is done automatically. A thin
layer of 18-25 micron Low or High
zinc silicate shop primer is applied.
These types of shop primer have the
following characteristics:
- Quick drying (3 min)
- Good welding and cutting proper
ties
- Low fume release during welding
and cutting
In many cases to be accepted as
the first coat in a coating system
- Suitable for sea water immer
sion in combination with controlled
cathodic protection.
Zinc containing Ethyl Silicate or

Zinc Epoxy
Only used if there is a great risk of
mechanical damage. The zinc sacrific
es itself when the layer is damaged.
It is applied as a single layer with
maximum thickness of 75 or 50
microns. It is often used on tank tops
and in hatches.
Top coats
The top coat of paint is the last layer
of paint applied. Top coats can be
classified according to their function:
- Colour and durability for deck and
topsides
- Smooth, easy to clean layers for
cargo tanks
- Antifouling layers for the underwa
ter parts of the ship. Two methods of working outboard: Both should wear a life jacket.
the old fashioned staging plank A watchman on board keeps watch
where the sailor has a safety har on both.
ness and safety line.
- a specially constructed cage hang
ing from the ship's crane, where
the sailor inside is also provided
with an independent safety line.
14. MATERIALS AND MAINTENANCE

3.5 Anti-fouling 3.5.3 The purpose of anti-fouling
The main purpose of anti-fouling is to Fouling leads to many problems affecting efficient operation, as it increases
keep the underwater shell free of marine the ship's frictional resistance:
growth. - loss of speed and/or increase of power required to maintain speed.Fuel
It also prevents organisms from damag costs can go up by as much as 40%.
ing the paint layer and the steel under - increased dry docking frequency, and longer stays in dry dock
neath. - reduced manoeuvrability
- increase of engine wear
3.5.1 Fouling - increase of NOx and SOx emission
- higher cost of in-water examination for Class, or no acceptance of this
Fouling is an all-inclusive term for water examination, possibly resulting in a dry docking
plants (algae and weeds) and animals blockage of sea inlet gratings, and thus less cooling water for the engine(s)
(barnacles, polyps, mussels, anemones). damage to paint substrate and consequently corrosion of the hull
The number of organisms that cause foul - under water cleaning.
ing of the hull is as high as 4,000 to 5,000.
The fouling can be divided into two cat From this, it is clear that the application of anti-fouling is useful.
egories according to the size of the adult The cost of application is easily offset against the additional cost of fuel and
organisms: loss of time.
- macro fouling, made up of animals and Anti-fouling contain biocides, which kill the larvae of marine growth such as
plants barnacles and other shells, and algae. The biocides normally used are copper
- micro fouling. This is a slimy mass, a or copper derivatives.
sticky mix of bacteria and other micro
Skin______
organisms. The adhesion of micro foul
Primer
ing is weaker than the adhesion of Binding agent
macro fouling.
Antifouling
3.5.2 The ship's shell, the ideal Seawater
surface for fouling
Self-polishing anti-fouling
Spores and larvae easily settle onto slow-
moving rough surfaces.
A smooth surface in combination with high
speed is a less ideal foundation. Some
chemicals and metal ions like those from
copper are toxic to these organisms.
The growing organisms get their nourish
ment from the water flowing along the hull.
A ship that is moving slowly (0-10 knots)
has the ideal combination of a solid surface
and a good supply of food.
The growing process of fouling is quite
intricate.
It depends on geographical, climatological,
and oceanographic circumstances, the sea
son, nature of the material and the trading
pattern.
For instance, the trading pattern of a
container ship (short berthing time) differs
from the pattern of a dredger (alternating
high and low speed, long and short stops)
which again differs from the pattern of a
supply vessel (long stops, interrupted by
intensive steaming). Fouling increases the
ship's resistance and reduces the speed by
10 or 15% for the same engine power.
To keep the original speed, the engine
power has to be increased by 23-38%. The
fuel consumption will increase by 25-40%.
If-iBIl
14. MATERIALS AND MAINTENANCE
3.5.4 Types of anti-fouling Controlled Depletion Poly Many new copper-based self polish
mers (CPD) ing anti-fouling paint no longer use
- Fouling release Rosin-based anti-fouling works Rosin, without a negative impact on
Fouling release because it allows seawater to pen performance.
Fouling release is a silicon-based etrate the paint film, allowing gradual Although copper makes up 90% of
anti-fouling that can be used for all biocide release by a process of dif the global antifouling market, new
types of vessel. It is more environ fusion. Rosin-based anti-fouling may generations of high performance tin-
mentally friendly, with long lasting contain low or high quantities of rosin. free and copper-free self polishing
performance and fuel saving proper anti-foulings are entering the market
ties of between 5-10%. with excellent performance.
Foul release coatings are generally
two or three component products,
depending on the supplier.
Foul release coatings are biocide-
free. They work by providing a very
smooth, slippery, low-friction surface
onto which fouling organisms have
difficulty attaching. Any which do
attach, normally do so only weakly
and can usually be easily removed.
One of the well-known drawbacks of
anti-fouling technologies is that the
effectiveness reduces over time.
This is often seen at the waterline
where the effects of sunlight, dirt and
UV radiation have a negative effect
and leads to the aggregation of slime
and organisms.
However, the silicone-based chem
istry of fouling release has dynam
ic surface regeneration properties.
Organisms do not recognise it as a
surface substrate and do not settle
on it. This significantly extends the
effectiveness of the coating.
Products have a long lifetime, which
can be even up to almost 10 years
with only spot repairs between dry
docking intervals.
Self Polishing Copolymers

Self Polishing Copolymer (SPC) anti
foulings release biocides by a hydrol
ysis or ion exchange reaction of an
acrylic polymer with seawater. This
reaction only occurs near the surface
of the coating and unlike the rosin
systems, seawater penetration into
the bulk of the film is prevented. This
gives greatly increased control over
biocide release.
When fast ships, like container ships, passenger ships or navy ships are painted with
fouling release paint, it is useful to paint the propeller as well. Normally, it pays of,
when calculated against fuel cost, to polish a propeller twice a year to reduce the
rotation friction. By painting it with this type of paint, this polishing can be skipped.

Time will tell if certain areas will ban 4 Cathodic protection 4.2 Electro-chemical
the use of copper-based anti-fouling. reactions
Innovation is needed to win the battle To understand how cathodic protec
between global and local biocide leg tion works, it is necessary to look at Many compounds have the tendency
islation and the need to provide high the corrosion process in more detail. to dissolve charged particles (ions)
performing products for ship owners In this undesired chemical effect, into water.
and operators. the material can react with different Ions can move freely in water.
chemicals in the surroundings. Compounds that always behave in
Self Polishing Anti-fouling or The reactions can be divided into: this way are acids, alkalines, solubele
Hybrid systems - chemical reactions salts, metals and some gases.
By carefully combining pure SPC tech - electro-chemical reactions A consequence of the ion mobility is
nology with rosin-based CDP tech These reactions take place exclusively that chemical reactions and the inci
nology, it has been possible to pro at the surface of the metal. dental electrical current are not nec
duce technology which combines the It is possible for microscopic pits to essarily local. They can spread over a
CDP features of surface tolerance be formed by corrosion on the metal's much larger area.
and attractive volume solids, together surface. The corrosion can also occur These electro-chemical reactions do
with the SPC benefits of polishing rate in existing cracks. not just come to a halt.
control, control of biocide release and Every metal in contact with water
reduced leached layer size. In terms 4.1 Chemical reactions has the tendency to generate posi
of performance this SPC/CDP antifoul tive ions. This makes the water more
ing is midway between the SPC and In almost all chemical reactions there positive and the metal more negative.
CDP technologies. is a charge transfer between the reac If a metal is less noble, it will have a
tants. If this exchange of charge is a stronger tendency to generate these
Ultrasonic treatment local effect, then the reaction is called ions and thus become more negative.
Ultrasonic anti-fouling is a new devel a chemical reaction, and the result Alternatively, if the metal is more
opment to reduce fouling on under ing corrosion is chemical corrosion. noble, then it will have a weaker ten
water structures. It uses small-scale An example of this is the reaction dency to generate positive ions and
acoustic cavitation to prevent and between bare steel and oxygen from will thus be less negative.
remove organisms. Numerous ultra the air. A thin oxide layer which rap In general:
sonic sources are placed under water idly covers the metal is formed at the - gold is more noble than copper
outside the ship. These are powered surface. All metals form such an oxide - copper is more noble than tin
from electrical power supplies in the layer. The characteristics of this first - tin is more noble than iron
ship. (dry) layer are of great importance - iron is more noble than zinc
to the further course of the corrosion - zinc is more noble than aluminium.
3.5.5 Economy process, and to the adhesion of the
paint layer.
Decisions about the application of If water comes into contact with the
expensive paint systems are mostly iron oxide, the compounds react to
taken depending on who is paying for produce iron hydroxide (rust). The
the fuel. Companies using their own rust is very porous, and therefore
ships in their own trade, such as large oxidation continues.
container ships and passenger ships, The first oxide layer of stainless mate
pay for their own fuel. So do tankers rials is not affected by water. A lack of
and bulk carriers on voyage char oxygen arises between the metal and
ters. However, the latter ships often the oxide layer which is the reason
engage in time charters, and then the that the oxide layer cannot develop
charterer pays for the fuel. any further.
Galvanic corrosion
1. Water
2. Positively charged metal ions
3. Neutral hydrogen bubbles
4. Electric current
5. Less noble metal
6. Noble metal

4.3 Sacrificial element (galvanic
corrosion)
When two different metals are in contact with each

other and with water (even a small amount), the
less noble metal will have a lower electrical potential
than the more noble metal.
This potential difference and the contact between
the metals generates an electric current between
the two metals, flowing from the precious to the
less noble metal.
The continuous flow of current to the less noble
metal causes it to generate more ions that dissolve
into the water. This way the metal slowly disappears
into the water.
This dissolving of metal ions is called an anodic
reaction and the metal that is dissolving is called
the anode.
Electrochemical corrosion can also take place if a
metal is not composed homogeneously.
Brass objects (alloys of copper and zinc) in seawater
are very sensitive to this; the zinc dissolves leaving
a porous copper. This process is called de-alloying.
Bronze (an alloy of copper and lead) is less sensi
tive.
If there is no intervention, the anodic material (zinc)
will continue to dissolve until all of it is completely
removed.
Electrochemical reactions on ships can occur in the
following places:
- between the propeller and the surrounding steel
- between copper-containing parts (e.g. heat
exchangers) and the steel parts of a piping
system
- between aluminium parts and steel parts of the
ship.
Electrochemical corrosion mainly occurs at places
where the paint is damaged, for example by soft
contact with a muddy river bottom, by ice, after
contact with debris in the water or alongside a jetty,
and the normal wear through mooring and depar
ture, tugs coming alongside etc.
Turbulence, speed, higher temperatures and salinity
of the water increase the corroding process.
Eliminating the corrosion current can prevent elec

trochemical corrosion. This goal can be achieved in
several ways:
- insulating the metal from the water by painting
it. This prevents the metal from contact with
the oxygen and the electrolyte. This works if the
paint layer stays intact. As soon as the layer is
damaged, the corrosion begins
- reversing the current by using a sacrificial anode
of a very base metal
- reversing the current by creating an opposite
potential, (ICCP system: Impressed Current
Corrosion Protection).
Zn
Zinc Steel
4.4 Sacrificial anodes
Cathodic protection using sacrificial

anodes is called passive cathodic pro
tection. Blocks of zinc and/or alu
minium are connected to the ship in
different places by welding of cast-in
steel strips. These anodes have such a
low potential that they 'suck' the cur
rent out of the ship's exposed steel,
faster than currents can enter the skin
via the copper-containing parts.
The protection works by the wastage
of the sacrificial anodes as they are
less noble. As long as there is anode Anode in double bottom
material present the anodes work.
If the paint-layer below the waterline Sacrificial anodes have the following: other damaging factors can dimin
is damaged, there will be an electric Advantage: ish the protection quite unexpect
current from the water into the metal. - low investment costs edly. This can lead to damage to
If the damage is extensive, then the Disadvantages: the steel.
anodes will dissolve faster. - the limited and unpredictable life there is a chance of overprotection,
When the anodes have been dis span of the anodes; they may last especially when the anodes have
solved, the other metals (ship's steel) 1 to 5 years just been applied. This can damage
will start to dissolve. - floating ice, irregular dissolving and the paint systems.
Sacrificial anodes on the propeller nozzle and surrounding hull area

Principle of impressed current
4.5 Impressed current corrosion protection system
In the impressed current cathodic pro

tection system (ICCP), a large positive
current is applied to the hull and passed
through the adjacent water. As a result,
current flows into the ship's steel where
it has a direct unprotected contact with
the seawater inducing a cathodic reac
tion that protects the steel against cor
rosion.
To achieve this, a rectifier is connected
to the ship's steel as the negative exit.
The positive exit is connected to two or
more anodes in the ship's shell. These
insulated anodes are embedded in the
shell to prevent damage by floating
objects and are made of inert materials
(inert is another word for non-reactive).
Sometimes the very noble (but very
expensive) metal platinum is used, but
more often the anodes are made from 1. Rectifier 4. Reference anode
a mixture of high-grade metal oxides 2. Power supply 5. Current collectors on the propel
(MMO, mixed metal oxides). Oxides can 3. Active anode lershaft and ruddershaft.
not oxidate again.
The selected oxides do not dissolve in
water. If the anodic reaction has no met The ICCP system has the following
als to consume, the reaction will produce Advantages: - aluminium ships cannot be pro
small bubbles of oxygen, which are not - requires a minimum of maintenance tected passively
harmful to the shell. The strength of the - high reliability - in ships with a lubericated pro
impressed current can range between 10 - action can be controlled at any peller shaft, the shafts should be
A and 600 A, the exact value depending moment equipped with a strong current
on the size of the ship, the amount of - an automatic regulator can adapt collector. If this is not the case, the
damaged paint layer, the speed of the the current with the use of refer current will flow from the propeller
ship and the salinity of the seawater. ence electrodes if a change in the to the bearings or gear wheels of
The voltage can be as high as 20-30 V, water composition (fresh, brackish, the engine or gear box. This can
depending on the number and position salt) or damage to the paint layer cause extensive damage.
ing of the anodes. requires this. - if the current collector is tuned
Where the shell is in direct contact - the high investment costs (com incorrectly and the shaft has faulty
with the seawater, this voltage reduces pared to a sacrificial system) will be earthing, the gear wheels and the
to 1.5-2.5 V. The salinity of seawater recovered in approximately 6 years. bearings can be damaged very
effects the required potential. quickly.
Disadvantages: - if the rudder is to be part of the
- the costs of acquisition are signifi cathodic protection system the
cantly higher than those of a sacri rudder stock has to be equipped
ficial system with good earthing
- if the ICCP system is incorrectly - stainless steel, for instance in
tuned it can cause extensive dam the propeller shaft, is protect
age to the ship below the waterline ed against corrosion by a dense
- some paint systems are damaged oxide layer called the neutralisa
quickly when the ICCP system is over tion layer. If this layer is damaged
protecting (the current is too high). it will not fully restore itself. The
new layer is not impermeable,
Some remarks on cathodic protec so corrosion cannot be stopped.
tion and related matters: A wrongly tuned ICCP installa
- ICCP system is mostly used on ships tion can destroy the neutralisation
with a length exceeding 40 metres layer of the stainless steel if it
- fast ships like patrol vessels and comes into contact with seawa
hydrofoil boats are always protected ter. This does not happen with a
Special paint layer around the anode by the ICCP system lubericated propeller shaft.
5 Drones 5.1.1 Visual inspection 5.1.2 Inspection using drones
Before the surveyor enters the con Drones or UAV (Unmanned Industrial
5.1 Inspection of ship fined space and visually examines Vehicle) can be used to inspect ship
constructions the construction, the confined space constructions. A drone is propelled by
must be: propellers. The energy for the propel
Ship constructions must be checked - atmospherically controlled (venti lers is obtained from batteries.
regularly. This concerns cargo tanks, lated)
cargo holds, ballast tanks, void spac - cleaned. Flying time of a drone is:
es etc. - inside: about 10 minutes
Among other things, the following are If the tank / hold becomes too large, - outside: 20 to 30 minutes, for
checked: scaffolding must be built. Scaffolding example to inspect hull structures
- coating condition can be made of prefab steel elements and deck installations like cranes
- rust bamboo or wood. or cable lay towers.
- deformation The above (visual) inspection method
- cracks. is very time-consuming and expen A drone can be equipped with:
sive, especially if scaffolding is - 4k camera for video images (inside)
Classification societies set, among required. Other inspection methods - thermal camera (inside)
other things, requirements with to inspect constructions are the use - changeable camera (outside).
regard to the construction of the ship of cherry pickers or rafting (using a
and the inspection criteria (which raft in tank). A so-called 'pilot' operates the drone.
must be examined when during a For safety reasons, extra attention This can be located:
specific survey). must be paid to the fact that: - outside the hold I tank
people work in confined spaces - in hold or tank on the tank top
(lack of oxygen and presence of - at the manhole.
other dangerous gases)
- people work at height heights At present, most drones are for out
- building scaffolding is dangerous door flights and can visually inspect
hull structures and deck installations.
Internal inspections allow the opera
tor to carry out general visual and
close up surveys in areas which could
otherwise be hazardous to humans.
The drone pilot steers the drone

along the frames and other structural
members according to a well prepared
flight plan.
He I she must be certified and must
work according to the procedures of
the 'approved service supplier', which
are approved by the major classifica
tion societies.
The information is read by the pilot
and the surveyor from a screen (for
example a tablet).
A film is recorded and then handed
over to the client, including a report.
Requirements for drones by class
include:
- lighting
- camera
- scope.
Pilot with drone on the deck of a submersible ship

1. pilot 4. drone 7. man hole cover
2. tablet 5. man hole 8. tank top
3. drone control 6. man hole cover on tank 9. lightening hole
Pilot ready to place the drone in the tank through a manhole

6 Dry docking
6.1 Why dry docking?
- Chapter 1 (Reg I/10(v)) of the

SOLAS Convention requires it.
This chapter states that every ship
should be dry docked for inspec
tion of the underwater parts at
least once every five years. The
maximum time between two dry
dockings should not exceed three
years. Only when special provisions
have been made during construc
tion may one of the dry dockings
be replaced by an in-water survey.
Newly built ships can sometimes
remain in the water for 7.5 years
(90 months) until the first docking.
- Classification society requirements.
These are generally in accordance
with SOLAS requirements.
- To repair damage below the water
line as a result or, for instance:
1. Keel blocks 2. Side blocks 3. Dock sponson
• collision
• running aground
• bad or no maintenance On top of the sponsons are: The centre line bulkheads and the
• propeller shaft seal leakage - pump control room web frames of the dock also have to
• rudder damage travelling crane for handling, load- be taken into account.
- Inspection when the ship is going ing/unloading of parts The positions of the blocks, the rise of
to be sold. - capstans and bollards to control bottom, the bottom tank drain plugs
the ship's movements into the and other important data have to be
6.2 Methods of dry floating dock. indicated on the docking plan of the
docking Electric motors are located in the ship.
upper part or dry room of the spon- The rise of floor makes it necessary
Floating dock sons. They operate the ballast pumps for the side blocks to have the correct
A floating dock is, in fact, a pontoon that are located low in the tanks. height so that the weight of the ship
with a vertical sponson on both sides The manual controls of the inlet is distributed over the keel and the
in the longitudinal direction. The pon and outlet valves are also located in side blocks.
toon and a part of each dock wall are this compartment. Opening the inlet The dock master is responsible for the
divided into a number of tanks. valves fills the tanks and lowers the placing of the blocks as indicated by
To dock a ship the following has to dock. To raise the dock, the pumps the ship's docking plan.
be done: are started and the outlet valves are
- the tanks are filled with water so opened. - Graving dock
the dock submerges sufficiently for The ship rests on the keel blocks that The graving dock entrance is closed
the ship to safely enter it are placed on the tank top of the by a caisson or gate.
- the ship navigates into the dock dock. These keel blocks are 1 - 1.25 The dock floor slopes slightly towards
- the tanks are emptied, the dock metres apart and each can carry a the entrance. The pump room is
rises to the surface and the ship is weight of 100-200 tons, height 1.5 - located near the gate.
lifted out of the water. 2 metres. Most characteristics of the graving
Bilge (side) blocks are used to support dock are the same as those of a float
The front and/or the back of the the ship in the dock. They keep the ing dock.
sponsons are usually equipped with ship upright and are placed towards The acceptable trim of the ship is
hingeable walkways to provide access the turn of the bilge. All side blocks more limited than in a floating dock.
to both sides. have to be placed in such a way that The difference between the slope
the forces they exert on the ship's hull of the dock and the trim should not
are absorbed by the reinforcements exceed 1 metre, to prevent high loads
present in the ship, like side girders in the stern area of the ship.
and longitudinal bulkheads.

Patent slip 6.3 Preparing for dry 6.4 Dry docking
The patent slip lifts the ship out of docking
the water. Once the ship has entered the
Trolleys placed on rails roll into the As mentioned before, the dock master dock, the dock master is responsi
water until they are underneath the has to determine the position of the ble for the dry docking.
ship. The trolleys are pulled back up ship in the dock and the side blocks in The ship must be moved exact
again taking the ship with them. accordance with the docking plan. ly above the centre line blocks,
The patent slip is used mostly for If possible, the ship should have no before the dock is pumped.
ships with a length of up to 140 cargo on board. The ship is positioned correctly by
metres. It is a fast and cheap method If there is still cargo on board, then dock winches attached fore and
of dry docking a ship. docking can only take place in close aft, to port and starboard. The
Often more than one ship can be consultation with the classification soci dock master controls the winch
raised on the slipway, and repaired or ety. The structural integrity of the ship operators.
painted together. may require additional blocks to be The exact middle of the dock is
placed. In the case of a large ship, an indicated by a plumb line sus
Ship lift extremely heavy ship, or a ship with pended from a cable between the
A ship lift consists of one or more an abnormal shape, a proposal for the sides of the dock.
platforms that can be raised or low block positions is made and submitted Another method is to use a meas
ered by a number of winches located for approval to the owner's representa uring rule to determine the dis
on both sides of a platform or on tive and if applicable to the classifica tance between the edges of the
piers. tion society. dock and both the ship's sides for
Sometimes locking mechanisms are Every dry dock has its own block pat ward and aft. The ship will touch
used to hold the platform at quay tern, and this has to be adapted as far the blocks when the draught of the
level and to take over the load from as practicable to the ship's construc side sponsons equals the ship's
the winches. tion. The block preparation is controlled draught. The draught of the spon-
Usually a ship lift system is used and measured prior to the actual dry sons is the draught above the keel
together with a transfer system, docking. blocks. The ship is 'on the blocks'
consisting of ship support beams The ship should enter the dock with a when it touches the keel blocks.
(trestles or cradles), including wheel trim decided by the dock master.
bogies with hydraulic jacks. A floating dock can trim to suit the ship.
To dry dock a ship, the transfer tres The maximum allowable trim differs per
tles are positioned on the lifting plat dock.
form at quay level, and the platform
is lowered into the water.
After the ship has moved over the
platform, the platform is then raised
by the winches, and the vessel is
docked by hoisting it to quay level.
Now the transfer system, complete
with wheel-bogies, moves the ship
horizontally, in both longitudinal and
transverse directions to the dockyard.
The winch systems are mostly electri
cally driven and may incorporate vari
able speed control and trim and list
adjustments for the platform.
Transfer systems generally include
hydraulic systems for vertical adjust
ment and the ideal 'fluid bed' for the
support of the vessel.
Horizontal movement also comprises
hydraulic drives.
Nowadays there are ship lifts with
100-winch systems.
Ship in floating dock

The stability of the ship 7 Maintenance, repairs and No underwater defects are to be neglect
decreases when the weight conversions ed, to prevent unforeseen repairs during
exerted by the ship on the operational time.
blocks increases. 7.1 Maintenance The original paint system of the spots is
The apparent rise of the centre restored, after which the entire outside
of gravity 'G' is faster than the Ship maintenance is usually divided into hull hull can be painted as required by the
rise of the metacentre 'M', in and engine maintenance. owner. When the roughness of the under
other words: G catches up with Major hull maintenance is normally done in dry water hull has become too great due to
M. Bilge blocks or side props dock. A ship has to be dry docked twice every numerous layers of paint and local touch-
have to be placed before the five years. This is basically for examination of ups, the entire underwater area is blasted
stability becomes zero (GM=0). the underwater parts by Class. to remove all the rust and paint, to start
A critical moment for the float When no repairs are to be carried out, it means the paint system anew.
ing dock arises when, during only examination, cleaning and repainting of The paint supplier gives advice, and
the last phase of pumping, sev the ship's outside hull. supervises the cleaning and painting.
eral decimetres of water are Maintenance of decks, and everything inside The paint system is chosen according to
still present on the dock floor the hull is usually done by the ship's crew. the age of the ship, size, speed, cost and
and start to move. A large When the ship is high and dry in dry dock the requirements of the trade.
free surface area can start to the outside of the hull is cleaned with high- It may be from simply one coat of tar to
move. Before the water level pressure waterjets to remove dirt and fouling, more expensive systems such as vinyl or
falls below the ship's intakes all to prepare it for repainting. epoxy followed by various coats of sophis
water cooled engines and auxil Oily spots, if any, are removed with special sol ticated anti-foulings.
iaries have to be shut down. If vents. Rust spots are cleaned using sand-discs, To have the docking survey credited for
the ship has air cooled auxilia grit blasting or hydro (water) blasting. Class, the following underwater parts of
ries, these can keep supplying After cleaning and drying, the vessel has to the hull have to be examined:
the ship with power. Otherwise, be examined in dry dock by the classification - tail shaft and propeller
shore power must be used. surveyor, normally accompanied by a repre - the tail shaft seal
A requirement of the shipyard is sentative of the owner and shipyard and a - the rudder and rudder stock
that the ship is connected to the technical representative of the paint maker in - propeller shaft wear down
shore based fire-fighting instal order to determine the condition of the under - clearance of rudder bearings have to
lation by means of hoses con water parts. be measured
nected to the on board interna Emphasis is put on rudder and propeller, tail - sea-inlet boxes are to be opened up,
tional shore connection. shaft, dents, damage, paint condition, corro cleaned and painted internally. It is
sion, fractures, weldings, and inlet and outlet mostly the same procedure as for the
6.5 Refloating pipe stubs. Defects affecting class are to be outside hull
dealt with. Minor defects not required by class - anchors and chain cables (only by Spe
Before the dock is submerged to be repaired, can be left as they are, as per cial Survey).
to undock the ship, the pres owner's choice.
ence of all the plugs, grills,
anodes, inlet and outlet valves,
manhole covers etc. has to be
confirmed.
The ship should leave the dock,

if possible, in the same ballast
condition as when she entered.
This means that ballast tanks,
if emptied for any reason, have
to be refilled using the dock
pumps. An equivalent ballast
condition can be calculated.
When the ship is afloat again,
the engine room compartment,
all bilges and tanks have to be
checked for leakage. Repairs to
double bottom tanks and side
shell must be tested prior to
undocking.

The tail shaft and propeller have to be
examined and the tail shaft wear down
measured. If all is in order or dealt with,
the legal part is completed.
Standard tailshafts have to be with
drawn every five years for examination
of the shaft and stern bearing. This
requires the propeller to be lifted off and
suspended to one side during the work.
Controllable-pitch propeller shafts and
keyless propeller shafts do not need to
be withdrawn at five year intervals, they
Preparing propeller and tail shaft for proper fit on tapered end of a keyless pro
can be left for a longer time.
peller in the workshop. Afterwards shaft and propeller are installed on board.
When the clearance of rudder bear

ings has become too big, the rudder
has to be lifted and the relevant bear
ings renewed.
The larger the ship, the heavier the
rudder. For a VLCC (Very Large Crude
Carrier) the rudder may weigh 100 tons
or more.
Rudder stocks, which are often lifted to
enable lifting of the rudder, follow the
same pattern.
Special lifting gear is required.
Anchors and chain cables are lowered

and laid out, and measured to establish
any loss of thickness due to corrosion
and/or wear.
When the measurements fall below
requirements the chains must be
replaced. Inspection and measurements
of anchors and chains is required at
least every five years.
While the anchors and chains are in the
dry dock, it is customary to clean the
chain lockers, which themselves have to
be examined for special survey by class.
Another standard item of the dry dock
repair list is opening and overhaul of
sea-inlet and overboard valves. They
need cleaning, inspection, disc-grind
ing of seats and repacking of spindle
Anchors and chain cables are lowered. Blasting and painting in progress. glands at least once in five years.

Most of the engine maintenance is
done while the ship is in service,
much of it at sea. Items which can
only be done when the ship is stopped
are done in port.
The classification societies require

the ship owner to present each sur
veyable item once every five years.
Surveyable items are engine parts
or systems essential for the safe navi
gation of the vessel and are listed on
board and ashore. The survey can be
done at the end of the five year spe
Exchange of crankshaft.
cial survey cycle, or on a continuous
basis during the whole period.
Under certain circumstances parts of

the survey can be done by the ship's
chief engineer if he or she is suit
ably qualified. Details of what was
seen and done have to be submitted.
Some engine parts need more atten
tion than once in five years: coolers,
pistons, turbo-chargers, etc. Mainte
nance of items which are too large or
too difficult, or which simply cannot
be done afloat, is done in dry dock.
This is usually a specialised repair
yard rather than a new-building yard.
7.2 Repairs
Repair yards have totally different

Rudder condition when vessel just dry in dry dock. Access plates of rudder
equipment from new-building yards.
pintle-nuts missing(lost) and rudder itself heavily fouled.
Their dry docks are deeper because a
ship in operation is heavier and con
sequently has more draught than an
empty newly built hull.
Also cranes do not need to have the
lifting capacity of those in a new
building yard. They need height rath
er than lifting capacity.
The workshops are also equipped

differently, with machines for small
and sometimes big repair work.
The workers have to have different
skills from new-builders, and have to
be more flexible and used to changes.
Repair yards are often in different
locations from the new building yards.
To minimise deviation from the nor
mal trade routes, they are found in
the big loading and discharge ports or
en route between common discharge
and loading ports, especially for large
tankers and bulk carriers.
The same rudder after cleaning, painting and fitting of new access plates.
Repair yards are used for normal 7.3 Computerised shape
maintenance work, but must also techniques
have the flexibility to carry out
repairs. If there is damage to the ship below
When a problem is observed during the waterline, the ship has to dock at
the dry dock inspection there has to a repair yard for survey of the dam
be capacity to deal with it immedi age.
ately. Therefore, repair yards need After the survey, the parts that have
to have more than one dry dock, and to be replaced can be fabricated, e.g.
specialise in certain sizes and types the shell plating with the stiffenings
of ships. and other strengthening parts. Then
they can be installed.
Typical repairs are common to cer The most time-consuming factor is
tain ship types. Bulk carriers always the retracing of the original form of
A damaged bow to be replaced have work to be done on hatch cov the hull, which can result in a rela
ers, crude tankers to pipelines in tively long period in dock.
the tanks and pump room, and to
valves, hopper dredgers to bottom Modern laser techniques can shorten
flaps, container ships to container the time needed to measure the
guides, etc. shape.
By measuring a number of spots on
A repair yard always has departments one side, at known coordinates, the
for hull, machinery, pipe repairs, elec shape can be calculated for the other
trical repairs, woodwork, cleaning side, thus making a full size drawing
and painting. of the lines unnecessary.
Specific and/or specialist jobs are
often subcontracted to separate com When the yard uses a modern, 3D
A new bow under construction panies. CAD/CAM computer program the pro
Common repairs to hulls are steel cess can be carried out by computer.
renewals in dry dock and afloat, This is more and more the case in
such as repairs to a dent caused by modern shipyards.
collision with a jetty, steel renewals
resulting from grab discharge, local Depending on the extent of the dam
corrosion or from grounding. age the ship may be able to proceed
Grounding damage can vary in size on her voyage and the lay time
from a small dent to a whole flat bot reduced as much as possible.
tom. Fire damage also often involves Only when the sections that have to
steel repairs. be replaced are fully constructed, will
the ship have to go to a dry dock for
Shape repairs.
Repairs to shell plating often involve This way the sailing time lost is mini
the question of shape. mised which is the primary goal of the
Nearly all ships have different forms, ship owner.
and when a hull plate is not in the
flat bottom or ship's side, the curved
shape has to be restored.
The bow brought in the position. When the new building offsets (tables
measured from the original new
building mould) are available, the
relevant part of the hull can be drawn
up in a mould loft, and the shape can
easily be established from this full-
size drawing.
Or, if the damage is on the portside,
measurements can be taken on the
starboard side.
The new bow attached

Bottom damage
New part lowered...

attached
7.4 Conversion
- passenger ships are upgraded with 7.5 Repairing / applying
Ship conversion is more related to more cabins, from ferry transport paint systems
ship repairs than to new building. into a cruise ship, or from ferry into
Existing ships are sometimes modi floating hospital, etc. It is important that the paintwork is
fied into something totally different A special field of work relates to off carefully included in the schedule of
from the original: shore oil and gas exploration and the docking. Drying times between
- bulk carriers are converted into production. The continuous change in layers must be respected.
drill ships or pipe layers requirements for certain jobs means Moreover, it is important that anti
- tankers are given a second life as that drilling units, storage systems, fouling layers and / or fouling release
FPSOs or transport barges often have to be layers are applied last. This is to
- cargo ships, Ro-Ro ships or tank modified before they can carry out the prevent spray mist from other parts
ers are lengthened next job. This work is also normally such as the topside ending up on the
- an existing stern with engine room done at a repair yard. anti-fouling layer.
is coupled to a completely new Sometimes new building capacity is
fore body; used to make new parts, for instance
- original steam propulsion is for a new mid-body section for a
changed to diesel propulsion; lengthening.
SAFETY
General All ships and their offices ashore have
to be certified under the International
1.1 General Safety Management Code (ISM Code)
and the crew has to work in accord
Safety on board ships is an important ance with the Safety Management
issue. Normally at sea and often very System (SMS).
far from any possible assistance, The SMS is a set of rules describing in
there is nobody who can be called detail how to apply safety in general
upon for help. and how to use safety gear.
Of course, the ship should be of good Courses and regular drills are held
design, well maintained in seawor in order to ensure that the crew is
thy condition with sufficient stabil safety-conscious.
ity, watertight and weathertight and The crew is trained to use the right
properly equipped. equipment in the event of an acci
However, safety on a ship is not guar dent.
anteed by the on board availability In a crisis situation people are not
of the compulsory safety items and logical thinkers. They tend to act
systems. Safety cannot be bought. instinctively using the things they
Most of the accidents on board ships learned during the courses and drills.
are the result of human error. When situations have not been
addressed and the crew are unfamiliar
Prevention through recognition, rec with the situation they tend to panic.
tification and avoidance of unsafe In the case of fire, especially on tank
actions and/or situations at all times ers, inadequately trained people have
and at all places on board by all per jumped overboard, often with fatal
sonnel is of utmost importance. consequences.
Training in fighting an oil fire
386 15. SAFETY

1.2 Regulations
Regulations concerning safety on ships

are formulated by the IMO Marine
Safety Committee (MSC), responsi
ble for the SOLAS-Convention.
The sub-committee (HTW Human
Training Watchkeeping) on Standards
of Training, Certification and Watch
keeping (STCW) have regulated the Fuel
certification of seafarers in the STCW
The fire triangle
Convention.
The SOLAS Regulations apply to all factors are shown in the fire triangle.
ships over 300 GT for radio and over If just one side of the triangle is taken
Combustion of a liquid
300 GT for radio and safety equip out of the equation, the fire will cease.
ment. Ratification by the relevant
Flag States means that the states will The ignition
adopt the regulations in their national The heat that is necessary to start the
laws. fire must possess certain elements.
For a solid or a liquid to ignite there
2 Fire protection, has to be some vapour or a gaseous
detection and product. This is the case when the
extinguishing compound is heated until enough
vapours and gases have been gener
2.1 Purpose ated to form a flammable mixture.
The most important issue is, of course, To ignite a liquid, there has to be gas
protection. Protection through con above the liquid. The liquid itself can Ignition and combustion of a solid
struction is, as said above, addressed not burn, though the gas can when
in Chapter II-l. It prescribes the there is oxygen and the temperature The fire pentagon
positions of bulkheads, materials for is sufficiently high. From the preceding section, it is
subdividing structures, in combina apparent that the fire triangle alone
tion with the use of non-flammable The lowest temperature at which this does not suffice; the oxygen/fuel ratio
materials, fireproof doors, fireproof situation occurs is called the flash is also very important in the ignition
insulation etc. The three elements for point. and sustaining of a fire.
combustion are: flammable material, Additionally, a fire cannot start with
heat and oxygen, which should not be However, it is possible that when the out a catalyst.
allowed to combine and create fire. flashpoint is reached, the combustion If there is no catalyst in the vicinity of
will cease after ignition. The reason the fuel then (over-)heating can still
2.2 Combustion process for this is an incomplete mixing of start the combustion process because
gas and air. The lowest temperature the fuel will form its own catalyst.
Combustion is a chemical reaction at which combustion will continue The general catalyst in combustion is
caused when a flammable compound after ignition is called the ignition water vapour, present in the atmos
reacts with oxygen. This compound temperature. phere.
forms a chemical bond with oxygen At this temperature, enough vapour If the two factors oxygen/fuel ratio
under the release of heat and the is formed to sustain combustion; the and catalyst are added to the fire tri
formation of new compounds. heat is in equilibrium. To sustain angle a fire pentagon is formed.
This process is known as oxidation. combustion after ignition a sufficient
Combustion is happening everywhere amount of heat has to be released.
unnoticed, for example in the human This is the case when more heat is
body or in corrosion, such as the rust produced than can be absorbed by the
ing of iron. surroundings.
An actual fire will only occur in the Combustion is also possible without
presence of a combination of all of ignition from outside. If enough heat
these factors. If one of these factors is pumped into the fuel, the tempera
is removed, there will be no fire and ture may become so high that it will
if there already is a fire, it will be ignite spontaneously.
extinguished. The lowest temperature at which this
Temperature
Fire prevention and fire-fighting are can occur is called the (spontaneous)
based on this principle. The necessary combustion temperature. The fire pentagon
15. SAFETY _____ 387

A catalyst is a compound that 2.3 Fire-fighting 2.3.3 Chemical means of fire
accelerates a chemical process extinguishing
without being consumed. When there is a fire, all attempts
must be made to extinguish it. FM 200 and NOVEC 1230. These
An everyday example of this is There are various means of fire-fight chemicals are negative catalysts. This
the combustion of a sugar cube. ing, such as: also applies for extinguishing powder.
You cannot light a sugar cube with FM 200 and NOVEC 1230 are used
a match or lighter. 2.3.1 Removal of heat in fixed extinguishing systems. They
However, when you put some ash work by intervening in the fire pro
on the cube, you will be able to Water is the most commonly used cess, by slowing down and ultimately
set fire to the sugar. medium to extinguish a fire, by dis stopping the process of the heat
The ash is working as a catalyst. tracting heat. In order to evapourate production.
In essence, a catalyst reduces water, energy is used. This energy is
the energy needed for a process distracted from the heat of the fire. It 2.3.4 Removal of flammable
in comparison with the process in results in steam. Water can be applied material
the absence of the catalyst. on a fire as follows:
Catalysts can have a positive or - by a solid water stream, using for Closing a valve in a pipeline where
negative influence on combus instance a fire hose oil emerges onto a very hot surface,
tion. They are called a positive - by spraying with a firehose or from deprives the fire of its fuel.
catalyst or a negative catalyst or a sprinkler system
inhibitor. - by water mist. The smaller the 2.4 Fire-fighting methods
droplets, the better the cooling
- fog. Fog consists of very small 2.4.1 Portable fire
Fire classes water droplets, with the same extinguishers
Fire classes highlight the characte effect as mist.
ristics of combustion depending on The first line of defence on board is
the type of fuel. 2.3.2 Removal of oxygen usually the portable fire extinguisher
The fire class is used to determine (dry powder, CO2 or foam).
which method of fire-fighting is most Without oxygen a fire cannot contin Dry powder extinguishers, usually
suitable for the particular fuel. ue. The percentage of oxygen can be with 6 kg powder, are placed in the
reduced by adding another gas (CO2) engine room and other easily acces
without oxygen. sible spaces.
Wood, paper,
A Solids - CO2. By adding CO2 in a confined The powder is suitable for three cat
textile, plastics
space, the air, with 21% oxygen egories of fire:
Liquefied goods,
will partly be displaced by CO2. A in solids
oil, petrol, alco
B Liquids In an engine room minimal 40% B liquids
hol, stearine, fat,
of the air in the space has to be C gases.
tar, paint
replaced by CO2 in order to extin
LPG, butane, guish a fire. For other spaces 30% When the extinguisher is operated, a
C Gases
propane is the norm. pin pierces the cartridge, which pres
D Metals Magnesium, - Foam. A mixture of water with a surises the container and blows the
aluminium, tita foam developing liquid. Foam cre
nium, zirconium, ates a closed layer on the burning
sodium medium, closing this from oxygen.
Animal Deep fat friers in
F grease and galley Close the space completely where
vegetable the fire is. The oxygen present will be
grease/oils used until the percentage is too low to
maintain a fire.
Overview of fire classes and the types
of fuels
In the USA other parameters are in

use:
A = Solids
B = Liquids and Gases
C = Electricity
D = Metals
K = Animal grease and vegetable
grease/oils Foam trolley
388 15. SAFETY

2.4.2 Water The International Shore Connec
Usually extinguishers are filled with tion is a standard connection which
a multi class powder, making them a. Main fire line system and hoses the local fire brigade can use to
versatile. The extinguisher consists of The most versatile, easiest and supply water to the ship's fire main.
a closed container with powder and a cheapest medium available for extin Every ship must have one.
compressed gas (carbon dioxide) car guishing a fire.
tridge or a container under constant Therefore, ships are provided with: Disadvantages of using water:
pressure. - fire pumps - ship stability can be endangered
Portable CO2 extinguishers are used - pipeline system for water under due to large quantities of water
for electrical fires, for instance in a pressure to reach every location on - water itself can also result in dam
switchboard. a ship age
- hydrants at regular distances - water is not suitable for all fires.
Spare refills for the non-permanent - hoses.
pressure extinguishers. For perma When hoses are connected to the b. Fixed pressure spraying system
nently busy fire extinguishers, com appropriate hydrants all parts of the Various systems have been developed
plete fire extinguishers must be kept ship can be reached. to spray water in or over areas, which
on board as a reserve. The pipeline system must be supplied are vulnerable in case of fire, such as
by two fire pumps situated in the public spaces in passenger ships.
Larger capacity systems have to be engine room, each having sufficient
available for a fire too big to be dealt capacity and pressure for the whole Drenching
with by portable extinguishers. system. Ro-Ro vessels have open sprinklers
An emergency fire pump, indepen throughout their car decks operated
Powder extinguishers create damage dently driven, is located in a separate from a central fire control room.
to electric and electronic equipment fireproof compartment. This pump When a fire alarm goes off the fire
and food. That is the reason that has sufficient output to supply two is located by the related alarm head
inside accommodation areas foam hoses. and, after inspection by an officer or
extinguishers are advised. A hose with a jet/spray nozzle must via closed circuit TV, the valve of the
be stowed near each hydrant. relevant area of the car deck can be
The hydrants and the hoses are pro opened manually.
vided with fast-fit standard connec The capacity is much higher than
tions. Several systems such as Storz, ordinary sprinkler systems. The cargo,
Guillemin, NOR, Instantaneous, Naka trucks, trailers and vehicles are much
jima, ROTA and Morris, are used on more dangerous than a cabin.
ships. Deck scuppers must have the capac
ity to drain the water so as not to
cause loss of stability due to the free
surface effect. This system is also
called a Deluge system.
A: Cross-section of a powder extin

guisher
B: Cross-section of CO2-extinguisher
1. Carrying handle
2. Control lever
3. Outlet pipe
1. Standard ship's fire line connections
4. Snow horn
2. International Shore Connection for the fire line. (SOLAS requirement)
5. Blow-out pipe
Sprinklers d. Water mist
One or more sprinkler heads are fit The foam-forming chemical is nor Fresh water is pressurized through
ted in the deck head of each cabin. mally a type of synthetic protein. The very fine nozzles so that the water
These heads are connected to a pipe mixing rate is 1,3 or 6%. comes out as a fog. Whereas sprin
line supplied by a pressurized vessel Both low and high expansion foam klers splash everything from above
filled with water. A glass bulb in the can be used in spaces like engine with water, the fog fills the entire
sprinkler head closes the pipe. rooms. It can fill the whole space space with mist.
When heat develops in the space, the through a system of nozzles, strate
bulb breaks, water flows out and is gically placed, without doing much The 'local water mist system' is a
diverted by a rosette into an umbrella harm to the equipment. means of extinguishing that creates
shaped water spray. When the water The water is also a coolant. an extra safety measure between
in the pressure vessel drops, a pres- a manual extinguisher and a 'total
sostat starts a fire pump providing Ordinary foam, pre-mix or mixed with flooding system', like CO2.
the system with water, to keep the water is applied via a proportionator, It has to be fitted near equipment
flow going. The pressostat also trig which is a venturi tube. which is at greater risk of fire, such
gers the fire alarm. The foam liquid is injected into the as the main and auxiliary engines,
narrow part of the tube. boilers, separators, etc. Each section
This is used on tankers to lay a blan is separately operable and protected
ket over the deck. It separates a fire by smoke and flame detectors.
from the air, and thus from oxygen. When one detector detects smoke or
Foam in small quantities can be used flame, an alarm is activated.
using mobile venturi tubes attached When a second detector alarms, the
to a firehose. The driving water comes system activates. The control unit
from the fire pump. Foam forming liq opens the valve of the section, starts
uid is placed in a drum below, usually the fire mist pump, and the equip
20 litres. A small hose sucks it from ment is blanketed with water mist
the drum into the venturi tube. The emitted from special nozzles. The sys
venturi tube is portable and can be tem can be activated in three ways:
Sprinkler with heat detector. If a rise
aimed at the fire. - automatically,
in temperature causes the liquid to
- manually - locally by a push-button
expand, it will break the glass and
Tankers - remotely - from a panel outside the
open the nozzle. Subsequently, the
Tankers have special safety meas engine room.
water is driven out in the form of
ures, with additional fire-fighting sys
spray. The colour of the liquid indi
tems, such as: Besides the compulsory fixed water
cates the working temperature, for
- a foam system to cover the deck based local application fire-fighting
example 68 °C.
- fire and / or explosion prevention system, the water mist can also be
c. Foam by inert gas above the cargo installed as a 'total flooding sys
Water can be mixed with chemicals, - alarms for full tank or risk of over tem' for the engine room. Since the
so that when expelled through a fill (95% and 98% full) introduction of water mist many new
nozzle and mixed with air, foam is - special safety measures for the cruise vessels have water mist for
developed. cargo pump room. accommodation protection instead of
There are three systems: conventional sprinklers.
- high-expansion foam, The pump installed for the accom
- pre-mix ordinary foam and modation can often be used for addi
foam made in a proportionator. tional engine room protection.
Deep fryers in the galley are also pro
vided with this kind of extinquishing.
Advantages:
- minimal water damage
- 'large water surface area' making
fog very effective at cooling
- oxygen depleted by the steam
which forms
- can be activated repeatedly.
Disadvantages
- bilge system necessary to dis
charge water
- water could cause some additional
Testing the foam pump on a tanker damage.
Zone 1
Zone 2
Mounted Mounted
outside in wheel
Mounted in the engine house
Engine room room
e
Principle diagram of a 'local
water mist system'
1. For example Main engine

2. For example Aux. engine
3. Module cabinet, alarm
control system
4. Remote release panel
5. Fire alarm panel
6. Pump starter box 230V
50760Hz
7. Locable non return valve
8. Pump
9. Strainer
10. Test and drain valve Water level
11. Pressure gauge
Drink water Potable
12. Section valve connection water
13. Local release panel tank
14. Optical - acoustic alarm
15. Flame detector
16. Smoke detector Maximum water level for
17. Nozzle 20 minutes extinguishing
15. SAFETY
2.4.3 Fixed gas systems It should be possible to switch off the The admission of CO2 into the cargo
ventilation by hand. One can wait with holds is done from the CO2 chamber.
a. CO2 (Carbon dioxide) it, in case it is necessary to use the Not all bottles need to be used. They
Fixed gas fire extinguishing systems main engine. are selected manually. The total number
fill a space with a gas that reduces the of bottles of a CO2 installation depends
oxygen content or is an anti-catalyst CO2 can be released from more on the largest space in which CO2 can
that will extinguish fire. than one position: be admitted, and also depends on the
It reduces the oxygen content to a - from the CO2 room degree of loading of the relevant space.
level at which fire cannot exist. - remotely from a cabinet some
Such a system can only be used in where else in the accommodation Note: CO2 is odourless. It is recom
closed compartments. preferably in a special safety room mended to add a fragrance to the CO2
Carbon dioxide, although very effec or on small ships, outside, and on when refilling or when installing a new
tive as an oxygen reducer, is very larger ships, from the fire-fighting installation. The disadvantage of adding
dangerous to people. control room. a fragrance is that it can lead to a feel
A large number of fatal accidents has ing of false safety.
caused a search for less harmful alter It must be possible to switch off
natives. For a number of years Halon ventilation manually. You can wait if
was used, but being a CFK, was aban you want to use the main engine to
doned due to environmental concerns manoeuver.
as agreed at the Kyoto conference The CO2 installations are equipped
1996. Replacements are CO2, NOVEC with a delay unit. It takes a maximum
1230 or FM 200. of 30-90 seconds for an activated sys
The system consists of a battery of tem to actually emit CO2.
CO2 bottles under high pressure (200
bar). When released at the calculated When the door of the locked cabinet
required quantity an atmosphere is (SOS locker) containing the release
created with insufficient oxygen to system is opened, the CO2 alarm is
allow combustion. triggered, and klaxons and flashing
The bottles for a cargo hold are part lights start in the engine room.
of the engine room's equipment. The The operation of the engine room sys
content of the bottles has to be tem, as part of the entire CO2 system,
checked yearly, by weighing or by a is primarily done from the SOS locker.
level check.
The total content of gas i.e. the num
Advantages of CO2 ber of bottles of 45 kilo each, is based
- no consequential damage on the volume of the largest space to
- transport over long distances be flooded.
through pipelines possible
- a relatively low cost material. VOL°/o CO2 Symptoms after breathing CO2
Disadvantages: 0.03 Normal CO2-concentration
- high risk to personnel 0.5 TLV and MAC-value
- large quantity of gas needed 1.8 Increase in lung ventilation by 50% (hyperventilation)
- cylinders have to be stored in an 2.5 Increase in lung ventilation by 100%
isolated space, outside the pro 3 Light stupefaction, less accurate hearing, faster
tected space heartbeat and higher blood pressure
- many safety devices needed 4 Increase in ventilation by 300%, heartbeat and
- the action is not repeatable. blood pressure
5 Symptoms of poisoning after 30 minutes;
Release into engine room headaches, dizziness, transpiration
Before CO2 gas can be released, vari 8 Dizziness, stunning and unconsciousness
ous safety measures have to be taken 9 Breathing difficulty, drop in arterial blood pressure,
including: congestion, death within 4 hours
- a head count to ensure that no 10 Disorientation and dizziness
people are left in the engine room 12 Immediate unconsciousness, death within minutes
- all openings to the open air have to 20 Narcosis, immediate unconsciousness, death by
be closed, usually manually. suffocation
- all mechanical ventilation must be
stopped. TLV = Threshold Limit Value
MAC = Maximum Allowable Concentration
Congestion = accumulation of blood
392 15. SAFETY

Pipe end equipped
with a waterlock
1. C02 release station

2. Emergency release station
3. CO2 pilot cylinder
4. Shuttle valve
5. Device for postponement of
30, 45, 60 or 90 seconds
6. CO2 cylinders
7. Check valve
8. Manifold
9. Safety valve
10. Pressure gauge
11. Shore connection
12. Section valve
13. Smoke detecting cabinet
14. Air suction ventilator for
smoke detection
15. Ball valve 3/2-ways
16. CO2 nozzle
17. Acoustic alarm sounder
18. Key box
19. Pilot piping
20. Distribution piping
The quick closing valves of

the various oil tanks in the
engine room can be operated
from outside the space.
All oil pumps can also be
stopped from outside the
engine room.
15. SAFETY 393

Scheme FM 200 / NOVEC 1230
4. Cylinder with valve and

pneumatic activator
5. Pneumatic Control lines to
starboard and port
6. Discharge nozzle
7. Engine room ventilation
8. Low pressure alarm
2.5.1 Engine room /

b. Alternative gases accommodation If 'fire alarm' is initiated by one of the
Gases as FM200 and NOVEC 1230 are detectors the alarm will be reported
used on smaller ships with smaller A key aspect of fire protection is to on the control panel as fire in a cer
engine rooms. identify a developing fire in the earli tain area.
These gases are chemical composi est possible stage.
tions. A fire detection system provides a Addressable or 'intelligent' systems,
There is no breakdown of ozone (as means to identify a developing fire unlike conventional alarm methods,
with Halon), but it still contributes to through either manual or automatic monitor and control the capabilities
global warming (as does CO2). methods, and secondly to alert to a of each alarm initiating and signaling
These gases are stored as a liq fire condition and the need to take device through microprocessors and
uid under low pressure and nitrogen actions accordingly. system software.
padding. The fire extinguishing is Each intelligent fire alarm system
based on cooling; the temperature is Control Panels is a small computer overseeing and
brought down to below flame point. The control panel is the 'brain' of the operating a series of input and output
A side effect is anti catholatic. fire detection and alarm system. It is devices.
In larger engine rooms CO2 is more responsible for monitoring the various Like a conventional system, the
attractive from an economic point of alarm 'input' devices, such as manual address system consists of one or
view. and automatic detection components, more circuits that radiate throughout
Advantages: and then activating alarm 'output' the various spaces. Also, like standard
- less harmful to personnel com devices such as horns, bells, warning systems, one or more manual alarm
pared with the use of CO2. lights, shut-downs etc. initiating devices may be located
- No special CO2 room There are two main control panel along these circuits.
Disadvantages: arrangements: The difference between system types
- high refilling cost - conventional is in the way in which each device is
- when released into an engine room - addressable systems. monitored.
on fire, toxic gases maybe formed. In an addressable system, each ini
Conventional fire detection and tiating device (automatic detector,
2.5 Detection alarm systems were for many years manual station, sprinkler etc.) is given
the standard method for providing a specific identification or 'address'.
For successful fire-fighting, early emergency signalling. In a conven This address is correspondingly pro
detection is of utmost importance. tional system one or more circuits grammed into the control panel's
When a person notices fire or smoke, (loops) are routed through the pro memory with information about the
he has to raise the alarm immediate tected space or area. One or more type of device, its location, and spe
ly. Buttons which set off alarms are detection devices are placed along cific response details, such as which
installed throughout the ship. each circuit (loop). alarm devices are to be activated.
394 15. SAFETY

Fire Detectors
When present, people can be excel
lent fire detectors. A trained person
is able to sense multiple aspects of
a fire, including the heat, flames,
smoke, and odours. For this rea
son, most fire alarm systems are
designed with one or more manual
alarm activation devices to be used
by the person who discovers a fire.
Unfortunately, a person can also be
an unreliable detection method since
they may not be present when a
fire starts, may not raise an alarm
in an effective manner, or may not
be in perfect health to recognize fire
signatures. It is for this reason that
a variety of automatic fire detectors
have been developed.
Smoke detectors
Two basic types of smoke detectors
are manufactured currently.
- The photo electric (optical) smoke
detector uses an optical beam to
search for smoke. When smoke
particles obstruct the beam, a
4. Pipes for CO2 supply and sampling
photo electric cell senses the
5. Smoke detection panel
decrease in light intensity and trig
6. Fan unit
gers an alarm. This type of detec
7. Repeater panel
tor reacts most quickly to smoul
dering fires that release relatively Flame detectors
large amounts of smoke. Ultraviolet (UV) detectors work with
- The second type of smoke detec wavelengths shorter than 300 nm.
tor, known as an ionization cham These detectors detect fires and
ber smoke detector, employs a explosions within 3-4 milliseconds
radioactive material to ionize the due to the UV radiation emitted at the
air in a sensing chamber. The instant of their ignition. False alarms
presence of smoke affects the flow can be triggered by UV sources such
of the ions between a pair of elec as lightning, arc welding, radiation,
trodes, and triggers the alarm. and sunlight. In order to reduce false
alarms a time delay of 2-3 seconds
Heat detectors is often included. Infrared (IR) flame
The heat detector employs two inde detectors work within the infrared
pendent methods of detection. spectral band. Hot gases emit a spe
The rate-of-rise method detects fires cific spectral pattern in the infrared
that grow in intensity rapidly. This region, which can be sensed with a
method responds to abnormally fast Thermal Imaging Camera (TIC), a
temperature increases. type of thermographic camera. False
The fixed-temperature method alarms can be caused by other hot
detects fires that build temperatures surfaces and background thermal
to a high level at a slow rate. This radiation in the area.
method responds to a specific tem
perature setting. Manual Alarm Call Points
Manual alarm call points are designed
for the purpose of raising an alarm
manually. Once verification of a fire or
emergency condition exists, the alarm
signal is raised by operating the push
button.
15. SAFETY 395

2.5.2 Cargo Holds cargo control room, with an additional 2.6.1 Structural Fire Protection
control unit on the bridge. An air
Fire in the cargo hold can be detected pump draws in the air. Structural fire protection is a means of
by using a 'Sample Extraction Smoke An example extraction system for minimising the probability of a major
Detection system1. the cargo hold is only required if the fire and the resulting loss of life by
This smoke detection system consists ship is certified to be able to transport designing the structure of the ship to
of a smoke detection panel, repeater hazardous substances in packaged confine any outbreaks of fire to as small
panels on the bridge or the fire control form. an area as possible. This is accom
room (for remote display of alarms Sample extraction Smoke detec plished by specifying fire endurance
and warnings) and a fan unit for tion system provides early detection capabilities of structural boundaries.
drawing the air from the cargo holds. of fires in cargo spaces through con Additional items considered are minor
The smoke detection system is used tinuous smoke monitoring via existing bulkheads and penetrations of struc
for continual smoke monitoring in pipes and automatically checked for tural boundaries.
cargo holds. the presence of smoke. The following basic principles under
For this a network of pipes continu line the requirements contained in the
ously draws air samples simultane 2.6 Fire protection and Regulations and Standards pertaining
ously from each cargo hold, which ventilation to structural fire protection:
are then fed to the smoke detection a. division of the ship into main verti
panel. In the event of a fire the ship does cal zones by thermal and structural
In most cases the same pipes are not have the luxury of support from boundaries (passenger ships);
used for the CO2 fire extinguishing the fire-fighting services. Many of the b. separation of accommodation spaces
system. newly revised fire protection guide from the remainder of the ship by
A repeater panel is installed on the lines for shipbuilding are as a direct thermal and structural boundaries;
bridge and/or fire control station for result of disastrous fires such as that c. restricted use of combustible mate
remote display of smoke alarms and experienced on the Scandinavian Star rials;
fault warnings. It is connected to the in 1990 on the Baltic Sea in which 156 d. detection of any fire in the zone of
smoke detection panel in the CO2 souls perished. origin;
room. e. containment and extinction of any
fire in the space of origin;
Each hold has its own suction line, f. protection of the means of escape or
which is also used to allow CO2 in, access for fire-fighting;
when required. The control cabinet g. ready availability of fire extinguish
is usually in the safety centre of the ing appliances; and
h. minimisation of possibility of ignition
of flammable cargo vapour.
The red lines indicate A-60 divisions
396 15. SAFETY

2.6.2 Fire Integrity 'B' Class Divisions Fire dampers
'B' Class divisions are bulkheads, Fire dampers are devices fitted to vent
Fire integrity is the basic fire-resisting decks, ceilings and linings construct ducts that penetrate 'A' Class bulk
ability of a bulkhead or deck to remain ed of approved non-combustible heads and decks, in order to main
intact during a specified period. materials, capable of preventing the tain the fire integrity of the division
'A' Class Divisions passage of flame to the end of the and to prevent the spread of smoke
'A' class divisions are bulkheads and first half-hour of the standard fire and flame to adjacent compartments
decks constructed of steel or other test. They have an insulation value through the ventilation system.
equivalent material, capable of pre such that the average temperature Ventilation System Details
venting the passage of smoke and of the unexposed side will not rise The fire zone plan should indicate
flame to the end of the one-hour more than 139°C above the original the arrangement of the ventilation
standard fire test. They are insulated temperature, nor will the tempera ducts throughout the vessel. It should
with approved materials such that the ture at any one point, including any also indicate the sizes, construction
average temperature of the unexposed joint, rise more than 225°C above the materials and thicknesses of ducts,
side will not rise more than 139°C original temperature, within the time the extent and type of fire insulation
above the original temperature, nor listed below: fitted to ducts, location and details of
will the temperature at any one point, - Class 'B-15' 15 minutes fire dampers and details of the clos
including any joint, rise more than - Class 'B-0' 0 minutes ing devices for the main inlets and
180°C above the original temperature, outlets.
within the time listed below: 'C' Class Divisions
- Class 'A-60' 60 minutes 'C' Class divisions are bulkheads, 2.6.4 Fire Zone Plan
- Class 'A-30' 30 minutes decks, ceilings and linings constructed
- Class 'A-15' 15 minutes of approved non-combustible mate The fire zone plan should be in the
- Class 'A-0' 0 minutes rials, which have no requirements form of an outline general arrange
relative to the passage of smoke and ment drawing, drawn to a scale of not
Machinery Spaces of Category 'A' flame nor the limiting of temperature less than 1:100.
Machinery spaces of category 'A' are rise. The regulations being applied and
spaces and trunks to such spaces the area of operation should be indi
which contain internal combustion 2.6.3 Fire zones cated. Each interior compartment and
machinery used for main propulsion, exterior decks if designated for the
internal combustion machinery for As with buildings, ships are divided mustering and embarkation of pas
purposes other than main propulsion into vertical fire zones. Main verti sengers is to be identified by name
where such machinery has an aggre cal zones are sections into which and classified according to its fire risk
gate total power output of not less the hull, superstructure and deck into one of the categories described
than 375kW, or any oil-fired boiler or houses are divided by 'A' Class divi in the tables contained in the applica
oil fuel unit. sions the mean length of which on ble regulations. In the case of cargo
any one deck does not in gener ships, the method of fire protection
Machinery spaces include: al exceed 40 metres. Where main which is to be adopted i.e. IC, IIC or
- Machinery spaces of category 'A' vertical zoning is not practical as IIIC, should be stated on the draw
Spaces containing propulsion in special category spaces, equiv ing. Main vertical zone and horizontal
machinery alent protection must be obtained zone boundaries should be clearly
Boiler spaces on the basis of a horizontal zone. marked. All bulkhead and deck fire
- Spaces containing fuel oil units, integrity and insulation values are to
steam or internal combustion be shown and the symbols used to
machinery indicate such values are to be easily
Spaces containing generators or distinguishable.
electrical motors and auxiliaries
(spaces containing the emergency
source of power are considered con
trol stations)
- Oil fuel filling stations
- Spaces containing refrigeration
machinery
- Spaces containing ventilation and
air conditioning machinery
Spaces containing steering gear
machinery
- Spaces containing stabilizing
machinery
- Trunks leading to and from the
above spaces
15. SAFETY 397

2.7 Fire in the galley If a mechanical failure is not at fault, deep fat fryer. These two systems are
most galley fires can be linked to poor independent but both can be used to
The galley is the busiest location on housekeeping suppress and extinguish a grease fire.
the ship aside from the engine room.
There are numerous appliances in the An additional hazard of the deep fat Fire extinguishing systems for protec
galley that generate heat for heating fryer is the potential for a fire to tion of galley deep fat cooking equip
or cooking food, and the greatest fire spread into the ventilation system. ment are becoming particularly popu
hazard among them is the deep fat During operation, grease particles lar. Over the past fifteen years the use
fryer. The usual cause of a deep-frying accumulate in the ventilation system of more efficient cooking appliances
fire is the failure of the thermostat. If ducting; this accumulation can cause and the increased use of vegetable
the thermostat allows the oil to get a secondary fire, which could easily cooking oils has increased the level of
too hot, and if the oil has not been spread through the vessel. risk. Heating cooking oil to its auto
recently changed and contains food Since the deep fat fryer is known to ignition temperature (around 365°C)
residues, it can easily catch fire. be the greatest fire hazard in the gal can lead to a very intense fire that is
If the thermostat allows deep fat to ley, there is a fire prevention system very difficult to extinguish and which
overheat — and if the deep fat has not installed in the ventilation system can involve the inside of the hood
been changed recently and contains and a fire suppression system for the and exhaust duct - usually covered
food debris — it's likely to flash into a with grease and dust - resulting in an
fire. The deep fat should be changed uncontrolled fire in the galley area.
on a regularly base.
Galley
398 15. SAFETY

2.8 Fire control plan 2.1 0 Fire alarm
This is a general arrangement draw The fire alarm can be activated manu
ing of the ship, showing all safety ally by pushing a button behind glass
appliances. Copies are posted at vari in a little red box.
ous places on board. One is kept in a The alarm buttons are installed
red container near the gangway for throughout the ship. When fire has
the shore fire brigade. been detected by a detection system,
it activates the alarm.
2.9 Personal protection Resetting of the alarm can only be
for firefighters done at the main display, usually on
the bridge. 1. Cylinder containing safety plan,
Every cargo ship has to be provided The display indicates which button, easily accessible to firefighters
with at least two fire fighting out in which zone or detection-loop, was 2. Fire hose locker
fits, complete with breathing appa activated. A zone or loop can be iso 3. Fire hydrant
ratus. The suit is heat-resistant, with lated when repairs are carried out
boots, gloves and helmet. especially if smoke at that location is
When there is smoke the Breathing inevitable (engine room workshop). The fire control station, depending
Apparatus (BA) is used. The BA com on the type of ship, comprises the
prises a compressed air bottle and a 2.1 1 Muster list following:
smoke mask. A normal tanker has 4 - a display of the fire alarm system,
BA sets, chemical tankers, more. A muster list, with names and func - a cabinet containing the quick
tions of everyone on board listing closing valve controls
1. Helmet emergency tasks, is updated every - stop buttons for mechanical ven
2. Mask, part of BA-set voyage. tilation
3. Mouthpiece It is posted at various places through - the smoke extraction cabinet
4. Harness out the accommodation, in the wheel - the remote control cabinet for the
5. Fire-resistant jacket house and engine room. CO2 fire extinguishing system
6. Compressed oxygen or cylinder of - a fireman's outfit including a
oxygen 2.1 2 Fire control station breathing apparatus set
7. Fire-resistant gloves - other related equipment.
8. Horn Modern ships are provided with a fire
9. Torch control station. In big ships this is a The fire control station is normally
10. Fluorescent strip room in the accommodation, acces also the mustering point for the fire
11. Fire-resistant trouser sible from outside, with a fire door to fighting team.
12. Fire hose the rest of the space.
13. Fire-resistant boots
3 Lifesaving appliances 3.2 Lifeboats
3.1 Regulations Lifeboats and davits can be run on different ways. Davits must
be designed so that there is no power (energy) needed from
Regulations concerning the rescue equipment is the ship system to a lifeboat to launch (gravity or 'stored
described in Chapter III of the SOLAS Convention. mechanical power'). The inventory (prescribed list) of the
The SOLAS Convention describes the WHAT and WHEN. lifeboats must be reguarly checked. Examples of inventory:
The specific requirements for WHO and HOW of Life water, food, First aid kit, medicines, diesel oil, bilge pumps,
saving appliances (including personal ones) are listed in emergency signals, etc.
the Life-Saving Appliance (LSA) Code. Lifeboats must be equipped with a combustion engine whose
The LSA Code is referred to in SOLAS Chapter III, regu fuel has a flash point of up to 43° (diesel meets this require
lation 34. 'All life-saving appliances and arrangements ment), to start with batteries or by hand.
shall comply with the applicable requirements of the Lifeboats must be able to be launched if the ship is listing to
Code '. The requirement (prototype) tests for LSA are one side; maximum of 20° list and 10° trim.
described in the 'Recommendation' on testing of life Closed lifeboats must have sufficient stability to right them
saving appliances ' MSC 81 (70). The IMO also has a selves. They must be equipped with a hook system that
number of Circulars, interpretations, guidelines and rec works both without load (off-load = normal) and under load
ommendations published with regard to, among others (on-Load). The On-Load function allows release from any
maintenance, use, training and manuals of life-saving height and must be sufficiently protected against accidental or
appliances. The Marine Safety Committee (MSC) from premature use. Hydrostatic protection is used in most cases.
the IMO is responsible for the requirements in SOLAS The water pressure on a membrane in the bottom allows the
and the LSA Code. loosening of the hooks only when the boat is completely in
the water (off-load).
1. Free fall lifeboat 5. Crane for MOB-Boat and life raft

2. Lifebuoy 6. Freefall lifebuoy with light and smoke signal
3. Life raft (crane launched) 7. Fire hose box, near hydrant
4. Rescue boat (man over board boat)
15. SAFETY
Requirements for life-saving Or 37.5% lifeboat capacity distributed
appliances and life rafts on some on both sides. The 12.5% lifeboat The IMO has issued mandatory
type of ships. Note that this is a capacity that is missing must be sup guidelines for Lifeboat Release and
summary, not a detailed explanan plemented with floating capacity. Retrieval Systems (LRRS) under
tion. (See: SOLAS III). An MOB boat on each side. MSC.l/Circ.1392. These are unusual
because they are retrospective and
Cargo ships (except tankers): Tankers: require owners to test and in some
shorter than 85 metres - Closed lifeboats on each side for all cases replace existing equipment.
• life rafts on each side suitable persons on board, or one free-fall Manufacturers have also had to apply
for all persons on board lifeboat for all persons on board. rigid new tests to all their equipment.
• MOB boat - Life rafts for all persons on board
longer than 85 metres; launch from both sides can be left All shipowners are obliged to arrange
• closed lifeboats on both sides - MOB boat an evaluation of existing on-load
for all persons on board or one release mechanisms on their ves
free-fall lifeboat for all persons Closed lifeboats must be equipped sels.
on board. with an independent closed air system
• life rafts for all persons on board (compressed air bottles), so the boat
that can be launched from both can get through any burning oil on
sides. the water.
• MOB boat In connection with this there must
also be sprinkler system installed to
Passenger ships: the outside of the boat.
Lifeboat space on each side for 50%
of the passengers (total at least
100%), to be supplemented with
25% davit-launched raft capacity
both sides.
Lifeboats launched with stored power

davits A sprinkler system protects the lifeboat and its occupants against fire
15. SAFETY 401

1. Drain plug 7. Lug for life boat suspension 13. Handle to release lifeboat from
2. Cooling water pipes 8. Propeller in nozzle rudder falls
(closed system) 9. Platform for boarding and lifting 14. Bilge pump
3. Grab lines people from the water 15. Fuel tanks
4. Reflective tape 10. Sprinkler system 16. Food tanks
5. Fender 11. VHF antenna 17. Freshwater tanks
6. Release hook for painter 12. Dome
402 15. SAFETY

3.2.1 Launching lifeboats 3.2.1.2 Gravity davits Everything must be checked annually,
The lifeboat/davit combinations are with a visual inspection of hooks and
3.2.1.1 Freefall type 'gravity davits' at either side of davits and correct operation.
The installation is positioned right aft the ship. The boat lowers by its own Also a function key of the brake from
in the ship, ensuring that trim and list weight, after removing a number the winch. These inspections (1 and 5
have minimum influence on launching. of securings and sea fastenings, by years) are allowed only be done by:
Prior to launching, the whole crew simply lifting the brake handle of the - the manufacturer
enters the boat, seats and secures winch. - one certified by the manufacturer
themselves. No life jacket may be worn company
during launching. Boat securings are 3.2.1.3 Stored power davits - a Flag State or class agency author
released, where after the cox moves These are used mainly on passenger ized company.
a lever up and down which pumps the liners because they do not require
release hook hydraulically. At this point, much space. The lifeboats hang in The test weights are usually water
the diesel engine is already running so the davits. During launching, the tel bags.
that the boat can navigate away from escopic davits extend outboard until
the ship immediately after launching. the boat is clear of the ship. It can
The seats in the boat are positioned then be lowered into the water.
facing astern to prevent injuries during The davits are extended by a hydraul-
impact. lic system that obtains its stored
In addition to falling, the free fall boat power from batteries.
can also be lowered using the recovery In passenger ships, the lifeboats may
crane. This is usually an A-frame for be used as tenders to transfer pas
testing or maintenance and provided sengers between ship and shore.
with a winch for recovery. Enclosed lifeboats must be fitted with
The 'auxiliary launching facility' is an on-load hydrostatic release.
powered by hydraulic jacks and an
electric hoisting winch. This can lower 3.3 Testing of lifeboats
a freefall boat (for example when ice and davits
is present) if a free fall is not pos
sible. This is also used for testing and The davits holding lifeboats must be
maintenance. The lifeboat must have tested regularly.
sufficient buoyancy to detach itself from When testing the lifeboat, the test
the launching system should the ship weight of a fully loaded boat + 10%
sink or roll over. Trim and I or list may is used. This means:
not have any influence on the launch - Cruise / ferry:
of the lifeboat. In the event that the boat weight + 75 kg per person
ship sinks or capsizes, a freefall boat - Cargo ships: 82.5 kg
will usually float up freely due to suf
ficient buoyancy. Freefall lifeboats must Lifeboat and davits must be inspected
be tested (launched and sailed) every and tested every five years.
three months.
Load test of a hydraulic pivoting lifeboat davit
Launch of a freefall lifeboat from a height of 15 metres
15. SAFETY 403

Hydrostatic
3.4 Rescue boat (Man release
Overboard Boat) for life raft 1. Lashing strap around raft
2. Pelican hook
Vessels with a freefall lifeboat must 3. Connecting line
also have a separate MOB boat with a 4. Painter
crane or davit. 5. Weak link
The compulsory inventory includes 6. Ring
survival suits for 3 crew members. 7. Hydrostatic release unit
Ships carrying passengers must have 8. Expiring date of certificate
a rescue boat capable of being low
ered into the water with the ship at a
speed of 5 knots.
Ro-Ro passenger ships must
have a fast rescue boat.
1. Life raft
2. Releasable Boat Cradle
3. Man Overboard Boat (MOB)/
Rescue boat 3.5 Life rafts
4. On load Release Hook
5. Lowering Handle In cargo ships, inflatable life rafts are
6. Slewing Handle located on each side for everyone on
7. Starter box including operating board.
push buttons. Davit launched rafts are required
8. Winch Drum when the embarkation level exceeds
9. Limit Switch 4.5 metres above 'lightest seagoing
10. Brake lever condition of the vessel1 or the weight
11. Hydraulic Power Pack of the life raft exceeds 185 kg.
Rafts of the throw-overboard type
Rescue boat (MOB) davit. The MOB should always be con maybe deployed. These must have a
nected to the davit, ensuring that it can be launched quickly line attached to the vessel.
in case of emergency by using the two operating triangles. A normal cargo ship with lifeboats has
the 'throw overboard' type.
With a freefall lifeboat, one of the
rafts must be davit-launched, usually
the MOB davit. This allows the life raft
to be lowered in the inflated condition.
A throw-overboard life raft must have

its painter connected to the ship and
secured with a band held by a hydro
static release. If the ship sinks, the
release opens and the raft floats.
The end of the painter secured to
the ship has a 'weak link', so that it
breaks free.
If the raft is launched manually, pull
ing the painter triggers the pressur
ized bottle and inflates the raft.
Large ships have an additional 6-per-
son life raft forward and some very
large container ships with midships
accommodation, another one aft.
Hand flares, Parachute Rockets and
Smoke Signals have to be in all life
rafts.
404
3.6 Life jackets They have to be fitted with reflec
tive material.
Life jackets are provided for eve Smaller life jackets are provided
ryone on board. They must comply for children. Inflatable life jackets
with LSA regulations and are part must have two air chambers and
of a list of approved equipment. must be serviced every year.
They are usually stored in the cab
ins, but sometimes in boxes near 3.7 Life buoys
The sinking ship pulls the painter and the lifeboats.
A few extra life jackets are stored A number of life buoys, depending
the raft inflates.
in places where people work: on the ship's length, are positioned
- in the engine room, around the ship and stowed on the
- bridge side rails.
- forecastle. Some are provided with a light
A life jacket has to be made of sea and/or line.
water resistant and fire retardant There has be a life buoy with a man
material with sufficient buoyancy. overboard float on each bridge
It has to turn an unconscious per wing. When released it drops by
son who is face down in the water, gravity into the sea. It has a smoke
upright and has to keep his mouth float and a light signal.
12 cm above the water.
Above:
The last (weak) con
necting line breaks
and the survivors can
climb into the inflat
ed life raft.
Left:
life raft that can be
lowered from a davit
Right:
Life buoy with light
3.8 Immersion suits
(survival units)
Everybody on board cargo ships,

including bulk carriers, has to have an
immersion suit.
Hypothermia is the most dangerous
threat to people in lifeboats especially
in open lifeboats, which are still in use
on older ships.
An immersion suit has to be worn
together with a life jacket.
The insulating quality of immersion
suits has to be such that the body
temperature does not drop more
than 2 °C after 6 hours in water with A survival suit has to be worn in combination with a life jacket to stabilize the
a temperature between 0 and 2 °C. head in case the person wearing it is unconscious.
Training matrix for seafarers according to the STCW'78 as amended

General training requirements
Safety Security- Security Basic Profic Profic Advanced Medical Medical GMDSS
familiari related awareness Training iency in iency fire first aid Care radio
zation familiari training survival in fast fighting operator,
training zation craft and rescue ROC or
training rescue boats GOC
boats
(other
than fast
rescue)
STCW Code part A section > VI/1-1 VI/6 VI/6-1 VI/1, VI/2, VI/2, VI/3, VI/4, VI/4, IV
par 2 par 1 to 4 par 7 to 10 par 1 to 4 par 1 to 3 par 4 to 6
DECK DEPARTMENT
Reg II/3 Master (<500 GT, near coastal)
Reg II/3 Master (<500 GT)
Reg II/2 Master (between 500 - 3000 GT)
Reg II/2 Master (>3000 GT)
Reg II/3 Chief mate (<500 GT, near coastal)
Reg II/3 Chief mate (<500 GT)
Reg II/2 Chief mate (between 500 - 3000 GT)
Reg II/2 Chief mate (>3000 GT)
Reg II/3 Watchk. officer (<500 GT, near coastal)
Reg 11/1 Watchkeeping officer (>500 GT)
Reg II/4 Ratings, forming part of nav. watch
Reg II/5 Able seafarers
ENGINE DEPARTMENT
Reg III/2 Chief engineer (>3000 kW)
Reg III/3 Chief engineer (between 750 - 3000 kW)
Reg III/2 Second engineer (>3000 kW)
Reg III/3 Second engineer (betw 750 - 3000 kW)
Reg III/l watchkeeping engineer (>750 kW)
Reg III/4 Ratings, forming part of eng. watch

Reg III/5 Able seafarers, part of eng. watch
Reg III/6 Electro technical officers (>750 kW)

Reg III/7 Electro technical ratings (>750 kW)
406 15. SAFETY

4 Precautionary
measures
ABBREVIATIONS
4.1 Training
ARPA Automatic Radar Plotting Aids
betw. between
To work professionally with all the
BRM Bridge Resource Management
above equipment, the ship's crew
needs to be properly trained. Before eng. engine-room
signing on, everyone must have a ERM Enging room Resource Management
certificate of competency. GOC General Operator's Certificate

This certificate can only be obtained ML Management level
when the individual is in possession nav navigational near coastalnear coastal voyages
of the proper diplomas, sufficient sea
OL Operational level
service and a number of certificates
par paragraph
obtained after fulfilling certain safety
Reg regulation
courses.
ROC Restricted Operator's Certificate
STCW Standards of Training, Certification and Watch keeping
Tanker specific trainings (Ro-ro) passenger specific trainings

Basic Basic Advanced Advanced Advanced Crowd Safety Crisis Passenger
Training Training training training training mana training for manage safety,
for oil & for gas for oil for for gas gement personnel ment and cargo
chemical tankers tankers chemical tankers providing human safety
tankers tankers direct behaviour and hull
service to training integrity
passengers training
in
passenger
spaces
V/l-1 V/l-2 V/l-1 V/l-1 V/l-2 V/2, V/2, V/2, V/2,

par 1 par 2 par 3 par 4
DECK DEPARTMENT
Reg II/3 Master (<500 GT, near coastal)
MjgSgg Reg II/3 Master (<500 GT)
Reg II/2 Master (between 500 - 3000 GT)
Reg II/2 Master (>3000 GT)
Reg II/3 Chief mate (<500 GT, near coastal)
Reg II/3 Chief mate (<500 GT)
Reg II/2 Chief mate (between 500 - 3000 GT)
Reg II/2 Chief mate (>3000 GT)
Reg II/3 Watchk. officer (<500 GT, near coastal)
Reg 11/1 Watchkeeping officer (>500 GT)
Reg II/4 Ratings, forming part of nav. watch
Reg II/5 Able seafarers
ENGINE DEPARTMENT
Reg III/2 Chief engineer (>3000 kW)
— Reg III/3 Chief engineer (between 750 - 3000 kW)
Reg III/2 Second engineer (>3000 kW)
Reg III/3 Second engineer (betw 750 - 3000 kW)
Reg III/l watchkeeping engineer (>750 kW)
Reg III/4 Ratings, forming part of eng watch

Reg III/5 Able seafarers, part of engine watch
Reg III/6 Electro technical officers (>750 kW)

Reg III/7 Electro technical ratings (>750 kW)
REVALIDATION OF CERTIFICATE For the trainings, or specific parts of the trainings below, seafarers shall provide evidence of having maintained
the required standards of competence every five years.
GENERAL: TANkER: - Basic trainings

- Advanced trainings
MEDICAL: - Medical first aid

4.2 Tests and drills
To respond quickly and efficiently in

case of accident, people need to be
trained. Regular drills (fire drills and
abandon ship drills) are compulsory.
It is important that the drills are as
realistic as possible.
On completion of the drill an evalua
tion should be made where the short
comings of the group or individuals
are discussed and if necessary, theory
is reviewed.
The drills are entered in the ship's
logbook. Drills with life rafts are
impractical on board and are there
fore conducted ashore.
The same applies to using distress
signals.
Exercise How many times?

Abandon ship Monthly
Fire fighting Monthly
Man over board Monthly
Emergency Once every
steering three months
entering Once every two
enclosed spaces months
4.3 Personal Protective

Equipment (PPE)
Various safety measures have to be

taken during normal daily work. Per
sonal safety items for normal work
are safety helmet, ear protection,
eye protection, gloves, safety shoes,
coveralls, lifebelt, etc.
Working with cargo requires the rel
evant safety measures related to that
cargo, especially when working with
chemicals. Often special suits, gloves,
boots, breathing apparatus, etc. are
required.
When entering confined spaces one
must be equipped with a portable
multi-gas detector, which detects the
presence or absence of oxygen, car
bon monoxide, sulphur oxides and
explosive mixtures.
1. Helmet 5. Safety hook

2. Safety glasses 6. Safety belt
3. Chin strap 7. Positioning line
4. Harness
408 15. SAFETY

5 Markings
Many items are identified by signs,

often stickers.
All safety gear, wherever stored, has
to be indicated by a sign. Escape
routes are also identified by signs.
Instructions on how to use the life

rafts must be displayed near the
rafts, i.e. showing preparation and Lighting system for passageways and staircases.
launching.
Markings should be clear, simple and

easy to understand. For instance, on
ships carrying passengers, station
numbers are useful for orientation of
the passengers on the ship.
However, the markings are important
for both crew and passengers in case
of emergency.
The markings show the exits and the
location of life-saving appliances. This
is made easier by the use of arrows
on the walls or a fighting system for
passageways and staircases. These
escape route markings (green) in
the accommodation are compulsory Entrance door with name and technical marking
under IMO regulations. Not only the
escape route must be marked, but
also safety measures. The markings
on these should be photoluminescent.
This means that they glow in the
dark. Many pipes run through the
engine room and the ship.
A large variety of liquids is pumped
through these pipes and each pipe
should be clearly marked to indicate
which liquid it contains.
This is not only important for the
crew, but also for people less familiar
with the ship.
To achieve this all the pipes have a
colour (either paint or coloured tape)
that represents the liquid in that pipe.
There are many large and small rooms

and spaces on a ship. In general each
has a door or an entrance hatch.
It is important to know what is in
a space before the door or hatch is
opened, especially at night or in bad
weather.
This is why every door or hatch is
marked with the name of the space,
and sometimes with a technical mark
ing.
Pipe with colour code and arrows indi

cating the direction of the liquid flow
15. SAFETY
6 Communication, 6.3 Emergency Position
safety Indicating Radio
Beacon (EPIRB)
6.1 Global Maritime
Distress and Safety The EPIRB is valuable when a ship
System (GMDSS) sinks so fast that the crew does not
have time to send a distress call.
A GMDSS installation is legally As in the case of the life raft, the
required by the SOLAS 74 Amend water pressure will activate a hydro
ment in which the distress and safety static release and the EPIRB will rise
radio traffic is regulated. to the surface.
All passenger liners and ships larger As soon as the EPIRB is activated it
than 300 GT are obliged to have will start to transmit the MMSI-num-
GMDSS. GMDSS ensures that, irre ber* of the ship to a satellite which, in
spective of the ship's location, reliable turn, will warn a ground station.
shore-to-ship and ship-to-shore com The ground station then warns
munication is possible in an emer the nearest coast guard station.
gency using radio and/or satellites. (*MMSI= Maritime Mobile Ship's
All information regarding transmitting, Identification)
receiving, and the frequencies used,
can be found in the 'Admiralty List of The coast guard will direct ships and
Radio Signals', Volume 5. aircraft as soon as the approximate
GMDSS includes the NAVTEX receiver, position of the ship in distress is
which receives and prints weather determined.
forecasts and warnings as well as dis When the EPIRB starts transmitting, a
tress messages, and the watertight bearing can be taken and the position
GMDSS walkie-talkies for distress can be determined.
communications. 1. Walkie-talkie for ship-to-aircraft
communication
6.2 Search And Rescue 6.4 Voyage Data Recorder 2. SART
Transponder (SART) (VDR)
Life rafts and lifeboats are difficult to Ships of 3,000 GT and upwards are
see on radar because of their poor required to have a Voyage Data
radar-reflecting properties. Recorder.
To overcome this problem, a device This is an apparatus which stores in a
(SART) has been developed that, secure and retrievable form, naviga
on receiving a signal, answers by tional data, such as position, move
transmitting a signal of the same ment, speed, course, command and
frequency. control (recordings of voice on the
This makes the life raft or lifeboat vis bridge, etc.) leading up to and con
ible on the radar screen. tinuing after an incident or accident.
When the ship is evacuated, one
individual, indicated on the Muster
List, is responsible for bringing the
SART from the bridge, to the life raft
or lifeboat.
The SART has a range of approxi
mately 30 miles.
EPIRB
410 15. SAFETY

7 Pyrotechnics COMET
These are a visual forms of emer LEINENWURFGERAT

LINE THROWING DEVICE
gency communication:
Man overboard lifebuoy mark

er, normally mounted on a ship's
bridge wing, attached to a 4 kg
lifebuoy. Automatically or manu
ally deployed to mark the position
of a person in the water by day
or night. Features a self-activated
lighting system. Must meet SOLAS
requirements:
Line throwing apparatus Smoke signal
• at least 2 candela light output
for 2 hours duration.
• Provides 15 minutes of dense
orange smoke.
• Ships are required to fit at least
two Man overboard lifebuoys.
- Parachute signals, must be
available in or near the wheel
house and in each lifeboat/life-
raft. They are rockets, which can
be fired by hand and can be seen
Parachute light Hand torch
from a great distance. The general
meaning is: I need help.
- Hand flares, in lifeboats/life rafts
and rescue boat. These are very
bright hand-held burning torches
used to attract attention or indi
cate location.
- Smoke signals, in each lifeboat/
life raft. A tin can, to be put in the
water after activation. It remains
afloat and produces a thick orange
smoke, clearly visible from the air.
- Line throwing apparatus, four
in or near the wheelhouse. These
are rockets that, when fired from
a gun, draw a long thin line behind
them as a first step towards estab
lishing a stronger connection. The
thin line is used to heave a heavier
Hand flares
line connected to a hawser.
15. SAFETY K 411

STABILITY
1 Introduction
Why does a ship float despite being constructed from heavy materials such
as steel? The reason for this is that the gravitational force that pulls the ship
downwards is balanced by the upward water pressure on the hull.
Of course a prerequisite for this is that the ship is watertight below the water
line. When the weight of the ship becomes so large that the upward pressure
is less than the actual weight, the ship will sink.
STABILITY
The water around the ship exerts 2 Intact stability
1 Introduction 414
a force on the ship, perpendicular
2 Intact stability 414 to the water surface. 2.1 Gravity (G) and
If the ship floats, this force equals buoyancy (B)
3 Effect of damage on the 420 the weight of the water displaced
stability by the ship. Ships are designed to float upright,
This is called Archimedes' law and, therefore, must have stability.
4 Assessment of damage 422 which states that an object that is
totally or partially submerged in A distinction is made between longi
stability particulars
a liquid, experiences an upward tudinal stability and transverse stabil
force that equals the weight of ity. Longitudinal stability is normally
the displaced liquid. sufficient, therefore, will not be taken
into consideration.
When the word stability is mentioned,
The magnitude of the upward force it refers to transverse stability.
depends on the volume of the ship's
underwater body. Stability for small list angles of heel
The displacement resulting in an less than 6° is called initial stability.
upward force is called buoyancy.
If the ship has only buoyancy (B) When a floating body is forced into
and no reserve buoyancy above the a heeled position without adding or
waterline, then the slightest increase removing weight, a buoyancy wedge
in weight of the ship would cause it (2) is formed and filled at the lower
to sink. side of the body, and at the high side
It is therefore very important that the a wedge (1) is lost.
ship possesses a certain amount of When the volume of the submerged
reserve buoyancy. part does not change, both wedges
The reserve buoyancy comprises the have the same volume.
hull volume above the waterline, and
also the accommodation, deck houses Due to the apparent water move
and other deck structures. ment (from wedge 1 to wedge 2), the
All the spaces that contribute to the centre of buoyancy (B) of the whole
reserve buoyancy must be watertight submerged part has moved.
or able to be closed watertight. B is the centre of gravity of the dis
placed liquid, and is the point at which
the vector representing the buoyancy
has its origin.
5
Stability is the ability of a
totally or partially submerged
body to float upright, and
when forced from the upright
position, to come back to
the upright position when the
reason for the list no longer
exists.
414 16. STABILITY

The locations of B at varying angles
are all on a virtual curve.
A ship can be forced to a heel in any

direction, not just transversely or
longitudinally.
Only two models are considered -
transverse and longitudinal, which
are at right angles to each other.
The following pictures show a trans

verse section of a ship.
In the figure below, we see the points
'G' for Gravity and 'B' for Buoyancy, VCB (= KB)
both origin of a vector, representing KB can be found for each T (draught)
the forces of weight and buoyancy. in the hydrostatic tables of the ship.
Metacentre (M):
The tables are found in the Hydro
The point from which the ship is
static Particulars, supplied by the
virtually suspended.
building yard and have to be carried
The height of M is important to
on board (stamped and signed by the
initial stability.
Flag State and approved for the par
ticular ship).
2.2 MB, KG and KB
MB
The vertical distance between M and
B can be determined using the for
mula:
MB d
I = transversal moment of inertia of
the waterline area =
= 1/12 LB3I *
[m4] *(only
* * Bin case of a
With a strong wind from a trans rectangular barge.)
verse direction, the ship lists slightly, V = Volume submerged part of the
resulting in a transformation of the ship [m3]
buoyancy, and relocation of vector B L = length of the submerged part
towards the low side of the ship, but of the ship [m]
at right angles to the waterline. B = breadth of the submerged part of
the ship [m].
Point M, or the metacentre, is found
where the buoyancy vector crosses MB can be found for every draught
the centre line of the ship. (T) in the ship's hydrostatic tables or
can be calculated. This cargo hold of a multi purpose
For every angle of list and displace ship is being loaded with piles for
ment, there is one metacentre point. VCG (= KG) the offshore industry. The length of
With a larger angle of heel, the posi The distance from the centre of one pile, is as long as the cargo hold.
tion of M can vary considerably in gravity of the complete ship to the Division bulkheads are removed.
comparison to M for small angles. In keel 'K' (VCG) is (initially) a figure This type of pile is used to attach a
this case, it is called the false meta produced by the building yard. jacket to the seabed.
centre. Each added weight afterwards, results The first piles are loaded in the hold,
in a change of VCG (unless added at G moves down and KG decreases.
the level of G). After one layer of piles, causing a
Added weights include cargo, stores, gradual decrease of KG, the next lay
MB = Metacentre -> Bouyancy fuel, drinking water, ballast, personal ers will increase KG.
VCG = Vertical Centre of Gravity belongings and everything else not If the hold is filled completely, KG will
VCB = Vertical Centre of Bouyancy belonging to the empty ship. have an acceptable value.
16. STABILITY 415

2.3 GM values 2.4 The location of G in
relation to M (GM)
GM can have three values:
- GM positive: M above G When the aforementioned distances
- GM negative: M below G are determined, the distance between
- GM zero: M and G are at the same G and M (GM) can be calculated.
location. (KM = KG) This distance is decisive for the length
of the 'righting arm' which is decisive
for the 'righting moment' or 'stability
moment'.
The value of GM comes from the for
mula:
GM = KB + BM - KG
GM = KM - KG
The above alternatives are only appli

cable for small angles of heel i.e. less
than 6°, the initial stability.
2.5 The importance GZ
A ship under heel, illustrated in the

GM is positive
figure on the following page.
The cause of the list is external - a
wave or wind pressure.
This results in B moving to the low
side of the ship. A couple is a system of two iden
The stability moment is shown as: tical opposing forces working on a
(A x GZ). body along parallel lines.
The magnitude is 'force x lever'.
In the case of a ship this is:
GZ
Sin cp = GZ = GM sin <p A x GZ
GM
The figure (above, right) shows that Relationship between water

the magnitude of stability moment line area and M
depends on the horizontal distance From the formula MB = Vvol it is
between the two forces (buoyancy apparent that the location of M,
GM is negative
and displacement), the so-called stat with a constant ship weight, com
ic lever of stability, GZ. pletely depends on the waterline
area.
These levers can be calculated for dif
ferent angles of heel. When a ship heels, the breadth of
When set against a baseline, a curve the waterline increases, and thus
is produced, the 'curve of levers of area of the waterline, resulting in
static stability', or the stability curve. an increase of MB.
The values are usually given in In this way, a small negative initial
metres. MB becomes positive, preventing
the capsizing of the ship.
The stability curve gives a clear pic
ture of the ship's stability and has to The opposite can occur when bal
meet legal requirements. lasting a forepeak, for instance.
Then the trim changes, which
results in a decrease of waterline
area. Fast ships normally have a
smaller waterline area fore than aft.
A = displacement
416 16. STABILITY

Ship is upright
G
The points of origin of the results of Freeboard deck
Ö
all weights of the ship itself and on
board weight (G) and the resultant
'of the buoyancy (B) are positioned
on one line, resulting in a zero lever "B
of static stability (GZ)
GZ(m)
i.o—
When the list increases, the vector
o,s B will move further to the low side,
o.o resulting in a larger lever of static
0.4 stability (GZ), which means a larger
0.2- righting moment.
0 —i----- 1—i—i—fr
io 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 6
Heeling angle (degrees)
Point B moves to the low side, to the

place where the ship gets the largest
upward buoyancy force.
16. STABILITY 417

When the vectors of weight and
buoyancy are on the same line,
the lever is zero, and the righting
moment also.
418 16. STABILITY

NB: In reality, as soon the ship starts listing, the
point M will move away from the midships plane.
For simpler calculation, the assumption is made
that for listing angles up to 6°, point M remains
in the midships plane. The explanation of this
phenomenon is outside the range of this book.
When the list increases, the vector of the

buoyancy force will move to the wrong side of
the vector of the weight force. KM is in that
situation smaller than KG. GM is then nega
tive, and the ship will capsize.
2.6 Notes on stability When the GM0 value is below or above

these values this can negatively affect
stability.
2.6.1 Influence of depth on Ships with a small GM0 have a long
stability rolling period, which is more comfort
able for people on board.
The figures below demonstrate why But too small a GM0 can result in cap
Depth (D) and freeboard are impor sizing after a collision.
tant for stability. Passenger ships have a small GM0
value to achieve a long rolling period.
Both ships have the same GM-value,
but a different stability range, 34° Ships with a large GM0 are usually
and 47° respectively. ships with heavy cargo, (steel, iron-
The beam of both ships is the same. ore) low in the hull with the cubic
To prevent too much stability after loading,
The depth of hull nr. 2 is greater than capacity of the cargo space hardly
the steel rolls are distributed in the lower
the depth of hull nr. 1 used.
hold and tween deck, to put the position of
G at an acceptable height, reducing the GM
2.6.2 Influence of GM0 When the cubic capacity is used com
value.
pletely - with grain or coal - the GM0
If all the steel is stowed in the lower hold,
The minimum and maximum values will be smaller.
a short, abrupt rolling period could result,
of GM0 largely depend on the type of The high accelerations due to a large
making life on board very uncomfortable and
ship. Ranges between 0.5 m and 8 GM0 value are uncomfortable and can
even causing damage to ship and equipment.
metres are normal. result in shifting of cargo.
Higher ships have higher stability
16. STABILITY
2.6.3 Influence of Beam
(Breadth) on GM
Ships with a large beam and shallow

draught, such as barges, have a large
GM0. Slender, narrow ships such as
container ships or passenger ships
with a large draught have small initial
stability. (Preferably in combination
with a high freeboard).
As mentioned earlier, the initial stabil

ity GM0, has nothing to do with the
stability at greater angles.
An extreme example is the float of a
fishing rod. Spray over the bow freezes in subzero conditions.
This float has a very small initial sta The weight of the ice adds weight to the ship at an undesirable location.
bility, but will never capsize. In severe conditions, A increases substantially, and KG becomes larger.
The stability of small ships can be quickly affected in severe freezing conditions.
2.6.4 Negative influences on
stability 3 Effect of damage on This creates a listing moment, with an
the stability impact depending on the quantity of
- Heavy cargo on deck the water and the distance it can flow
- Ice on deck or superstructures, For cargo handling, longitudinal and unobstructed, mainly in the trans
masts, etc, due to freezing spray or transverse bulkheads are unwanted verse direction.
fog (icing) in arctic regions features on dry-cargo ships. The severity of the situation depends
- Loading or discharging heavy piec Loading and discharging are hampe greatly on the distance it can flow
es of cargo with the ship's own red, and there are limitations on transversely and the permeability of
cargo gear cargo with extreme dimensions. the space.
- The emptying of tanks low in the Bulkheads are however necessary to
ship's hull (double bottom tanks) limit the amount of flooding from
- Liquid free surface(s). leakage, for instance after a collision.
If incoming water spreads slowly and The magnitude of a moment is
The last item, the liquid free surfaces evenly through the ship, there is no determined by a force (weight)
will be explained in part 3. This is the immediate danger. and the distance of that force to a
most important reason for stability However, it is normal following a colli fixed point.
problems, causing a great number of sion that the water floods quickly into Example:
casualties. the ship, often from port to starboard - A child (30 kilos) and his father
In the design stage all possible cir or reverse. (60 kilos) are sitting on a see
cumstances, such as loading and bal saw. The distances to the turn
last conditions and adverse weather ing point of the seesaw are 2
conditions, are carefully reviewed and Permeability: and 1 metres respectively. In
calculated with respect to stability. The extent to which a compart spite of the difference in weight,
ment can be filled with water is both the father and the child
Rolling period:
its permeability. exert the same moment on the
The period of time taken to roll
The effect of incoming water on turning point of the seesaw.
from port to starboard and back to
stability will be: (30x2 and 60x1 respectively).
port, or vice versa.
- maximum if the compartment The seesaw is in equilibrium.
The rolling period varies from 30
is empty (permeability = 1) - If a weight of 100 tons is
seconds for passenger ships to 8
- minimal if the compartment moved 1 metre on a ship, the
seconds for wide ships or ships
is completely filled with, for same effect on the trim can
with a low KG, due to heavy cargo
instance Styrofoam or a liquid, be achieved by moving 1 ton a
low in the ship.
(permeability = 0). hundred metres. In both cases
Partly filled tanks (cargo, ballast,
the moment is 100 tm.
fuel), result in a virtual higher KG,
The permeability of an engine
and a smaller GM.
room is approximately 0.85. The This illustrates how even a limited
This can be dangerous for small
higher the permeability of a com amount of liquid can cause a large
ships with a too small stability, but
partment, the more volume can moment on the ship if the liquid is
adding comfort on large ships with
be flooded and the lower the allowed to move freely over the full
too large stability.
remaining buoyancy. width of the ship.
420 16. STABILITY

Explanation of the abbreviations used in Moment of static stability Leakage of one or more compart
the above drawings: = AxGZ = Ax GM sin cp ments can have the following conse
quences:
G = Centre ofgravity The distance that G moves depends - heel
Bo = Centre of buoyancy (no list) on the length and width of the hold - increase in draught
Bep = Buoyancy when heeled to port where the liquid is freely moving. - change in trim
or starboard (external force) The (virtual) movement of G can be - change in stability.
Bep = Buoyancy by list to port or calculated using the formula:
starboard (internal force)
Mo = Initial metacentre
I length tank x (breadth tank)3
GM = Metacentric height GG = ---- --------------------------------------
V 12 x vessel displacement
KM — The height of initial
metacentre above the keel
K = Keel
l\ = Displacement (D) This formula shows clearly the influ
F = -Displacement (-D) ence of the width (cubed) on the
cp = heeling angle movement of G.
GOG' = virtual loss of GM See drawing 3.
GZ = GZ lever, righting lever, the In drawing nr 4 the width of the tank
horizontal distance between is halved by a longitudinal bulkhead.
the centre ofgravity and the The negative influence on the stabil
vertical through the centre of ity is considerably reduced and is
buoyancy. only 1/4 (= 2 x (V2)3) of the original
I - moment of inertia of the free distance GG'.
surface area of water on deck Where two bulkheads are installed,
i.e. 3 tanks beside each other, the A Ro-Ro ship which has capsized due
effect will be reduced to x/9 x GG' to the free surface effect
16. STABILITY 421

As a result of this weight increase on one side of the ship, a large list can
develop in a short period of time. 4 Damage stability
A ship can capsize in a few minutes. In recent years a number of fatal accidents
have occurred with Ro-Ro ships. In the previous section it became
In the following figures the water flowing from port to starboard has a free- clear that if a space in a ship has
surface effect. This can be considered as a weight causing a heeling moment been flooded, the residual stability in
working on the ship. damaged condition can be calculated.
(1 m3 = approx. 1 ton = 1000 kg.) There are various methods for assess
The presence of bulkheads will limit the flow of water and will in general have ing the stability of a damaged vessel.
a beneficial effect on damage stability.
On the other hand, bulkheads (or decks, for that matter) may hamper loading 4.1 Immersion and trim
and discharging operations, for instance in Ro-Ro ships or heavy cargo vessels.
In those cases the ship designer faces the challenging task of optimising both In essence, damage stability is no
the cargo carrying capacity and the damage stability behaviour. different than ordinary stability.
In tankers, the presence of bulkheads is required to separate the various cargo Although water has flowed into cer
parcels and to reduce the influence of the free surface effect in the, sometimes, tain compartments, this can simply
only partly filled tanks. be taken into account either as addi
The conflict between damage stability and cargo capacity usually does not exist tional weight (no different from other
in tankers. The drawings on the left show the effect of a liquid free surface on weights of cargo or supplies) or as a
the cardeck of a Ro-Ro ship, and its effect on the stability curve. modified ship shape (in which a piece
of hull has disappeared).
On the car deck of the

Ro-Ro ship is a small
amount of water. The influence of this amount of
water can easily be seen on the
stability curve: it gives a small
list and reduces the GZ-curve.
When the amount of water on the

The water quantity has car deck remains constant, the
increased. This results in a ship will have a constant list of
negative initial stability. approximately 19°. If the water
quantity further increases, the ship
will capsize.
422 16. STABILITY

The issue is therefore not so much 4.2 Stability in damaged 4.3 Probabilistic damage
how the calculation is made, the condition stability
question is when the ship can be
considered safe despite the damage. It gradually became clear that a ship Even the complete stability calculation in
The first, trivial, answer to this ques may have sufficient reserve buoy damaged condition as described in the pre
tion is that a sunken ship is no longer ancy, but may still be unsafe due vious paragraph assumes a standard dam
safe. A requirement, therefore, is to insufficient stability in a dam age, for example 10% of the length and a
that the ship must still have sufficient aged condition. Later on it became penetration of 20% of the breadth of the
buoyancy and, to be on the safe side, standard practice to compute dam vessel. Ships are often precisely subdivided
some extra buoyancy. This is referred age stability for every damage case. using these dimensions. This means that if
to as reserve buoyancy. In the first As with an undamaged vessel, this there is in fact a larger damage, more com
version of damage stability require is expressed in a GZ curve, since in partments will be flooded so that the ship
ments, this criterion was operational principle, stability calculations for a can still sink or capsize.
ised by imposing the deck still to be damaged and an undamaged vessel In 1960, it was proposed that the starting
above water. Plus a certain margin, are the same. Quite a few combi point should no longer be standard damage
called the safety distance. This is nations of (standard) damage and cases, but rather that it should be accepted
how the concept of the 'margin line' loading conditions are possible, which that damage of any dimension can occur,
was born, which indicates how far the makes these calculations quite labori taking into account the probability of the
ship may sink in the event of a dam ous. Suppose that the stability has to occurrence of the incident. This approach is
age with certain standard dimensions be assessed for 5 loading conditions based on probability statistics and is there
(i.e. an assumed maximum damage with 12 standard damages. In this fore called 'probabilistic damage stability'.
with fixed length, height and intrusion case, 60 complete damage stability The outcome of a probabilistic assessment
dimensions). calculations will have to be made. does not answer the question of whether
The computer is a solution for such the ship can be regarded as safe, but the
calculations. outcome gives the probability of survival in
the event of damage. In order to be able
to distinguish the probabilistic calculations
from the usual damage stability calcula
tions, the latter are nowadays called 'deter
ministic damage stability calculations'.
Damages Conditions Settings Output
Stability criteria Standard
TAftmark(Afl mark stem}=7.034 m TFore mark=9.015 m

Trim (Lpp)=2.216 m
G'M liquid=0 903 m
complies
Overview weight groups condition : Homogeneous Arrival
Name________________________________ Weight
[Light ship (excl Cranes/HC) 4377 2881
Waterballast 849462
GO 17.042
HFO 76.996
LO 18.572
Freshwater 7594
Various 59460
Sewage / Sludge 15 224
Miscellaneous 27000
Grain / Bulk Cargo 10541.324
Grain Bulkheads 54.472
Tweendeck panels.'Hatch covers 734 554
Crane rotating part 120.092
Heeling angle=23 280 degrees SB Crane load / rigging 0.000
1000.000
Main screen of a loading computer (Locopias)
16. STABILITY
4.4 Rules on the stability of damaged ships 4.5 How to take damage stability
into account
After the Titanic disaster (1912), the SOLAS Convention was
created. In order to guarantee a certain level of safety for pas It simply takes too much time to manually calculate
senger ships, immersion and trim criteria have been included with the stability in damaged condition for each load
a safety distance of 76 mm (3 inches) between the margin line ing condition. Basically, there are 3 ways to check
and the bulkhead deck. The experience of the Second World War whether a particular condition meets the regulatory
made it clear that the SOLAS rules were not sufficient because of criteria:
the assumption that a ship sinks vertically. However, many ships - If the ship meets the criteria intrinsically, which
appeared to capsize before sinking, which is why the SOLAS rules means that the designer or the shipyard has
have been extended to include criteria for stability in damaged demonstrated that the ship meets the criteria
condition. From 1973, these deterministic damage stability crite in all possible loading conditions. However, the
ria were used for oil tankers, gas tankers and chemical tankers. variety of loadings is so great that this situation
rarely occurs.
Probabilistic damage stability criteria have been in use for pas - The damage stability criteria (both determin
senger ships since 1974 (although not mandatory, but as an istic and probabilistic) can be converted into a
alternative to the SOLAS criteria) and were extended in 1998 to maximum allowable vertical centres of height
dry cargo ships longer than 80 metres. (VCG) in intact condition. In this case, tables or
diagrams that show the maximum are available,
As of 1 January 2009, the probabilistic damage stability of dry and if the actual VCG of the intended loading
cargo cargo ships and passenger ships has been harmonised in condition is lower than the permitted value, then
one SOLAS chapter. In addition, also a number of deterministic the vessel complies with the damage stability
criteria apply to passenger ships. After the entry into force of requirements.
SOLAS 2009, the margin line no longer applies to (seagoing) - Some loading computers can make a direct
SOLAS ships. By 2020, the minimum required subdivision index calculation of the damage stability in a reason
for passenger ships (including Ro-Pax) in SOLAS has been con able time. If such instruments are available, the
siderably increased, which means that the safety in the event of damage stability can be calculated together with
damage of such ships has been correspondingly increased. other mandatory calculations such as draught,
trim, intact stability, longitudinal strength and
Another aspect of the regulations is the completeness of the dam line of sight. Some go so far as to integrate the
age stability calculation. Once it was common practice that only effects of flood water and fire-fighting water on
the effect of the influx of water into the damaged compartments stability and strength in a damaged condition
was considered, but gradually more and more phenomena were into so-called 'damage control' software, which
added, such as the submersion of openings (with or without clos not only assesses the current situation, but also
ing devices), the flooding of tanks, other than those directly dam gives advice on how to improve it.
aged, via pipe connections and the flooding of tanks by damage to
filling or sounding pipes. This means that in addition to the ship's For more information about loading computers, we
shape, compartments and loading conditions, the pipelines and refer you to the book Ship Stability, which contains
their connections must also be modelled and taken into account. a chapter on this subject.
Countermeasures
No Name __________________ Acton________ Overall Dam.stab- Res.buoy. Collapse DraftlmJ Trimfml Anglefdegl
11 SNTSDiesoaSsb 85-97 DCempty sea Compartment 1216 : 4 c? : •? ie? -031& 4:i-f.. ee
2 3N45 Dieso/Bto 7 sb 97-109 DCempty sea Fuel ■Mi 0486 0 451 0 006 9179 -0 459 3 607 to SB
3 2N55 Dieso to 3 sb 121-145 empty sea Fuel 0152 1 451 0.157 8 974 -1.193 9 284 to SB
4 3N94 Dieso/Avcto 9 sb 73- 85 empty sea Fuel t.270 0 350 0 653 0 050 9 191 -0167 4 549toSB
5 2N98 Diesoto6sb 109-121 DCempty sea Fuel ■M 0.591 0.134 0.003 9137 -0.631 1 641 to SB
6 2N35 Dieso to 2 sb 145-157 empty sea Fuel 1.305 0.263 0 858 0 270 9 202 -0919 6 781 to SB
7 2N75 Dieso to 4 sb 133-145 empty sea Fuel ■■I 0 374 0 497 0188 9170 -0 879 4 376 to SB
424 16. STABILITY

Index
Brass 361
A Conning system 193
Bronze 362 Construction Aft 42
Access to the ship 211 Bridge 192 Construction Plan 40
Accommodation 188 Building contract 89 Contactor 335
Accommodation ladder 211 Bulb 292 Container fitted 157
AC motors 336 Bulbuous bow 89, 183 Container ships 12, 54
Actuators 340 Bulk carriers 58 Contract 88
Aframax 59 Bulk crane 222 Controllable pitch propellers 296
Air conditioning 189 Bulkheads 43, 114 Conversion 383
Aircraft Carriers 64 Bulwark 181 Cooling 276
Air draught 27 Buoy positioners 69 Copper 361
Air resistance 292 Buttocks 33 Core 249
Alarm system
Alternating current
281
321
c Corrosion 362
Couple 416
Aluminium 361 Cabins 191 Couplings 279
Ampere 320 Cable-laid slings 256 Crane cabin 218, 222
Amphibious support vessels 64 Cable laying ships 69 Cranes 218
Anchor chain 242 Cables 249, 333 Crane Vessels 77
Anchor equipment 240 Camber 29 Creep limit 250
Anchor Handling Tug 83 Capacitors 330 Crew boat 83
Anchor Handling Tug Supplier 19 Capacity Plan 43 Cross-over line 178
Anchor pockets 243 Capesize 58 Crude oil 61
Anchors 240, 380 Capstan 245, 248 Crude oil tankers 59
Anchor winches 245 Cargo Capacity 30 Current 320
Annual Survey 143 Cargo holds 156 Curved plates 92
Anodes 373 Cargo lifts 233 Cutter dredgers 68
Anti-Fouling 369 Cargo runner 219 Cyber security 195
Anti-heeling system
Archimedes
286
414
Car & Passenger Ferry 14 n
Catalyst 387, 388
Assembly 126 Catamaran 73 Damage stability 422, 424
Automation 281, 339 Cathodic protection 371 DC generators 324
Auxiliary vessels 70 Cavitation 295 DC motors 336
Axe bow 73 Centrifugal forces 219 Dead man's brake 200
Certificates 142
B Deadweight 30
Chain cables 380 De-aeration devices 209
Backacters 68 Chain locker 181, 247 Death ship 329
Backlash 250 Chain stopper 243 Deck line 26
Balanced anchor 240 Charterer 216 Decks 42, 114
Ballast system 286 Chase vessels 83 Deck scuppers 389
Ballast Water 135 Chemical reactions 371 Deep water line 26
Barges 68 Chemical tanker 16, 48, 60 Deflection 110
Base Line 26 Circuit breaker 335 Deformations 203
Batteries 321, 330 Classification 124 Delivery 99
Beam 26, 199 Cleats 204 Depth 26, 419
Beam trawler 66 Clipper ship 22 Design 89
Bearing 307 Clutch 245 Detection 394
Bending moment 104 CO2 392 Dew point 366
Bilge keel 179 Coastal trade liners 53 Diagonal loads 113
Bilge line 284, 285 Codes 134 Diagonals 33
Bilge radius 29 Cofferdam 61, 172 Diesel oil 270
Bilge wells: 178 COLREGs 137 Direct current 320
Binding agent 363 Combustion air 276 Dirty-oil tank 285
Bitter end 247 Combustion process 387 Displacement 30
Blades (propeller) 294 Commissioning 98, 356 Distribution systems 330
Block coefficient 32 Committees 126 Diving Support Vessel 83
Block-section 97 Communication 190 Docking Plan 43
Bollards 248 Communication Safety 410 Docking Survey 379
Bow doors 207, 230 Communication systems 354 Documents 144
Bow thrusters 299 Companion hatches 208 Double-bottom 172
Box-shaped 157 Condensation 285 D.P. 76, 299
INDEX 425
Draught 26, 29 Flap rudder 311 Heating coils 60, 173, 178
Drawing office 89 Flashpoint 387 Heave compensation 226
Drawings 36 Flemish eye 256 Heavy cargo 224
Dredgers 67 Floating dock 377 Heavy Lift ships 56
Drenching 389 Floor plates 172 High-grade cables 252
Drilling Ship 76 flukes 243 Hogging 103, 105
Drills 408 Foam 390 Hoistable car decks 233
Drones 375 Folding hatch covers 200, 206 Hoisting diagram 226
Drum 247 Forecastle 181, 183 Hoist-limit 220
Dry Cargo 53 Fore peak 181 Holding tank 132
Dry docking 377, 378 Form coefficients 31 Hook blocks 220
Dry docking loads 113 Fouling 369 Hook rotator 223
Dryfilm 367 Foundations 170 Hopper 67
Duty-deck 191 Four-stroke engine 264 Hose crane 223
Dynamic 102 FPSO 80 Hose test 204
Dynamic positioning 194, 355 Freeboard 27 Hull-form 33
Freefall boat 403 hydrants 389
F
Free surface effect 421 Hydraulic crane drives 220
ECDIS 192 Freezer 44 Hydraulics 316
Ejector 285 Fresh water 281 Hydroblasting 366
Electricity 320 Frictional resistance 292 Hydrodynamic calculations 88
Electric motors 336 Frigates 64 Hydrostatic calculations 88
Electro-chemical reactions 371 Fuel 270 Hydrostatic release 404
Electromagnetic Compatibility 349 Fuel gas 271 Hypothermia 406
Electronic certificates 144 G I
Elevators 233
Emergency fire pump 389 Galley 191 Icebreakers 72
Emergency power systems 329 Galvanic corrosion 372 Ignition 387
End connections 255 Gangway 212 ILO-convention 217
Energy storage 330 Gantry cranes 205, 228 Immersion suits 406
Engine control 320, 352 Garbage 132 IMO (number) 126, 127
Engine Room 131, 170, 260 Gas tanker 48, 274 Implode 295
Entrances 207 Gear boxes 279 Impressed current 374
Environment 189 General Arrangement Plan 40 Inboard ramps 233
Evaporator 281 General Cargo Ship 46 Incinerator 140
Exhaust gas 276 Glass-fiber 362 Inclination limit switch 220
Exterior doors 208 GMDSS 410 Inclining experiment 98
Graving dock 377 Indompeling 422
Gravity 414 Inert gas system 60
Factory acceptance test 356 Gravity davits 403 Initial Survey 143
fairleads 248 Gritblasting 365 Inland vessel 53
Fast craft 73 Grommet 256 Inmarsat 194
Feeders 54 Gross Tonnage 30 Insulation 189
Feeder ships 159 Guarantee 99 Intact stability 414
Fire 387 Guide roller 243 Interior doors 208
Fire classes 388 Gypsy wheel 245 Intermediate Survey 143
Fire control plan 399 Iridium 194
1H1
Fire Detectors 395 ISM code 128
Fire-fighting 287, 388 Hand flares 411 ISO 129
Fire fighting outfits 399 Handling gear 216 J
Fire pentacle 387 Handy size 58
Fire protection 396 Harbour Acceptance Test 356 Jacket 77
Fire zones 397 Harmonic distorsion 350 Jack-Ups 76
Fishing vessels 20, 66, 138 Hatch covers 198 Jib 218
Fitting out 97 Hatches 199
Fixed pitch propellers 295 Hawse pipe 243
K
Fixed Platform 78 Heat detectors 395 Kappel propeller 304
Flag State 36, 126 Heat exchangers 280 Keel blocks 377
Flame detectors 395 Heating 280
Moulded 26 Port State Control 126
Moulded dimensions 26 Pounding 113
Landing craft 65 Mountings 285 Power balance 345
Laser techniques 382 Multipurpose ship 8, 53, 157 Power generation 324
Launching 97 Mushroom shaped vents 210 Power pack 316
Laundry 191 Muster list 399 Power-take-off 279
Length overall 26 Power Take Off generators 327
Lifeboats 400
N Pre-contractual work 86
Life buoys 405 Navigation equipment 354 Preliminary sketch 87
Life jackets 405 Navigation Light Arrangement 43 Pressure valves 210
Life rafts 404 NAVTEX 410 Prismatic coefficient 32
Lifesaving appliances 400 Navy vessels 64 Probabilistische lekstabiliteit 423
Lifting appliances 217 Nesting 92 production phases 97
Lifting capacity 219 Net Tonnage 30 Product tankers 60
Lighting 189 Noise Nuisance 189 Programming 342
Lightship weight 30 Nozzles 294 298 Propellers 293
Light water line 26 proportionator 390
Linear Jet Propulsion 303 U Proportions 29
Line engines 264 Propulsion 260, 293
Offshore equipment 52, 74
Line heating 93 Protective layers 362
Offshore Support Vessels 18
Lines plan 26, 33 Pumps 280
Ohm 320
Line throwing apparatus 411 Pyrotechnics 411
Oil 270
Liquefied Natural Gas 62
Liquid Cargoes 59
Oil lubericated shafting 306
Q
Oil tankers 136
Livestock carriers 57 Quarter ramps 230
Ordinates 33
LNG tanker 16
Load control 219
Ore Bulk Oil 58 R
Osmosis 281
loading program 107
Outline specification 87 Radar 192
Load Line 26, 142
Ramps 207, 230
Load Lines 130 P
■
Ram steering gear 313
logistics 98
Paint 363 Redundancy 347
Logistic support vessels 64
Painting 364 Refloating 379
Longitudinal reinforcements 107
Panamax 58 Refrigerated ships 56
Longitudinal strength 102
Panamax ships 54 Registers 233
Louvers 209
Panel 114 Register ton 29
Low crane 224
Panting 113 Repairs 381
Low-speed crosshead engine 266
Parachute signals 411 Rescue boat 404
LPG / LNG tankers 62
Passenger ships 63 Resistance 320
LRIT 128
Patent slip 378 Resistance curves 89
Lubrication 276
Patrol vessels 64 Resting pads 204
M Pedestal 218 Retractable thrusters 299
Periodical Survey 143 Reverse osmosis 281
Maintenance 190, 379 Rigging 249
Permeability 420
Manhole Covers 209 Rise of floor 29
Perpendiculars 26
Mantle 249 Rockets 411
Pigments 363
Mariner rudder 312 Roller fairleads 248
Pilot boats 72
Maritime Labour Convention 138 Rollingperiod 420
Pilot ladder 212
Markings 409 Roll-on/ Roll- off 55
Pipe laying barges 82
MARPOL 126, 130, 142 Rope 249
Planes 115
Mast cranes 224 Ro-Ro carriers 55
Platforms 78
Measurement Treaty 29 Ro-Ro vessels 230
Platform Supply Vessel 83
Mega Yacht 10 Rotary vane steering gear 314
PLC technology 340
Mess 191 Rubber sealing gaskets 204
Plimsoll Mark 27
Metacenter 415 Rudder bearings 380
Pod 300
Midship Section 42 Rudder propellers 299
Polyamide 252
Midship Section coefficient 31 Rudders 308
Polyester 252
Mine counter-measure vessels 64 Rudder stock 313
Polyethylene 252
Module 77
Polypropylene 252
Mooring gear 247
Pontoon hatch covers 199, 206
INDEX
Standardized ship 86 u
Starting equipment 337
Sacrificial element 372 Startingmotor 277 U-gantry 228
Safeguards 219 Static 102 Ullage 159
Safety 188, 386 Statutory certificates 125 Ultra Large CrudeCarrier 59
Safety devices 200 Statutory demands 217 Ultrasonic detection 204
Safety hook 255 STCW 137 Umbilical cord 83
Safety net 211 Steel 360
Safety Plan 43 Steel castings 361
V
Sagging 103, 105 Steel forgings 361 Valves 282
SART 410 Steering gear 313 V- engine 264
Scantling Plan 40 Stern 164 Verticals 33
Sealing system 198, 305 Stern Doors 207 Very Large CrudeCarrier 59
Seal rings 307 Stem thrusters 299 Vibrations 113, 189
Sea trials 98, 99, 356 Stiffening 114, 183 Visor 230
Sediment 135 Stores 191 "V"- motor 265, 269
Seismic Survey vessel 75 Stores crane 206 Voltage 320
Selectivity diagram 346 Straight ramp 230 Volumes 29
Self tensioning winches 248 Stress distribution 110 Voyage Data Recorder 194, 355, 410
Semi-Submersible Drilling Unit 76 Stresses 113 VSAT connections 195
semi-submersible ships 56 Stringer 115, 185
Sensors 193, 340 Submarines 65
Separator 285 Suez max 59, 160
Wake 292
Sewage 132 Support vessels 65
Walk to Work 213
Shackles 255 Surveys 143
Warping drum 246
Shaft generator 279, 297, 326 Survival suit 406
Warping Head 247
Shafting 277, 292, 305 Switchboards 334
WASTE MANAGEMENT 140
Shearing forces 102 Swivel 242
Water as a lubericant 307
Sheer 29 Synthetic materials 362
Waterjet Propulsion 303
Shell Expansion 40 Synthetics for Piping 286
Waterline area 416
Shell plating 114
Shiplift 378
T Water lines 33
Water mist 390
Shore power 328 Talurit clamp 254 Waterplane coefficient 31
Shuttle tankers 81 Tank 159 Watertight compartments 172
Side blocks 377 Tankers 159, 160, 162, 390 Watertight doors 208
Side doors 207 Tank top 114 Waterwashing 366
Side loaders 228 Tank vent 209 Watts 320
Side-rolling hatch covers 202 Tank-wash system 60 Wave resistance 292
Side sponson 377 Tapered pins 199 Weather-tightness 204
Skeg 166 Tender 87, 88 Weathervaning 81
Slack tank 421 Testing equipment 235 Wedges 204
Slewing cranes 218, 223 Thimbles 255 Weights 29
Sliding blocks 203 Thinners 363 Wheel effect 295
Slings 256 Three-phase current 323 Winches 245, 247
Sloshing 181 Three-phase generators 324 Wing tanks 172
Sludge 270 Timber Mark 28 Wire clamps 256
Smoke detectors 395 Tipping moment 219 Wire rope 253
Snapback 250 Tonnage Convention 137 Wood 360
SOLAS 128, 142 Torsion 113 Work preparation 92
Solvents 363 Trailing sunction hopper dredger 67 Work-Ships 69
Spade rudder 311 Training 407
Sponsons 377 Trawlers 66
Spring 249 Tugs 70
Yachts 73
Sprinklers 390 Turnbuckles 255
Spurling pipes 247 z
Tweendeck hatch covers 206
Stability 414 Two components 363
Stabilizers 63, 308 Zinc Epoxy 368
Two pack paint 363
Stabilizing pontoons 225 Two-stroke engine 264
Standard design 86 Type-approved 348
428 INDEX
Abbreviations
AC Alternating Current GPS Global Positioning System MOB Man Over Board boat
AHT Anchor Handling Tug GRP Glassfibre Reinforced Polyester MSC Maritime Safety Committee
AHTS Anchor Handling Tug Supplier GT Gross Tonnage NDT nondestructive testing
AIS Automatic Identification Sys HAT Harbour Acceptance Tests NT Nett Tonnage
tem HFO heavy fuel oil OBO Ore Bulk Oil carrier
Am Area of the mid ship section HHP high holding power ODME Oil Discharge and Monitoring
AP Aft Perpendicular HP Holland Profile Equipment
ARPA Automatic Radar Plotting Aid HSC High Speed Craft PFSO Port Facility Security Officer
Aw Area of the water plane HSSC Harmonized System of Survey PPE Personal Protective Equipment
B Buoyancy and Certification PSV Platform Supply Vessel
BCC Bulk Chemical Code Hz Hertz PTO Power Take Off generators
BM Bending Moment IACS International Oil Pollution Pre QMS Quality Management System
Bmld Breadth or beam vention Certificate OSV Offshore Support Vessel
BWM Ballast Water Management IBS Integrated Bridge System Rad Radial
CAD Computer Aided Design ICCP Impressed Current Cathodic Ro-Ro Roll-on/Roll-off
cb Block coefficient Protection ROV Remotely Operated Vehicle

Cbft Cubic feet IGC International Grain Code RPM Revolutions Per Minute
CFD Computional Fluid Dynamics IGC International Gas Code SALM Single Anchoring Leg Mooring
C| longitudinal centre line ILO International Labour Organisa system
Cm Mid ship Section coefficient tion SALS Single Anchoring Leg system
Colregs International Regulations for IMO International Maritime Organi SART Search and Rescue Tran
Preventing Collisions at Sea zation sponder
COW Oil Discharge and Monitoring INF Irradiated Nuclear Fuel SAT Sea trial Acceptance Test
Equipment INMARSAT International maritime satel- SBT Segregated Ballast Tanks
Cp Prismatic coefficient lite SF Shear Force
CPP Controllable Pitch Propeller IOPP International Oil Pollution Pre SHHP Super High Holding Power
cst Centistoke vention Certificate SMC Safety Management Certificate
cw Water-plane coefficient IWRC Independent Wire Rope Core SMS Safety Management System
*-wl Construction (Scantling) water ISM International Safety Manage SOLAS Safety Of Life At Sea
line ment SPM Single Point Mooring system
DC Direct Current ISO International Organisation for SSCV Semi-Submersible Crane Ves
DMA Distillate Marine Fuels Standardisation sels
DOC Document of Compliance ISPS International Ship and Port SSO Ship Security Officer
DP Dynamic Positioning Facility Security Code STCW Standards of Training and Cer
DSV Diving Support Vessel KM Keel - Metacentre tification of Watch keeping
DT Dynamic Tracking kW kilo Watt SWL Safe Working Load
DWT Deadweight LCB Longitudinal Centre of Buoy T Draught
EMC ElectroMagnetic Compatibility ancy TCG Transverse Centre of Gravity
EMSA European Maritime Safety LCG Longitudinal Centre of Gravity TCLL Thousand cycle load level
Agency LEG Liquefied ethylene gas TEU Twenty feet Equivalent Units
EPIRB Emergency Position Indicating LMC Lloyd's Machinery Class TLP Tension Leg Platform
Radio Beacon LNG Liquefied Natural Gas tm ton-metre
ESC Enlarge Ship Concept Loa Length overall TM Torsion Moment
FAL Facilitation of International LPG Liquefied petroleum gas TSHD Trailing Sunction Hopper
Maritime Traffic Lpp Length between perpendicu Dredger
FAT Factory Acceptance Test lars ULCC Ultra Large Crude Carrier
FEU Forty feet Equivalent Units LRIT Long Range Identification and UMS Unmanned Machinery Space
FMEA Failure Mode and Effect Analy Tracking system UPS Uninterrupted Power Supply
sis LSA Life Saving Appliances Code VCG Vertical Centre of Gravity
FP Fore Perpendicular MAC Maximum Allowable Concentra VDR Voyage Data Recorder
FP Fully Pressurized tion VDR Voyage Data Recorder
FPSO Floating Production Storage MARPOL Marine Pollution VLCC Very Large Crude Carrier
and Off loading MBL Minimum Break Load VTS Vessel Traffic Service
FSM Free Surface Moment MDO marine diesel oil WLL Working Load Limit
FSO Floating Storage and Off load MEPC Marine Environment Protection WS Warrington Seal
ing Committee
FSS Fire Safety System Code MGO marine gas oil
G Gravity MLC Maritime Labour Convention
GMDSS Global Maritime Distress and MMSI Maritime Mobile Ship's Identi
Safety System fication
ABBREVIATIONS 429
Reproduced with kind permission of:
ABB Industry Oy, Helsinki, Finland 300

Aerolin, Arnemuiden, The Netherlands 4, 67, 73
Aerophoto, Eelde, The Netherlands 377
Ajax Fire Protection Systems BV, The Netherlands 387, 393
All Seas, Leiden, The Netherlands 82
Amports, Amsterdam, The Netherlands 55, 63, 204,
Anglo Belgian Corporation nv Gent, Belgium 268-269
Anthony Veder Rederijzaken BV, Rotterdam, The Netherlands 49
Argonics 339
Becker Marine Systems, Hamburg, Germany 311, 315
BigLift Shipping BV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands 214-215, 217, 227
Boon, Arend van der, Rederij Jaczon, The Netherlands 66
CEO RIMS BV, Delft, The Netherlands 375-376
C-Job, Hoofddorp The Netherlands 34 - 42
Coops & Nieborg BV, Hoogezand, The Netherlands 204, 206
Cornelissen, Danny (www.portpictures.nl) 28, 94, 122-123, 127, 156, 191, 211-212, 217, 256, 278, 281, 326, 329,
349, 368, 386, 398,
Damen Shipyards, Gorinchem, The Netherlands 69, 73, 74, 83, 138, 168-169, 218, 378
Das Robert, Villeneuve-Loubet, France 8-9, 10-11, 14-15, 20-21, 22-23
Das Rudolf, Ursem, The Netherlands 16-17, 180,
Dokkum Klaas van, Vlissingen, The Netherlands 66, 100-101, 134, 174, 176, 179, 190, 199, 205-206, 208-209, 271, 310,
347, 389, 392, 397, 399, 401, 410
Engeland Martijn van, DELFTship, (www.delftship.net) 31-33,
Evac group, Helsinki, Finland 140-141
Fotografie van Leeuwen (www.fotovanleeuwen.com), 24-25, 29, 31, 32, 43, 50-51, 59, 61, 69, 72, 76, 81, 243, 258-259, 290-291,
The Netherlands 294, 296, 298, 301, 309, 311-312, 358-359, 377, 380-383, 403
Groot Ship Design B.V., Leek, The Netherlands 57,
GustoMSC, Schiedam, The Netherlands 78-83,
Hartman Seatrade, Urk 31,
Hatlapa, Uetersen, Germany 246, 295-296, 313
HB Hunte Engineering, Oldenburg, Germany 274-275, 304-305, 327-328
Hendrik Veder BV, Rotterdam, The Netherlands 257,
Hoorn, Marijn van, The Netherlands 29, 72, 194, 201
Huisman - Itrec, Schiedam, The Netherlands 213, 224
IHC Holland, Kinderdijk / Sliedrecht, The Netherlands 88, 92, 306-307
International Paint (Nederland) BV, Rhoon, The Netherlands 370
Jan de Nul Group, Hofstade, Belgium 67, 68
Jong, Menthe de, Vlissingen, The Netherlands 406-407
Jotun BV, Spijkenisse, The Netherlands 366
JR Shipping BV, Harlingen, The Netherlands 27, 420
Kahn Scheepvaart bv, Rotterdam, The Netherlands 87, 419
Katen Hans ten, Rotterdam, The Netherlands 113, 240, 242, 252, 256, 295, 356, 390
Kawasaki, Japan 301
Koomen, Kees Greup, The Netherlands 103, 113-115, 421
KOTUG International, Rotterdam 137
Lankhorst, Sneek, The Netherlands 250, 252-255,
Liebherr Maritime Benelux BV, Utrecht, The Netherlands 222, 225, 228
MacGregor, Sweden 221, 223, 230-231
MAN B&W, Copenhagen, Denmark 261-264, 266-267, 272-273, 279, 297
Mapron Engineering BV, Dordrecht, The Netherlands 307
MARIN, Wageningen, The Netherlands 89,
Meer, Michael van der, Rotterdam, The Netherlands 12-13
Meijer, Hans. United Kingdom 208-209, 252, 406
MME, Ridderkerk, The Netherlands 162-163, 212, 373-374
MM-Offshore GmbH 304-305
MX, Brandbeveiliging Almere, The Netherlands 393
NAPA OY, Helsinki, Finland 171, 415-419, 422
Ned-Deck Marine, Barneveld, The Netherlands 401, 403, 404
30 CREDITS
Dirk Neyts, Zeebrugge, Belgium 183, 277
Nieland BV, Gert Vinke, Leeuwarden 93-96
Niestern Sander bv, Delfzijl, The Netherlands 36, 75, 99, 165, 172, 199-200, 377,
NileDutch, Rotterdam, The Netherlands 55
Nippon Kaiji Kyokai, Tokyo, Japan 122
Oord, van, Rotterdam The Netherlands 68,
oceAnco, Alblasserdam, The Netherlands 11
Oman Drydock, Muscat, Oman 236-237,
PPG Protective & Marine Coatings, A'dam, The Netherlands 362, 364-365, 367, 369-370, 373
Proofload, Oss, The Netherlands 235,
Ridder, Cor, Bovenkarspel, The Netherlands 71
Rolls-Royce, Ulsteinvik, Norway 18-19, 299, 308, 311, 314
Royal Bodewes, Hoogezand, The Netherlands 97, 180
Royal Navy, Den Helder, The Netherlands 64-65,
Rubber Design, Heerjansdam, The Netherlands 189,
SAL, Steinkirchen, Germany 56, 157, 225,234, 412-413
SARC BV, Bussum, The Netherlands 423-424
Scheepswerf v.d. Werff & Visser, Jimsum, The Netherlands 20, 21
Seatrade Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands 44-45, 57, 207, 249
Siemens, Hamburg, Germany 301
Sigma Coatings Marine Division, Uithoorn, The Netherlands 159,
Sinke, Piet - www.maasmondmaritime.com 13, 53, 55, 58, 62, 73, 139, 144, 234, 239, 344, 400,
Slot, Klaas, Haarlem, The Netherlands 47, 54, 56, 61, 66, 77, 84-85, 96, 98, 130, 179, 210, 232, 241-242, 255,
(www.slotmaritimephoto.com) 361, 379-380, 384-385, 405, 408,
Spliethoff Beheer BV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands 47, 229,
Spruit, Bas, Delfzijl, The Netherlands 103
SSI, Victoria BC, Canada 6-7, 116-121, 156-157, 160-161, 167, 177, 186-187,
THR Marine, Groningen, The Netherlands 238, 240, 242-248
Thyssen, Hamburg, Germany 308,
Tribon Solutions AB, Malmo, Sweden 178, 258,
TTS Goteborg, Sweden 207, 229, 232-233
TTS Marine GmbH, Bremen, Germany 200-203
Ulstein Group, Norway 18-19, 75, 77,
Umoe Schat-Harding BV, Utrecht, The Netherlands 401, 402
Vermeer, Michel 399
Voith Turbo BV, Twello, The Netherlands 302-303
Vuyk Engineering Groningen BV, The Netherlands 158, 164-165, 166, 170, 173-177, 179, 182, 184, 288-289
Wagenborg Shipping BV, The Netherlands 100-101, 128, 213, 227
Wartsila Netherlands B.V., Rotterdam, The Netherlands 192-195, 265, 272,
Wartsila Propulsion, Drunen, The Netherlands 294,
Wijnne & Barends BV, Delfzijl, The Netherlands 53, 157, 201
Winel BV, Assen, The Netherlands 208,
Wortelboer BV, Rotterdam, The Netherlands 241-242
WR-HTC, Twello, The Netherlands 317
I 212
MC Yeung, Hongkong, China
nnif PUBLICATIONS
PLEASE TAKE A MOMENT TO VIEW
lyi IIU OTHER DOKMAR PUBLICATIONS.
I'flffll YOU CAN ORDER THEM BY E-MAIL:
s = 5==Sg INFO@DOKMAR.COM
S=S==S~ OR VISIT THE DOKMAR WEBSITE:
WWW.DOKMAR.COM
DOXMAI MARITIME H1S1ISHESS S.V.
SHIPX. KNOWLEDG)
> s J K- A A rrn« > b
SHIP DESIGN. CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION

sr SUSS VAN m»KUM
DOKMAR MARITIME PUBLISHERS
SHIP KNOWLEDGE
BY KLAAS VAN DOKKUM
SHIP KNOWLEDGE IS THE BOOK THAT TELLS YOU ALL ABOUT SHIPS AND
SHIPPING. THE PARTS AND SYSTEMS WHICH TOGETHER FORM A MODERN
SHIP ARE DEALT WITH, FROM DESIGN DRAFTS UP TO THE FINISHED
CONSTRUCTION, INCLUDING PAINT SYSTEMS AND LEGAL ASPECT.
DETAILED DESCRIPTIONS OF THE VARIOUS SUBJECTS AS WELL AS THE USE OF MANY
DRAWINGS, CROSS-SECTION DRAWINGS AND PICTURES, ALL IN FULL COLOUR, MAKE THE
BOOK PERFECTLY READABLE FOR EVERYBODY INTERESTED IN SHIPPING.
AFTER READING THIS BOOK YOU WILL NO LONGER THINK OF A SHIP AS A DEAD OBJECT,
BUT CONSIDER IT A COMPLETELY SELF-SUPPORTING ENTITY
EMBODYING ALL THE MODERN TECHNIQUES ALSO TO BE FOUND IN A SMALL TOWN.
AN INDISPENSABLE BOOK FOR ANYONE INTERESTED IN MODERN SHIPPING! CONSIDERING
THE EVER GROWING NUMBER OF FOREIGN CREW ON BOARD
EUROPEAN VESSELS AND IN THE OFFSHORE INDUSTRY WITH CONSEQUENTLY *■' A.'»»*'
A GROWING DEMAND FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE READERS AND TEXT-BOOKS.
( I . ■ RIM
SHIP KNOWLEDGE WILL CERTAINLY PROVE TO BE AN ASSET, NOT ONLY FOR USE AT NAUTI
CAL COLLEGES, BUT AS A WORK OF REFERENCE FOR EVERYONE EMPLOYED AFLOAT NOWA
DAYS.
DDK
10th edition
MAR
WWW.DOKMAR.COM

Ship Knowledge - Klaas Van Dokkum

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ship Knowledge - Klaas Van Dokkum

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ship Knowledge - Klaas Van Dokkum

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

DOKMAR MARITIME PUBLISHERS B.V.

1st edition: 2003

© Copyright 2020, DOKMAR

All rights reserved. No part of this pub­

Textual corrections and proof readings:

On the website www.dokmar.com you will find free

SHIPWISE 1. Rudder 22. General cargo

1. Rudder 11. Life rafts

1. Bay 57+59 etc, (odd numbers), 20' container positions

1. Rudder 24. Upper trailer deck

Delivered: Nov. 2001 Access:

Tonnage: Bow thrusters (2):

ROBBERT DAS 2001

LNG tanker (MOSS-Rosenberg Principle)

1. Rudder 7. Uptake / funnel 12. Walkway

15. MOB-boat with crane

Length overall: 76 metres

3 Hull form (Lines Plan) 33

26 2. THE SHAPE OF A SHIP

The freeboard Is marked according

The minimum freeboard depends on:

Explanation of abbreviations used on the mark:

28 2. THE SHAPE OF A SHIP

The ratios of some of the dimen- General

Ships with a small depth

2. THE SHAPE OF A SHIP

Net Tonnage (NT)

In the drawing NT is given a different colour

Gross Tonnage Underwater volume (m3)

In order to minimise the daily expens­ Lightship weight (ton)

Deadweight (ton) = design displacement A(ton) - light ship weight (ton)

2. THE SHAPE OF A SHIP

Form coefficients define the characteristics of the

2.1 Waterplane coefficient, Cw (a)

The waterplane coefficient gives the ratio of the

2.2 Midship section coefficient, Cm (P)

The midship coefficient gives the ratio of the area

Ship type Block coefficient Cb Appr. ship speed

A ship with a small block-coefficient and a

A ship with a large block-coefficient and a

2.4 Prismatic coefficient, Cp. (phi)

2. THE SHAPE OF A SHIP

When the principal dimensions, dis­

The shape of a ship can vary in

2. THE SHAPE OF A SHIP 33

As shown in the lines plans, both the

34 2. THE SHAPE OF A SHIP

Classification requirements: The Flag State requires:

36 2. THE SHAPE OF A SHIP

2. THE SHAPE OF A SHIP 37

Hold _____________________________________________ 240.000 cuft

2. THE SHAPE OF A SHIP 39

4.2 General arrangement

The general arrangement plan shows the

This drawing shows the longitudinal centre

4.4 Shell expansion

A shell expansion is drawn in order to have

4.5 Midship Section

This cross-section shows one or more

4.6 Various other drawings

All rights reserved. No part of this pub

In order to minimise the daily expens Lightship weight (ton)

When the principal dimensions, dis

Auxiliary vessels Yachts Fast craft Offshore equip

Multipurpose vessels can be sub

Vessels designed to transport amphib

Alternatively, a ship can get direc

In some cases the base of the plat

After construction the jacket is trans

already has a preference for a par and Pilot Rule