DOI: 10.2478/jlecol-2024-0006 aaaJournal of Landscape Ecology (2024), Vol: 17 / No.

URBAN FLOOD HAZARD ZONATION

IN BENGALURU URBAN DISTRICT, INDIA

GOWDAGERE SIDDARAMAIAH DWARAKISH1,

BALLAMBETTU JAGADEESHA PAI2*, RAMAKRISHNAN RAJEESH1
1
Department of Water Resources and Ocean Engineering, National Institute of Technology,
Karnataka, Surathkal, Mangalore, 575 025, Karnataka, India
2
Department of Civil Engineering, Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal Academy of
Higher Education (MAHE), Manipal- 576 104, Karnataka, India
*Correspondence author email: jaga.pai@manipal.edu

Received: 28th November 2023, Accepted: 3rd May 2024

ABSTRACT
Flooding in urban areas is increasingly becoming a global challenge, driven by extreme
rainfall events and the vulnerability or resilience of affected regions. This urban flood
disaster not only threatens societal security but also hampers economic development in cities.
Satellite remote sensing technology has played a crucial role in all aspects of flood disaster
management, including preparedness, prevention, and relief efforts. Space systems, with
their advantageous perspective, have proven their ability to provide essential information and
services for effective flood management.
This study focuses on creating flood hazard maps for Bengaluru's urban district using an
Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP)-based Multi-Criterion Decision Analysis (MCDA) and
Geographic Information System (GIS) techniques. Factors such as rainfall, drainage
networks, land use, groundwater levels, terrain elevation, slope, and soil type are considered.
The AHP method assigns weights and ranks to each factor, and a weighted linear
combination approach is used to merge basic maps into the final flood vulnerability map.
Keywords: Flood vulnerability, Analytical Hierarchy Process, Multi-Criterion Decision
Analysis, Geographic Information System

INTRODUCTION
Globally, floods have presented immense dangers to human lives and properties. They are
responsible for around one-third of all fatalities, injuries, and damages caused by natural
disasters. (Askew, 1999). Since 1900, over 10,000 lives have been lost to floods in the United
States alone. China has faced some of the world's most devastating floods, often linked to the
unstable Huang He (Yellow River). In Bangladesh, tragic events occurred in 1970, 1985, and
1991 when high tides and a tropical cyclone storm surge combined, causing widespread
flooding in the low-lying delta of the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers, and resulting in
hundreds of thousands of fatalities. Many studies have extensively examined flood scenarios,
focusing on factors such as high river levels, concentrated overland flow after heavy rainfall,
limitations in drainage systems, and blockages in waterways and drainage channels. (Oriola,

© 2024, Rajeesh et al., published by Sciendo. This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons
Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)
Rajeesh et al.: Urban flood hazard zonation in bengaluru urban district, Indiaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa

1994; Folorunsho & Awosika, 2001; Ologunorisa, 2004). However, many issues can stem
from a single cause, yet it's typically a blend of factors that leads to the most severe flooding
(News release, 2007, www.defra.gov.uk). Studies have also documented the risks associated
with flooding and have endeavored to devise solutions to mitigate this ongoing challenge.
(Abams, 1995; Bogdani & Selenica, 1997; Hogue et al., 1997; Durotoye, 1999; Awosika
et al., 2000; Folorunsho & Awosika, 2001). The likelihood of any physical, structural, or
socio-economic element being compromised, damaged, or lost due to a natural hazard
defines its vulnerability. This vulnerability isn't static; it's a dynamic process that considers
changes and developments affecting the probability of loss and damage to all exposed
elements. (UNCHS, 1981; Ologunorisa & Abawua, 2005). In simpler terms, vulnerability
encompasses situations and processes that stem from physical, social, environmental, and
economic factors. These elements collectively determine how susceptible a society is to the
effects of hazards. (UN/ISDR, 2004). The assessment of vulnerability requires the ability to
identify and understand the susceptibility of elements at risk, both within specific elements
and in the broader context of society. This concept of vulnerability is utilized across various
disciplines, leading to diverse theoretical approaches, either technical or social in origin, and
resulting in various methods for qualitative or quantitative vulnerability assessment.
Vulnerability analysis typically focuses on estimating the adverse impacts of floodwater,
such as fatalities, disruptions to businesses, or financial losses. Often, this analysis centers on
direct flood-related losses, which are estimated using damage or loss functions. These
estimations can be conducted on different scales, ranging from microscale to meso-scale
assessments. (Apel et al., 2008; Rahmati et al., 2014; Huang et al., 2008; Veerbeek &
Zevenbergen, 2009; Merz et al., 2010). The rapid urbanization and unplanned expansion of
cities have increased the occurrence of flooding. This transformation has led to the
conversion of many permeable surfaces into impermeable ones. Consequently, even short
periods of rainfall can result in significant flooding, especially in low-lying urban areas. The
concentration of people and valuable assets in cities means that even minor floods can cause
considerable damage. In extreme cases, urban floods can disrupt urban development for
extended periods, spanning years or even decades (Gupta & Nair, 2011). Urban flooding
occurs predominantly in urban areas, particularly in flat and lowland terrains where there are
inadequate drainage systems or poorly constructed ones that may be obstructed by
accumulated municipal waste or eroded soil materials. The transformation of natural
landscapes into paved and tarred roads significantly increases runoff, sometimes up to six
times more than what would naturally happen (Etuonovbe, 2011; Jeyaseelan, 1999; Adeoye
et al., 2009). Urbanization significantly diminishes the natural water absorption capacity,
often reducing it by 2 to 6 times compared to natural landscapes. Accurate geographical data
on hazards and vulnerable areas are essential for disaster preparedness. Remote sensing
imagery and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) play a vital role in identifying
flood-prone areas and managing flood events effectively. During urban flooding, streets can
mimic rapid-flowing rivers, and basements can become hazardous as they fill with water.
(Sowmya et al., 2014; Lowry et al., 1995; Smith, 2001). GIS facilitates hazard identification,
vulnerability assessment, monitoring, and forecasting (Roy et al., 2001). Urban flooding is
now a significant global concern and will shape the future development of cities. Global
warming has altered rainfall patterns significantly, increasing flood risks in numerous urban
areas (Guhathakurta et al., 2011).
Proper planning and comprehensive data collection on flood-prone areas are crucial in
mitigating the effects of flooding. Identifying flood-vulnerable areas is essential for
administrators to plan and manage activities effectively (Yalcin & Akyurek, 2004).
Recognizing these vulnerable zones is vital to prevent further development in these areas and

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to enable swift emergency responses during different situations. (Mahyat et al. 2013).
Traditional flood mapping methods are often slow and costly (Sinha et al., 2008). In contrast,
Geographic Information System (GIS) technologies for flood hazard mapping utilize various
thematic layers like slope, elevation, and land use. However, a significant challenge in GIS
models lies in assessing and evaluating the relative importance of these input layers. To
address this complexity, Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) methodologies and
techniques provide a robust analytical framework for tackling intricate decision problems
effectively (Köksalan, 2011; Paquette & Lowry, 2012). The combination of Multi-Criteria
Decision Analysis (MCDA) and Geographic Information System (GIS) techniques has been
demonstrated by several researchers to be highly effective in preparing flood hazard zoning
maps. (Bates, 2004; Pradhan & Shafiee, 2009; Sanyal & Lu, 2009; Pradhan et al., 2014;
Tehrany et al., 2014a, 2014b; Rahmati et al., 2015). Weightage and ranking are determined
through an Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) pairwise comparison matrix, and these values
are integrated with the basic input layers in Geographic Information System (GIS) software
(Dung et al., 2022). The specific objectives of the current study titled "Urban Flood Hazard
Zoning for Bengaluru Urban District Using GIS And Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis" are
as follows:
1. To spatially categorize the study area into different flood-vulnerable zones based on
the severity of hazard, delineating 'Low,' 'Moderate,' and 'High' vulnerability classes
using Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) and Analytical Hierarchy Process
(AHP).
2. To validate the obtained results by comparing them with the flood occurrence data
provided by Bruhath Bangalore Mahanagara Palika (BBMP) for areas within
Bengaluru city.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Study Area
Bengaluru Urban District is situated in the southeastern part of Karnataka, covering an area
of 2174 sq.km. It stretches between approximately 12˚39' 32’’ to 13˚14' 13’’ north latitude
and 77˚19’44’’ to 77˚50'13’’ east longitude. The district is bordered by Bengaluru Rural
District on all sides except the southeast, where it meets Dharmapuri district in Tamil Nadu
(Fig. 1). Divided into four taluks—Bengaluru North, Bengaluru South, Bengaluru East, and
Anekal—the district enjoys robust connectivity through airways (with its newly built
international airport), railways, and roadways, linking it comprehensively within the country
and globally. The district encompasses 699 villages governed by 112 gram-panchayats,
along with 17 hoblies, 9 municipal corporations, and 668 villages. Key rivers in the region
include Shimsa, Kanva, Arkavathi, South Pennar, and Vrishabharathi. The Shimsha and
Kanva rivers from the Cauvery basin primarily drain the district, while the South Pennar
River from the Ponnaiyar basin serves the Anekal taluk. The district's population stands at
95,88,910, and its average annual rainfall is recorded at 1049 mm.

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Fig. 1: Location of the study area

The flowchart listing the method used in this study, has been illustrated in Fig. 2, involved
several stages starting with collecting primary data and processing it within a GIS
(Geographical Information System) framework along with MCDA (Multi-Criteria Decision
Analysis). The selection of flood-triggering factors was based on an extensive literature
review. Initially, essential criteria such as regulations and constraints were gathered through
literature review. Depending on data availability, various criteria like Rainfall, distance to
drainage channels, topographical features (Elevation and slope), Groundwater table depth,
Urban land use, soil type, and Drainage system were identified to delineate flood hazard
zones and were prepared as input map layers. The analysis utilized a methodology that
integrates GIS and MCDA techniques. Specifically, the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP)
and Pairwise comparison method was employed to calculate weights and rank each factor.
AHP is a multi-objective, multi-criteria decision-making approach that uses pairwise
comparisons to evaluate preferences among different alternatives. It employs a nine-point
scale to express individual preferences or judgments. Psychologists have observed that
utilizing a nine-point scale can effectively compare and consistently rank different options.
(Pawel, 2010; Saaty & Peniwati, 2008; Dung et al., 2022). Pairwise judgments rely on
accurate ground truth information, as well as the decision maker's knowledge and experience
(Fernandez & Lutz, 2010). The integration of remote sensing and GIS techniques was
employed to create new thematic data layers. All prepared coverages were organized
spatially within the GIS environment, maintaining a uniform resolution and coordinate
system. Thematic maps underwent reclassification and were assigned appropriate weights
based on their significance in urban flood analysis. These spatial maps were cross-checked
against other database layers using overlay techniques and refined iteratively for
standardization. By integrating various thematic maps in GIS software using weighted index
overlay analysis, the urban flood vulnerability zones were identified and classified.

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Pairwise Comparison Method
The method involves pairwise comparisons to create a ratio matrix. It takes pairwise
comparisons as input and produced relative weights as output.

Pairwise comparison method involves three steps:

1. Development of a pairwise comparison matrix:
The method uses a scale with values range from 1 to 9 (Table 1).

Table 1: Scale for pairwise comparison (Saaty, 1980)

Intensity of importance Definition

1 Equal importance
2 Equal to moderately importance
3 Moderate importance
4 Moderate to strong importance
5 Strong importance
6 Strong to very strong importance
7 Very strong importance
8 Very to extremely strong importance
9 Extreme importance

2. Computation of the weights: The computation of weights involves three steps. First
step is the summation of the values in each column of the matrix. Then, each
element in the matrix should be divided by its column total (the resulting matrix is
referred to as the normalized pairwise comparison matrix). Then, computation of
the average of the elements in each row of the normalized matrix should be made
which includes dividing the sum of normalized scores for each row by the number
of criteria. These averages provide an estimate of the relative weights of the criteria
being compared.
3. Estimation of the consistency ratio: The aim of this is to determine if the
comparisons are consistent or not.

It involves following operations:

Determine the weighted sum vector by multiplying the weight for the first criterion times
the first column of the original pair wise comparison matrix, then multiply the second weight
times the second column, the third criterion times the third column of the original matrix,
finally sum these values over the rows,
Determine the consistency vector by dividing the weighted sum vector by the criterion
weights determined previously, Compute lambda(λ) which is the average value of the
consistency vector and Consistency Index (CI) which provides a measure of departure from
consistency and has the formula below:

(𝜆 − 𝑛)
𝐶𝐼 =
(𝑛 − 1)

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• Calculation of the consistency ratio (CR) which is defined as follows:

𝐶𝐼
𝐶𝑅 =
𝑅𝐼

Where RI is the random index and depends on the number of elements being compared. If
CR<0.10, the ratio indicates a reasonable level of consistency in the pairwise comparison,
however, if CR ≥ 0.10, the values of the ratio indicate inconsistent judgments.

Fig. 2: Methodology of research work

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RESULTS
As the urbanization is going on increasing, lots of trees are cut and pervious areas become
impervious. (American Society of Civil Engineers, 1996) says that the change from previous
to impervious nature result in a loss of interception and depression storage, a decrease in the
potential infiltration, and a redirection of principal flow paths. Loss of vegetation and
reduction of no. of trees contribute large quantity of rainfall water very rapidly to the runoff
water generation even for a short and low intensity rainfall. Since the earth surface became
impervious in the urban areas the runoff water cannot infiltrate and urban flood generates.
There are different factors that causes flooding other than this alteration. To account for this
factors that causes urban flooding seven important variables Rainfall, distance to drainage
channels, topography (Elevation and slope), Ground water table depth, Urban land use, soil
type and Drainage system are selected for the identification of flood vulnerable zones. These
variables and its importance are described below.

Slope and elevation

Elevation and slope are critical factors in flood management. Higher elevations affect the
direction and depth of water movement, leading to increased runoff, while lower elevations
can result in waterlogging (Stieglitz et al., 1997). Areas with gentle slopes are more prone to
flooding compared to steep slopes, as steeper slopes prevent water accumulation (Yashon &
Tateishi, 2014). The velocity and flow of water are affected by slope gradients, resulting in
flat surfaces causing reduced water flow and potential flooding (USDA, 1986). For the
present study, slope and elevation data were obtained from the Digital Elevation Model
(DEM) using ArcGIS 10.2 software. The CartoDEM dataset, with a resolution of 2.5 meters,
was obtained from the ISRO Bhuvan website, for this purpose.
Different levels of water in the rivers significantly impact flood hazards, and this was an
important parameter in determining flood risks. The study employed two methods—buffer
analysis and drainage density analysis—to evaluate the influence of different river grades on
flood hazards. Buffer analysis focused on main lakes and rivers, while drainage density
analysis was used for other river types. Buffers were created based on the "distance to the
river center" approach, as given by Wang et al. (2011). Proximity to drainage channels is
particularly vital in urban flood mapping due to the increased risk of flooding near these
channels caused by overflow (Fernández & Lutz, 2010). The study utilized DEM data and
ArcGIS 10.2, to derive the drainage network of the study area. Subsequently, the Euclidean
distance and reclassify tools were employed to establish various buffer zones based on
distances from the center of the streams. These distance categories were set as follows: below
100 m, 100m - 500m, 500m - 700m, 700m - 1000m, and above 1000m.

Depth to groundwater table

High-water tables significantly impact how well water infiltrates the ground, particularly in
areas where this issue is prevalent. Such areas quickly saturate with the initial summer rains,
affecting how much runoff occurs. Researchers have studied the depth of the water table as a
key measure of a basin's initial storage capacity (Trosh et al., 1993; Yin & Li, 2001;
Fernández & Lutz, 2010). For this study, data on groundwater tables was obtained from the
Department of Mining and Geology in Bengaluru. The depth of the water level is measured
from the surface to the highest groundwater elevation at borehole locations. To fill in missing
data points, the study used the Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) method for data
interpolation.
Areas classified according to different depth classes such as 0m - 13m, 13m-17m,
23m-32m and 32m-47m.Areas comes under shallow water table (0m-13m) is more likely to

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be flooded than deeper water table depth (32 m – 47 m). Each class is reclassified and ranked
accordingly.

Land Use Land Cover (LU LC)

LU LC is very important in flood hazard mapping.LU map gives the ideas of how much an
area is vulnerable to flooding. For example, a bare soil area contributes more runoff thick
vegetation areas. Concrete, paved roads and surfaces blocks the infiltration of rainfall water
into the earth results in more runoff water generation. In simple terms, various land-use
patterns act as protective shields, reducing water retention time while potentially amplifying
flood intensity. This underscores the significant role of land use and land cover in shaping
flood probabilities. (Yashon & Tateishi, 2014). Classification is done using ERDAS imagine
software with Maximum likelihood classifier algorithm. Six signature classes are produced
under Built up land, Agricultural crop land, Forest, Plantation, Water body and barren land.
The classified LU/LC map is shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3: LULC Map of Bengaluru Urban district

Land use Land cover map of Bengaluru Urban district is shown in Figure 3, which reveals
six LU LC classes such as Crop land, barren Land, Built Up area, Forest, plantation and
Water body based on different spectral signatures of the surface features in the imagery.
Figure 4a shows the LISS III Imagery of the study area. Although supervised classification
served as a very good helping tool for the interpretation of land use classes, the thematic map
was generated by satellite imagery and digital data. Most of the area of Bengaluru Urban
district is cropland and central part concentrated with built up area.

Soil Type
Soil texture and moisture are the most important components and characteristics of soils.
Soil textures have a great impact on flooding because sandy soil absorbs water soon and few

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runoffs occurs. On the other hand, the clay soils are less porous and hold water longer than
sandy soils. This implies that areas characterized by clay soils are more affected by flooding.
The study area is classified into four different soil groups. The four hydrologic soil groups
(HSGs) are described as:
Group A - These soils have a low runoff potential when fully saturated, allowing water to
pass through them easily. Group A soils typically consist of less than 10 % clay and more
than 90 % sand or gravel, with textures of gravel or sand. Their saturated hydraulic
conductivity in all soil layers exceeds 40.0 micrometers per second (5.67 inches per hour).
Group B - Soils in this classification demonstrate a moderate resistance to runoff when
fully saturated, facilitating relatively unimpeded water transmission. Group B soils typically
consist of 10 % to 20 % clay and 50 % to 90 % sand, with textures ranging from loamy sand
to sandy loam. Their saturated hydraulic conductivity falls within the range of
10.0 micrometers per second (1.42 inches per hour) to 40.0 micrometers per second (5.67
inches per hour).
Group C - Group C soils have a moderately high potential for runoff when fully saturated,
with somewhat restricted water transmission through the soil. These soils typically contain
between 20% and 40% clay and less than 50 % sand, exhibiting textures such as loam, silt
loam, sandy clay loam, clay loam, and silty clay loam. Their saturated hydraulic conductivity
ranges from 1.0 micrometers per second (0.14 inches per hour) to 10.0 micrometers per
second (1.42 inches per hour).Group D - Soils in this group have high runoff potential when
thoroughly wet. Water movement through the soil is restricted or very restricted.
Group D - Soils classified in this category typically consist of over 40 % clay, less than
50 % sand, and exhibit clayey textures. The saturated hydraulic conductivity within the least
permeable layer of these soils is equal to or less than 1.0 micrometers per second (0.14 inches
per hour).
The Hydrologic Soil groups map of Bengaluru Urban district is obtained from NBSS
Bengaluru and is shown in Figure 4b.

Fig. 4: (a) LISS III Image of Bengaluru Urban district. (b) Soil map

a b

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Rainfall Distribution
Intense rainfall is a key trigger for floods, especially when natural water channels can't
handle the excess water. This happens when rainfall exceeds the ground's absorption
capacity, leading to runoff. The volume of runoff corresponds directly to the intensity of
rainfall in an area. As rain accumulates, water levels in rivers and lakes rise, potentially
causing breaches in banks or dams and initiating river-based floods.
The study highlighted excessive rainfall as the primary cause of urban flooding. To assess
this, data on mean annual rainfall over eleven years (1998–2013) was gathered and
interpolated using Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW), creating a continuous raster of rainfall
data within and around the municipal boundary. This raster layer was then categorized into
five classes based on equal intervals, ranging from 1 for minimal rainfall to 5 for the highest
recorded rainfall. Figure 5 depicts the results of the raster rainfall layer, IDW-interpolated
data layer, and the categorized rainfall data.

Fig. 5: Rainfall map and reclassified rainfall map of Bengaluru urban district

Ranking of flood mapping criteria

AHP based MCDA is used for the ranking of selected flood causing criteria. The quality of
judgement is based on available resources like field data obtained from people who residing
at the study area, subject knowledge, literature review etc. All the selected criteria are
arranged in a pair wise comparison matrix along column wise and row wise. Each criterion in
compared with all the criteria and corresponding importance value is entered in the
respective cells. The scale of the importance is based on the (Saaty, 1980). The criteria are
ranked using a 1 to 5 scale with 1 representing the least important and 5 represents the most
important.

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To quantify the significance of each factor compared to others in the context of flood
hazard determination, eigenvectors are utilized to assign weights to standardized raster
layers. Table 3 outlines the results of pairwise comparisons and criterion ranking.
Additionally, Table 4 illustrates the normalized matrix converted into percentage
contributions, aiding in deriving the average priority vector (X) (Ouma & Tateishi, 2014).
The pairwise comparison matrix and its normalized counterpart are both depicted in Table 2
and 3, for easy reference and clarity.

Table 2: Ranking of urban flood causing criteria to obtain the pairwise comparison
matrix
Pairwise Comparison Matrix
Rainfall Drainage Elevation Slope Soil Land-use Ground water depth
Rainfall 1 1 2 2 1/3 1/5 3
Drainage 1 1 3 1/3 1/3 1/5 2
Elevation 1/2 1/3 1 1/3 1/3 1/5 2
Slope 1/2 3 3 1 1/3 1/3 3
Soil 3 3 3 3 1 1 4
Land-use 5 5 5 3 1 1 4
Ground water depth 1/3 1/2 1/2 1/3 1/4 1/4 1
Total 11 1/3 13 5/6 17 1/2 10 3 4/7 3 1/5 19

Table 3: Normalised pairwise comparison matrix

Normalized Pairwise Comparison Matrix

Ground Priority
Rainfall Drainage Elevation Slope Soil Land-use water vector Percent
depth (X) (%)
Rainfall 3/34 6/83 4/35 2 /10 7/75 1/16 3/19 0.099 10
Drainage 3/34 6/83 6/35 1/30 7/75 1/16 2 /19 0.081 8
Elevation 3/68 2/83 2/35 1/30 7/75 5/48 2/19 0.065 7
Slope 3/68 18/83 6/35 1/10 7/75 5/48 3 /19 0.111 11
Soil 9/34 18/83 6/35 3/10 7/25 5/16 4/19 0.275 27
Land-use 15/34 30/83 10/35 3/10 7/25 5/16 4/19 0.011 31

Ground
water 1/34 3/83 1/35 1/30 7/100 5/64 1/19 0.058 6
depth

Total 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 - 100

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Table 4: Influencing thematic layers their classes, vulnerability score and applied
weightages

Thematic Layers Weightage (%) Individual classes Ranking

628.038147-728 1

728-796 2
Rainfall (in mm) 10
796-852 3
852-933 4
933-1079 5
<100 5
100-500 4
Distance to drainage channels (in m) 8 500-700 3
700-1000 2
>1000 1
609-699 5
699-752 4
Elevation (m above mean sea level) 7
752-792 3
792-821 2
821-902 1
0-6 5
6-14 4
Slope (%) 11 14-26 3
26-38 2
38-80 1
Group A 1
Group B 3
Soil (HSG) 27
Group C 4
Group D 5
Built-up 4
Agri-Cropland 2
Forest 1
Land-use 31
Plantation 2
Waterbody 5
Barren 4
0-13 5
13-17 4
Ground water depth (in m) 6 17-23 3
23-32 2
32-47 1

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From the Table 3, consistency index is calculated using the formula.
7.62 − 𝑛
𝐶𝐼 = = 0.1
𝑛−1
With n = 7 decision factor. From the CI, Consistency ratio is calculated as

CR = CI / RI
= 0.10/1.32
= 0.07

The obtained value must be lower than 0.1, The obtained CI = 0.07 which is much lower
than the specified value, Hence the comparison has high level of consistency and determined
weights are acceptable. The final weights obtained after AHP analysis is used to produce
final map in the weighted overlay command in Arc GIS 10.2. Table 4 gives influencing
thematic layers, their classes, vulnerability score and applied weightage.

Flood vulnerability mapping for Bengaluru urban district

After calculation of weight for each factors MCDA carried out using the weight of factors
and corresponding basic map to produce the final flood prediction mapping. A weighed
linear combinations method is used for overlapping all the basics maps and factors to get the
final output map. The result is a flood vulnerability or hazard map showing the most
vulnerable areas to flooding within the urban district. The final vulnerability map is shown in
Figure 6.

Fig. 6: Flood vulnerability map

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The results show that 635.71 km² area (29.24 % of total study area) is prone to high flood
hazard, 287.6 sq.km area comes under low vulnerable zone (13.22 %) and remaining
1250.69 km² area comes under moderate flood hazard zone (57.52 %). This indicates that
more than 85 % of the study area is more vulnerable to flooding because the study area is
urban and major portions of its area is paved and rainfall infiltration is very less causing more
rainfall and hence leading to high flood. Around 32 % of agricultural land and 43 % of urban
areas is under high flood risk. Table 5 below shows the area underlying each flood vulnerable
zones.

Table 5: Areal extent of flood affected land use land cover

Flood Vulnerability zone in sq.km

Class
High Moderate Low
Agri-Cropland 208.68 567.52 105.48
Barren 25.6 52.64 7.32
Built-up 273.86 333.6 42.93
Forest 67.72 197.65 81.23
Plantation 31.04 68.29 21.55
Waterbody 4.07 9.51 1.29
Total 635.71 1250.69 287.6

Validation
The result map can be verified for accuracy only if high quality field data is available.
Unfortunately, this kind of data is not available. However, Bruhath Bangalore Mahanagara
Palika (BBMP), the administration body of Bengaluru city have identified 127 frequent flood
occurring areas. These areas area cross matched with the final vulnerability zones they are
comes under. It could be seen that 124 area out of a total 127 frequent flood occurring areas
coming under high or moderate flood vulnerable zones. 4 locations are classified on the
edges of high or low flood hazard zone cells. This indicates that the final map has a high level
of accuracy.

DISCUSSION
It has proved that most of the researchers have successfully used GIS and remote sensing
for preparing the flood vulnerability map. But most of them are considered only a few flood
triggering factors. Literature review reveals that there is a lack of research on combination of
more number of significant flood causing parameters. The entire analysis relies on assigning
weights to different layers. In this study, seven thematic layers are used for weight
assignment, with each layer receiving appropriate weights determined through direct or
indirect relationships and AHP analysis. (Neha et al., 2022; Iran et al., 2019). This method is
considered more reliable for enhancing the accuracy of flood hazard zones, as it involves
a systematic allocation of weights using the AHP method and weighted overlay analysis
technique within a GIS platform. The present work integrates AHP with remote sensing and
GIS to create flood vulnerability zones in the Bengaluru urban district of Karnataka. The use
of multi-criteria evaluation for different factors is also demonstrated to be useful in the
definition of the risk areas for the flood mapping and possible prediction. In overall, the case

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study results show that the GIS-AHP based category model is effective in flood risk zonation.
Integration of AHP based multi criterion decision analysis and GIS is a good technique for
the production of flood hazard mapping. (Dung et al., 2022; Skilodimou et al., 2021; Shereif
et al., 2018)

CONCLUSIONS
Conventional flood hazard mapping techniques use historical flood data to map
floodplains. It requires detailed survey and it is expensive. Some of the data required for
hazard mapping is difficult to obtain from ground measurements is time consuming. All the
constraints of conventional method can be avoided using Remote sensing GIS method. For
a highly accurate flood vulnerability and risk analysis demands good quality field data and
subject expertise. Present paper explains an empirical approach for mapping vulnerability to
flooding. In urban areas through the combination of AHP and GIS techniques. The method is
useful for the decision takers authorities for making strategies for flood risk management of
any administrative area. The final flood vulnerability map is validated with the available data
shows higher level of accuracy (more than 95 %) and is reliable. The consistency ratio
obtained is 0.07 indicates better comparison of selected physical & socioeconomic factors.
The work can be improved by incorporating field data for validation. The integration of AHP
based multi criterion decision analysis and GIS to produce flood hazard mapping has been
successfully demonstrated.

CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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