ss et? RoBLEMs For PRACTICE |. Find the oxidation number ofthe element in bold in the following species: (i) Siy, BHy, BF,, $07. BrOy and HPO} 83 (0) PbSO,, U,0}".B,02-,Cro}-, K;Mn0, 2. Determine the oxidation number of Cin the following : CHy, Cybly, CO, 8, Determine the oxidation number of © in the following OF, Na,O,, 4. Find oat the oxidation number of Clin HCL, HCIO, C10; °O> and HCO; a0, KOz, KO, and 01 and ClO, 5. Find out the oxidation number of sulphur in the following species H,SO,, S;0}7.S,03°.HSO; and HSO; eo Cuidation mumber of all the atoms in the following well known oxidants KMn0,. K,Cr,0, and LiAIRy. 1] Determine the change in the oxidation number of S in H. 2H.S (¢) + SO; (g) —> 35 (s) + 2H,0 (g) S. What is the oxidation number of S in S,Cl, Soy 1. )Si=-4 in Si, B 18 and SO, in the following industrial reaction 3 in BH, B= +3 in BF;, S 2 in S,02°, Br= 7 in Bro; and P=+5in HPO}, ()S=+6 in PoSO,,U=+5in U,0} ,B=+3in BO} ,Cr=+6in CrO}- and Mn=+6.in K MnO, 2 ON. of C =—3 in CHy, ~ 25 in C,Hyo, +2 in CO, + 4 in CO, and + 4 in HCO; 3. ON. of O = +2 in OF, ~ 1 in Nay. ~ 2 in NayO, ~ 1/2 in KO, ~ 1/3 in KOs and + 1 in OF 4. ON. of Cl =~ 1 in HCI, +1 in HCIO, + 7 in ClO; and + 4 in C105. 5, ON. of S = +6 in H)SO4 and HSOj and S,O;-, +4 in HSO; and +3 in S,03- 6. K=41,Mn=47,0=-2;K=+1,Cr=+6,0=-2;Li=+1Al=+3,H 7. O.N. of S changes from ~ 2 in H,S and + 4 in SO, to zero in elemental sulphur. “lo ato 8. The O.N. of S in S,Cl, is + 1 as shown : CIS —$ —Cl 1. Oxidation number of metals in amalgams (Na-Hg, Zn-Hg, etc.) 9 and in metal carbonyls [Ni(CO),, Fe(CO)., Cr(CO)¢,ete.] is usually O_O zero since they exist in the elemental state. b oh 2. The oxidation number of Cr is + 6 and not + 10 in CrOs because r+ 4¢-1)= 1¢-2)=0 four oxygen atoms are involved in peroxide linkages. 0-0 « bond) bond) nxees 8.4.2. Oxidation and Reduction in terms of Oxidation Number In terms of oxidation number, Oxidation may be defined as a chemical change in which there occurs an increase in the oxidation number of an atom or atoms while reduction may be defined as a chemical change in which there occurs a decrease in the oxidation number of an atom or atoms. A redox reaction may then be defined as a reaction in which the oxidation number of atoms undergoes a change.UM It a peuona a ie. (Bil paced id. Writing the oxidati, ic acid. ty a4 4 hydrochlon ™~ For example, consider the reaction ENNELY ye, of all the atoms above = a wi ——} 4 A 2 o qa — 2G "ft +2 Za L_ _—— Petuced ses from 0 to +2, that of hy reas J ON ot nang zinc is oxidised while p, : mains unchanged. ‘Thus, vo 0 jon between zinc 3 ( In this reaction, the oxidation number c decreases from +1 to 0 while that of chlorine is reduced. , imples. For further illustration, consider the following €x4™P" et oe 5 eta tgs iste emeen MLO) ae a {reduced . Jorine decreases from Here, the oxidation number of iodine increases from - 1 t0 0+ ie oe ceamacae 0 1 while that of hydrogen remains unchanged. Therefore, Hl is oxidised 10 12 a et] 42 ° “42 2Al, Os ° (i) 9 3Mn 0, + 4Al —* 3Mn + _______ Reduced Here, the oxidation number of Mn decreases from +4 to 0, that of Al increases from 0 to +3 while tha inchanged. Thus, MnO) is reduced to Mn while Al is oxidised 10 Al,03, Oeil eaeseacaed +72 1 +1 2 (ii) 2Mn Of + 10Cl + 16H —®* 2Mn Reduced of oxygen remains wi 0 2 SCl) + 8H,0 In this reaction, the oxidation number of manganese decreases from +7 in MnO; to +2 in Mn™* iow, that of chlorine increases from - 1 in CI- ion to 0 in Cl, gas while that of oxygen and hydrogen remit unchanged. Therefore, MnOj, is reduced while Cl” is oxidised. 4.4.3. Oxidising and Reducing agents in terms of Oxidation Number Oxidising agents or Oxidants. Since oxidising agents are electron acceptors and acceptance of electroas causes a corresponding decrease in the oxidation number, therefore, in a of oxidation number, An oxidising agent or an oxidant may be de idatic : . ae efined as a substance the oxidation number of in insane inthe above examples, i. () (i, inl; to~ 1 in CI” ion ; that of managanese decreases fro m +4 in MnO, t janet decreases from +7 in MnO; to +2 in Mn2* ion, See tete Therefore, all th = ae dung agents or oxidants. Similatly, the oxidation number op va ne onieadeaeanare KNO,, therefore, KNO; is an oxidising agent decreases from +5 in KNO, to +3 ‘ON, decreases. Seer “5 2K NO; 2k No» ae the oxidation number of chlorine decreases fo 2 MN |Peas K CIO, is an oxidi a Likewise, KCIO, 1S an oxidising agent since the oxidation number of Cl decreases from +5 in KCIO, to= Lin CP ion. [ON ves : f 2K ClOy ———+ 2c + 30 Reducing agents or Reductants, Since reducing ‘agents are electron donors and donation of electrons +s a corresponding inerease in the oxidation number, therefore, according to the oxidation number concept, A resdcinig agent oF a reluctant may be defined as a substance, the oxidation number of whose atom (or atoms) increases, For instance, in the examples (i) to (ii) discussed under Art. 8.4.2, page 8/15, the oxida of todine increases from ~ 1 in HL (0 0 to 1) ; that of aluminium increases from 0 in Al to +3 in Al,03 and that of chlorine increases from ~ 1 in Cl ion to 0 in Cly. Therefore, all the three, ie., Hl, Al and Cl: ion are reducing agents, Purther consider the following redox reaction between H,S and HNO, ion number 2 ° M28 + HNO} ———+ No + S$ + HO Here, the oxidation number of § increases decreases from +5 in HNO} agent from ~ 2 in HS to 0 in elemental sulphur, while that of N to +2 in NO, therefore, HS is a reducing agent while HNO, in an oxidising Sample Probiom ff] Identify the oxidant and reductant in the following reactions : (a) 10 HY (aq) + 4 Zn (s) + NO5 (ag) —+ 42Zn?* (aq) + NHY(ag) +3 H,0 (0) (b) I; (g) + HzS (@) —> 2 HI) +S (5). Solution, (a) Writing the O.N. of all the atoms above their symbols, we have, “ 0 + 2 3 1-2 1OH*(aq) + 4Zn(s) +NO3 (aq) —+ 42n?*(aq) + NHj (aq) + 3H, O(!) Here, there is no change in the O.N. of H and O-atoms. But the O.N. of Zn changes from zero in Zn to +2 in Zn**, therefore, itis oxidised and hence Zn acts as a reductant. The ON. of N decreases from +5 in NO; to~3 in NH} and, therefore, itis reduced and hence NO acts 4s the oxidant. (b) Writing the O.N. of all the atoms above their symbols, we have, 0 Ha 4-4 0 T,(g)+ Hy S(g) —> 2H 1(g) +S(s) Here, O.N. of H does not change. The O.N. of 1; decreases from zero in I, o ~ 1 in HI, therefore, fy is reduced and hence it acts as an oxidant, The O.N. of S increases from - 2 in H)S to zero in S, therefore, HyS is oxidised and hence it acts as the reductant, Gitte tit ech aa) Equivalent weights of oxidising and reducing agents. The equivalent weights of oxidising and reducing agents can be calculated by the number of electrons gained or lost. Thus, the equivalent weight of an oxidising/reducing agent is equal to its molecular weight divided by the number of electrons gained/lost 4s represented in the balanced chemical equation.COURSE CHEMIST eT NE R cular atom of the oxidising agen, feo ane ta pea : .N, of @ increases. ie rig ei iinet een ee cont For cxampie Therefore, equivalent weight of an odin ouiisng/e le, the total change in the O.N. of @ particular 1. Equivalent weight of KMnO, 2+ 44,0 “ + 45e7 > Mn (D in acidic medium Mn 0; +8H* +5¢ Total number of electrons gained = 5 Total change in the O.N. of Mn = 7-2 Mol. wtof MnOs Eq. wt. of MnOy 3 MoLwtof KMn0; _ 39+55+4x16 _ 158 _ 31.6 or Eq. wiof KMnO, =" SS (i) In neutral or alkaline medium + a4 _ MnO; +2H,0+3e" —> MnO, +40H Total number of electrons gained = 3 Total change in O.N. of Mn =7-4=3 Mol. wt.of MnO; 55+4x16 119 _ 39.66 Eq. wt. of MnO; ; aS Mol.wt.of KMnO; _ 39+55+64 _ 158 or Eq. wt. of KMnO, = = A = SE = SE = 5266 Equivalent weight of K,Cr,0, * 2 Cr, OF + 14H? +6e" — 2Cr*++7H,0 ‘Total number of electrons gained = 6 ‘Total change in O.N. of Cr = 2 (+ 6)- 2 (+3) =6 a wt of C0} = MLWOCEOF _ 24804716 216 _ 4g 6 6 Molwtof KCr0, _2x3942x5247%16 294 a StL 6 6 ; or Eq. wt. of Ky 3. Equivalent weight of H,0, 0, = x1 0 H, 0, —> 2H*+0,+26~ (acidic medium) 1,0) +2 0H" —5 : Total number of electrons los 7120 + 03 +2 €° (basic medium) Total change in the O.N. of O ~2-1=2 Mol. w.of HO, —— Eq. wt. of H,0, 2 ‘4 Equivalent weight of oxalic acid, (COOH), on x 24,0, — 200, +2H*495- Onalic acid pe tae ‘Total number of electrons lost = 2 Total change in the O.N. of C=2 x 42.3 2 hi,DOX REACTIONS 5. Eq. wt. of oxalic acid = Equivalent weight of FeSO, 20 “8 FeSO, +1/2H,80, —4 1/2 Fe, (S04), +H* 46> or Fe? ‘Total number of electrons lost = 1 Total change in O.N. of Fe=3-2=1 Mol. wt.of Fe! Eq. wt. of FeSO, — a Mol.wiof CHO, 2442464 a7 2 45 2 2 —Fe¥ +6 564324 4x16 _ 16) 8.4.4. Distinction between Valency and Oxidation Number The term oxidation number and valency have different meanings as discussed below 3. . Valency is the combining capacity of an element, . Valency is only a number. As such it does not ny It is defined as the number of hydrogen atoms or double the number of oxygen atoms with which an atom of the element combines, have plus or minus signs attached to it. For example, in HO the valency of oxygen is two and that of hydrogen is one. Valency of an element cannnot be zero. Since atoms always combine in simple whole numbers, therefore, valency of an element is always a whole number. In some cases, the valency of an element is fixed in all its compounds. For example, the valency of C is 4 in all its compounds viz. CH, C,Hg. CHCl, CpH,CpHy, CH,Cly, CHCl; and CCl, The valency of an element may be variable but the variation is limited to only two values. For example, the valency of nitrogen is either 3 or 5 in all its compounds, viz., NjO, NO, NzO3, NO, 20s, No, oH, NaH, and NH, eeu ined 1, Oxidation number is the charge which an atom has or appears to have when present in the combined state. Since the oxidation number refers to the charge,, it can be positive or negative. For example, in HO, the oxidation number of oxygen is - 2 and that of hydrogen is +1 ‘Oxidation number of an element can be zero. For example, the oxidation number of carbon in CHCl, is zero. In reality no element can have a fractional oxidation ‘number. Butifin a compound, the same element exists in two different oxidation states, then its average oxidation number may have fractional value. For example, the average oxidation number of Fe in FeO, + 8/3 and that of S in Na,S,O¢ is + 25, The oxidation number of an element may be different in different compounds. For example, the oxidation number of carbon is - 4 in CH, ~ 3 in CoH, ~ 2 in CHCl, - 1 in CH, zero in CH3Cl, +2 in CHCl, +3 in CCl, and + 4 in CCl, 6. The oxidation number of an element may also be variable but the variation is too large. For example oxidation number of N is +1 in NO, +2 in NO, +3 in NaOs, #4 in NO, +5 in NOs, 0 in No, ~ 1 in oH, ~ 2 in 3. 4 5. 8.4.5. Oxidation Number and Nomenclature The compounds of metals which show more than one oxidation states are distinguished from one another by placing a Roman numeral such as 1, Il, Ill, IV, V, V1, VIL, etc. indicating the oxidation state of the metal within parenthesis after the symbol or name of the metal. For example, copper forms two oxides, ie, CuzO and CuO. In CuzO, the oxidation number of copper is +1 while that in CuO, it is +2. Therefore, these two oxides are distinguished as Cu,(1)O and Cu(11)O oxide respectively. This system of nomenclature was introduced by Alfred Stock, a German chemist, and is commonly known as Stock notation after his name. As an illustration, consider the stock notations for the following compoundsTaare vie COUR CHE MIB TIT 11) RTM) ane Stock notation Cul Cupric chloride Cult, FeSO, Fetrous sulphate FeSO Fe,(SO4),, Ferric sulphate Fe (ASO CHAM, €r,05, Chromium trioxide ‘gg NaxCrO,, Sodium chromate V20s Vanadium pentoxide VLVI05 K3Cr,0,, Potassium dichromate Kates K;MnO,, Potassium manganate Kebtal vis K Mol VINO, KMnO,, Potassium permanganate 'Mn;0,, Manganese heptoxide Mnf VIVO; Je oxidation states, stock notation is PCI, and PCI, having phosphorous in s trichoride and However, in case of compounds of non-metals which show va not generally used. For example, two halides of phosphorus such a oxidation state of +3 and +5 respectively are distinguished by names only. 1.c., phosphors phosphorus pentachloride respectively. 8.4.6. Types of Redox Reactions ‘Some important types of redox reactions are discussed below 1. Combination reactions. A reaction in which two atoms or molecules combine toyether to form a third molecule is called a combination reaction. For example, A + B —> C For this reaction to be a redox reaction, either one or both A and B must be in the elemental form. All combustion reactions in which elemental oxygen is used and all other reactions which involve elements other than oxygen are redox reactions. Some important examples of this category are 41-2 oo +422 a441 0 “432 @ C(s) +0, (g) —9 C On(g) (ii) C Hyg) +205 (g) —>C 0, (9) 2H, OW ° o 23 oo 42-2 (itt) 3Mg(s)+N3(g) —> Mg,Nz(s) (iv) 2Mg(s)+0,(g) —> 2Mg 01s) oo 4222 0 Fe(s)+S(s) —> Fe S (s) 2. Decomposition reactions. A reaction in which a molecule breaks down to form two or more components is called a decomposition reaction. All decomposition reactions are reverse of combination reactions, Further, all decomposition reactions are not redox reactions. For a decomposition reaction to a redox reaction, it is essential that one of the products of decomposition must be in the elemental state. For example, consider the following reactions +2 ge ° () 2H, O) + 2H,(g)+0, (4) at 0 o 4 (ii) 2NaH(s) + 2Na(s)+H, (2) a145-2 a ott o (iii) 2K CLO, (5) > 2K Cls)+30,(g) In all these reactions, either both {H, and O, in reaction (i), Ne and Hy in reaction (ii)] or one [O> in reaction (iii)] are in the elemental state and hence all these decomposition reactions are redox reactions. Now let us consider decomposition of calcium carbonate to give calcium oxide and carbon dioxide : CaCO, (5) 44 Ca0 (5) + CO; (g) Since in this reaction, both the products are not in the elemental form, therefore, it is not a redox reaction. 3. Displacement reactions. A reaction in which an atom or ion in a ; om or compound by om or ion of some other element, is called a displacement reaction. In general, it i represented byte, cquaton X+YZ—3 XZ+Yeases Brig Here, from the compound YZ, the atom ¥ has been displaced by another atom X. ‘Types of displacement reactions. Displacement reactions are of the following two types (a) Metal-displacement reactions (b) Non-metal displacement reactions (a) Metal displacement reactions. In these reactions, a metal in the compound is displaced by some ‘other metal in the elemental state. For example, 262 o ° 216-2 @ CUS O,(ag) + Zn (s) —4 Culs) + ZnSO, Copper sulphate Zine Copper Zine sulphate 15-2 22 Wi) V,O5 + 5Ca(s) 4, 2Vv(5) + 5Ca0(s) Vanadium pentoxide Calcium Vanadium Calcium oxide 0 “2-1 (iii) TiC) + 2Me(s) 4 Tis) + 2MeCl, (1) Titanium tetrachloride Magnesium Titanium Magnesium chloride B23 ° 0 82 (R058) + ANS) 25 2Cr6s) + Aly O45) Chromium trioxide Aluminium Chromium — Aluminium oxide In each of these reactions, the reducing metal [i.e., Zn, Ca, Mg and All] are better reducing agents than the metal being reduced [i.e., Cu, V, Ti and Cr respectively]. In other words, the reducing metal has greater ability to lose electrons as compared to the one being reduced, (5) Non-metal displacement reactions. in these reactions, a metal or a non-metal displaces another non-metal from its compound. In most of these reactions, the non-metal displaced is hydrogen. However, some reactions involving displacement of oxygen or halogens are also known. Depending upon the capability of the reducing metal or non-metal, the following cases arise (i) All alkali metals and some alkaline earth metals (Ca, Sr and Ba) which are very good reducing agents displace dihydrogen from cold water, o 41-2 41241 o 2Na(s)+2H, O() —5 2NaO H(aq)+H,(g) ° 1-2 2 s241 o Ca(s)+2H, O() —s Ca(OH), (aq) +H,(g) (ii) Less active metals such as magnesium and iron react with steam to produce dihydrogen gas : ° +1 -2 42 241 o Mg(s)+2H, O(g) —> Mg(O H),(aq)+H, (g) 42 at -2 ° 3Fe(s)+4H, O(g) —+ Fe, 0, (s)+4H,(g) (iii) Many metals, including those which do not react with cold water, are capable of displacing dihydrogen from acids. For example, 6 sit ne o Zn(s)-+2HCl(ag) —+ ZnCl, (ag) +H) o 4-1 2-1 0 Mg(s)-+2H Cl(ag) —> MgCl, (aq)+H,(g) 6 at 2-1 © Fe(s)+2H Cl(ag) —+ FeCl, (aq) +H, (a) The reactions of Zn and Mg with HCI are used to prepare dihydrogen in the laboratory. Metals like cadmium and tin which do not react with steam also react with acids wo displace dihydrogen gas. 0 41-1 42-1 0 Cd(s)+2HCl(aq) —> CdCl, (aq) + H(z) tll,GREE CHEMISTRY Ty ae a 7 act ° _ fet ant ®? and gold (Au) which rate of evolution of H, by i ac 8 gga 2c) may occur in the native weg silver (AB) (iv) Very less reactive metals such @ not react even with dilute hydrochloric acid. follows that the of metals. For 2, discussion, it fllOWS Tm Teactivity be Reactivity of metals, From the above di8cUST he or lowly, iron (Fe) reac, ™&, from water and aqueous acids can be used 10 deter (Mg) reacts Slowly: S at = magnesiv sodium (Na) reacts with water atthe fastest Fle, MOET Ty, slowest rate while silver (Ag) and gold (An a 08 ge 8/9 thal Farther. it has also been discussed in APL BITOMPY ES cy > Ag. ; cine cpr a) an er) lows EOE A for nom metals Sine roe ity of non-metals. Like metals, activity SET ends upon Te endeney 1o accept electrons, therefore this FEATS roy 17 from Auorne to ion The oxidising power of halogens decreases #5 96 from the Of chlor fluorine (F,) is the strongest oxidising agé ‘as we move displaces Clz, Bry and de eoluced ‘onygen from ns bromide and iodide ions respectively. In fact, Fz ° “12 ert is so reactive that iteven (i) 2F(@) 42H, OU) —> 4H Flag)+ It is because of this reason that the displaceme fuorine are not carried out in aqueous solutions. On the other he bromide ions and iodine from iodide ions. tthe reducing ability of metas guy. ° 0,(8) int reactions of and, cl chlorine, bromine and iodine usin hhlorine can displace bromine frog, ° 4 (i) C1(@)+2K Br uel 0 (ag) —> 2K Cl(ag)+ Br) 0 411 H-1 0 (ii) Cl (g)+2K I"! (ag) —+ 2K Cl(ag)+1,(s) Their corresponding ionic equations are ° “1 “I ° (i) Clg) +2Br” (ag) —> 2CV (aq)+ Br) ° “1 10 (0) Cly(g)+21" (ag) —o 2CF+1368) Reactions (iv) and (v) form the basis of identifying Br~ and I ions in the laboratory by carboa tetrachloride (CCI,) or carbon disulphide (CS;) test popularly known as ‘Layer Test’. Similarly, bromine can displace iodine from iodide ions. 0 “1 ° (vi) Bri) +21 (aq) —+ 2Br-(aq) + 1,(s) The above halogen displacement reactions, i.e., (iv), (v) and (vi) have been widely used in industy. Instead of using one halogen to oxidise another halide ion, halogens ean z of their corresponding halide ions using suitable chemical oxidising agents, oa Akt ube of ting nea sac as Kee hough a number of oxidising agents such as KM: 5 Ch Brand ions wo form Cl, Bry ad I tespectively ne on go to? MOOa: te, are available to ox 10 F, because F itself isthe strongest oxida agent Thera ‘gent is available to oxidise F_ ions ions electrolytically. Telore, the only way to prepare F) is to oxidise 4. Disproportionation reactions. A reaction in wh well as reduced is called a disproportionation react "the same species is simultaneously oxidised species must contain an element which has at ley OF such redox reaction cur, racting species is present in the intermediate oxida leas! three oxidation states The pr telrerngireti cting i te wie te, element in the eat ind lower oxidations states available for oxidation and reduction to accu ; , exumple, the d 5 2 disproportionation reaction where oxy ac de is a disprope hee OXyBeN atom undergoes aston of hydrogen prone 02 ionationReduced f ed 2H 03 (ag) ——+ 24 0 2 02 (ag 2H) O() + Oy(g) ——————_ oridiset a. the O.N. gen wh ° *ygen which is -1 in peroxide ion increases to zero in O> and decreases and chionne al s0 undergo disproportionation reactions in alkaline medium as eit 3 4 3120 (1) ——» PH3(g) ~ 3 P03 (ag) rise tc Psis) > 30H"(ag) + Redced ———__ 12 OHT (ag) ——+ 48? (aq) ~ 25) 0% (ag) + 6H20(H — ouitues tate ——___ ud +t 4 ~ 20H (ag) “Hs C0 (ag) - Cr (ag) + HOH —————— ontives Peay 3Cz(@) - 6OHT(ag)—* 5 CI-(ag) - ClOs(aq) + 31,00) Onidised The reaction (iif) describes the preparation of household bleaching agents. The hypochlorite ion CIO") acts as the bleaching agent by oxidising the colouring mater to colourless compounds. Like chlorine. bromine and iodine also undergo similar disproportionations reactions, i. (if) and (iv) but Saceine does not The reason for this anomalous behaviour is that fluorine being the strongest otidising agent dors not show positive oxidation states. I therefore, reacts in a different way forming oxygen difluoride (OF) e a 2-1 2K, (g) +2 OH (ag) —+ 2F(aq)+0 Fy(g) +H,0 (I) 8.4.7. The Paradox of Fractional Oxidation States During our study of redox reactions, we come across many compounds in which the oxidation number of 2 panicular element in the compound is fractional. For example, the oxidation number of C is C0; (cazton suboride) is 4/3 that of Br in Br;O, (tribromooctaoxide) is 16/3 and that of $ in NaySO, (sodium terrathionate) is 2.5 Since electrons are never transferred or shared in fractions, therefore, the very idea of fractional oxidation states is unconvincing. In fact, fractional oxidation state is only the average oxidation state of an element when two or more of its atoms are present in different oxidation states in a given compound. In such cases, the actual oxidation states of the element can be determined by knowing its structure. 220 2 2 For example, the structure of C;0, (carbon suboxide) is O c ° Since a double bond is formed by mutual sharing of two electrons and since oxygen is more electronegative than carbon, therefore, each of the two terminal oxygen atoms have an oxidation state of ~ 2 and the carbons to which they are attached have an oxidation state of + 2. Further, since whenever a covalent bond is formed between two similar atoms (or between two similar atoms which are further attached to similar species) each of the atoms is given an oxidation state of zero, therefore, the oxidation state of