INTRODUCTION

Cognitive Learning Theory is a broad theory that explains thinking and differing mental
processes and how they are influenced by internal and external factors in order to produce
learning in individuals. When cognitive processes are working normally then acquisition and
storage of knowledge works well, but when these cognitive processes are ineffective, learning
delays and difficulties can be seen (Kurt, 2020).

These cognitive processes are: observing, categorizing, and forming generalizations about our
environment. A disruption in these natural cognitive processes can cause behavioral problems in
individuals and the key to treating these problems lies in changing the disrupted process. For
example, a person with an eating disorder genuinely believes that they are extremely overweight.
Some of this is due to a cognitive disruption in which their perception of their own weight is
skewed. A therapist will try to change their constant pattern of thinking that they are overweight
in order to decrease the unhealthy behaviors that are a result of it.

Definition of Cognitive Learning

Cognitive learning is a change in knowledge attributable to experience (Mayer 2011). This

definition has three components: (1) learning involves a change, (2) the change is in the learner’s
knowledge, and (3) the cause of the change is the learner’s experience. An example of cognitive
learning includes being able to give the definition of cognitive learning after reading this entry.

Cognitive learning can be distinguished from behavioral learning on the basis that cognitive
learning involves a change in the learner’s knowledge whereas behavioral learning involves a
change in the learner’s behavior. However, a change in knowledge (i.e., cognitive change) must
be inferred from the learner’s behavior (i.e., behavioral change), so cognitive learning is closely
related to behavioral learning.

Knowledge change is at the heart of cognitive learning; so it is useful to distinguish among five
kinds of knowledge (Mayer 2011):

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The Different Cognitive Processes

The first step in the cognitive learning process is attention. In order to begin learning, a student
must be paying attention to what they are experiencing. As anyone who has been in a class full
of children knows, attention isn't unlimited and can be quite fleeting. Educational psychologists
have come to the conclusion that the average person can hold approximately two or three learned
tasks in their attention at the same time. This means that if you are trying to dust and vacuum
simultaneously you may be able to pull it off, but throw in eating a sandwich and odds are good
you'll take a bite out of your duster and smear lunch meat on the walls.

We also know the average person can only attend to one complex task at a time. Trying to drive
and do long division? Not going to happen. Talk on the phone while waltzing? Unlikely. In case
you're wondering, this is also a compelling reason to not talk on the phone and drive - you just
don't have enough attention to do each task completely.

Next, the information that you are paying attention to has to be put into memory in a process
called storage. There are three levels of memory through which information must travel to be
truly learned. Let's say that for the first time you hear that the capital of the state of Oregon is
Salem. This information is now in your sensory register, which holds everything you are
exposed to for just a second or two. By the end of this sentence, you may have already forgotten
the capital of Oregon.

If you pay attention and reread the sentence, however, that information will move from the
sensory register into short-term memory. This area of your memory will hold information
anywhere from 20 seconds up to a minute. If you rehearse the information, such as repeating it to
yourself, taking notes or studying it, it has the chance to move to your long-term memory. This
area will hold information indefinitely and has an unlimited capacity. The challenge, as we shall
see, can be in finding things in there.

Now that you've paid attention and moved the information into memory, it's important that your
brain organize this information so it can be retrieved later. Encoding can work through a number
of processes, such as developing verbal mnemonics or the delightfully named method of loci, but
the ultimate goal is to assign a specific meaning to something you have learned. The mnemonic

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for remembering the planet's order comes to mind: 'My Very Educated Mother Just Served Us
Nachos.' Remember this and you can quickly recall the names and order of all the planets.
Retrieval goes hand-in-hand with encoding by simply reversing the process of encoding. If you
want to remember which planet is fourth from the sun, just run through your mnemonic and you
have your answer. Since the fourth word is mother, the fourth planet is Mars!

Cognitive Development
One of the most popular theories of cognitive development was created by Jean Piaget, a Swiss
psychologist who believed that cognitive growth occurred in stages. Piaget studied children
through to their teens in an effort to determine how they developed logical thinking. He
attempted to document the stages of cognitive development by observing the memory processes
of children.

Through his studies, Piaget declared that cognitive development occurred in four stages
throughout one’s childhood:

1. Stages occur in order.

2. Children did not skip stages but pass through each one.
3. There are visible changes from one stage to the next.
4. The stages occur as building blocks, each one using pieces from the last stage.

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This type of developmental model incorporates each stage into the next, which is why it is often
called a “staircase” model (Piaget, 2001). On this staircase, Piaget labeled four stages of
cognitive growth that occurred at an approximate age in children.

1. Sensorimotor Intelligence, from birth to age 2.

2. Preoperational Thinking, from ages 2 to 7.
3. Concrete Operational Thinking, from ages 7 to 11.
4. Formal Operational Thinking, from age 11 on.

The Sensorimotor Stage: Birth to Age 2

The first stage is aptly named after how infants learn until age two. From birth, infants absorb
information through their senses: by touching, looking, and listening. They are very orally
fixated and tend to put everything in their mouths. Piaget believed that this stage was valuable to
their development, and each consecutive step is built on the growth that occurs in this stage.

The Preoperational Stage: Age 2 to 7

Children continue to build on the object representation that is significant to the sensorimotor
stage in different activities. While the way they represent objects has no logic or reasoning
behind it, they continue to grow in this area through dramatic play. Imaginative play, or the art
of make-believe, is an indicative sign of this age and stage.

The Concrete Operational Stage: Age 7 to 11

In Piaget’s next stage, children begin to represent objects and ideas in a more logical way. While
the thought process is not on the same level as an adult, they begin to be more flexible in their
thoughts and ideas. This allows them to solve problems in a more systematic way, leading to
more success in educational activities in school. Piaget labeled this stage as concrete operational
because he believed that children were able to manage concrete objects, but not yet think
methodically about the representations of objects. It is only later that children are able to reflect
on abstract events and manipulate representations of events. For example, a child may implement
the rule “if nothing is added or taken away, then the amount of something stays the same.”

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Applying systemic rules or ideas may help a child solve simple tasks in the classroom, such as
addition and subtraction problems or scientific calculations.

The Formal Operational Stage: Age 11 and Beyond

As children move into the formal operational stage, they are able to reason about more abstract
ideas. Much like the concrete operational stage, the formal operational stage gets its name from
the newly acquired skill of representing objects or events. In class, a teacher is now able to ask
hypothetical questions with reasonable expectations. Students must reflect internally on various
ideas and manipulate many perspectives at once. “What if the world had never discovered
electricity?” “What if the European settlers had never left for the New World?” Abstract
questions such as these force students to use hypothetical reasoning to come up with an answer.

Benefits of Cognitive Learning

The following are the major positive effects of cognitive learning as identify by Matthews,
(1998).

1. Enhances learning

Cognitive learning theory enhances lifelong learning. Workers can build upon previous ideas and
apply new concepts to already existing knowledge.

2. Boosts confidence

Employees become more confident in approaching tasks as they get a deeper understanding of
new topics and learn new skills.

3. Enhances Comprehension

Cognitive learning improves learners’ comprehension of acquiring new information. They can
develop a deeper understanding of new learning materials.

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4. Improves problem-solving skills

Cognitive learning equips employees with the skills they need to learn effectively. They are
thereby able to develop problem-solving skills they can apply under challenging tasks.

5. Help learn new things faster

Through the experience of learning, the employee will be able to recycle and use the same
learning methods that worked previously. This will help them learn new things a lot faster as
they already know what works for them when it comes to obtaining new knowledge.

6. Teaches to form concept formation (think abstract)

Cognitive learning can also teach your employees to form a range of different concepts such as
easily perceiving and interpreting information that could boost creativity and lead to innovations
at the workplace.

GESTALT COGNITIVE THEORY OF LEARNING

Gestalt psychology attempted to apply field theory from physics to the problems of
psychology. A field can be declined as dynamic, interrelated system, any part of which
influences every other part. The important thing about a field is that nothing in it exists in
isolation. Gestalt psychologist believed that whatever happens to a person influence everything
else about that person. For them, the emphasis is always on a totality or whole and not on
individual parts. Gestaltists believed that human behavior at any given time is determined by
total number of psychological facts being experienced at that time. A psychological fact is
anything of which a person is conscious like being hungry, a memory of a past event. A person’s
life space is the sum of all of these psychological facts. Some facts exert a positive influence on
person’s behavior and some a negative influence. Totality of these facts determines the behavior
of person at any given time. Only those things consciously experienced can influence behavior.
In our discussion we will consider the following:

1. Nature of Gestalt Theory

2. Experimental Evidences of Gestalt Theory

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 3. Principles of Gestalt Theory

1. Nature of Gestalt Theory:

Max Wertheimer is generally considered to be Gestalt psychology’s founding father. The other
pioneers in this field are Kohler, Koffka and Wolfgang. ‘Gestalt’ is a German word whose
equivalents in English are ‘form’ or ‘pattern’ or ‘configuration’. Max Wertheimer has explained
the term ‘Gestalt’ as, that the whole is greater than the parts. For example, a flower is just not a
total of sepals, petals, calyx, corolla, colour, honey and fragrance but something more than that.
The total of the parts is not equal to the whole. This is known as Gestalt view-point.

According to the view, “learning is the organization and re-organization of behaviour which
arises from the interaction of a maturing organism and its environment. It is the bringing about
through this interaction of new forms of perception, imagination, motor co-ordination and other
organic behaviour.” Sudden appearance of the solution is an essential characteristic of insight
learning.

The Gestaltians tend to place for more emphasis on the intrinsic organizing capacity in the grain
of the individual, and they emphasize the dynamic interactions of the elements in the entire
perceptual field.

Gestalt theory of learning essentially consists in problem solving by understanding the relative
position of the elements in the entire perspective or situation. When a problem arises, it tends to
disturb the equilibrium of the organism who seeks a balance and so the organism. Actually,
Gestalt psychology began with the work of German Psychologists who were studying the nature
of perception. We are all now well aware that the ‘moving picture’ is not a moving picture at all
but, is a series of still pictures.

The realities of still pictures as flashed on the “movie screen” become our perception of moving
pictures. The focal point of this theory is the fact that when two optical stimuli are perceived by
the human eye in quick succession, the reaction is one of simultaneous patterning. Wertheimer
called this the ‘phi-phenomenon’. Out of these observations of perception there emerged certain
principles that have implications for the general nature of learning. One principle is that the

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human mind gives an organisation or pattern to the environmental world revealed to the
organism through sense perception.

2. Experimental Evidences of Gestalt Theory:

Learning by insight also known as perceptual learning is mainly the human way of learning; but
experiments show that it is not absent in higher animals. Animals do learn by insight in situations
which are within their limits of intelligence.

Experiment 1:

A number of experiments studies are at our disposal due to the efforts of Koffka and Kohler.
Kohler performed an experiment with six chimpanzees in his laboratory in the Canary Islands.
He kept the animals in a room which had smooth unscalable walls. A banana was suspended
from the ceiling and three boxes were put in the middle of the room, two or three yards away
from the lure. A stick was also placed nearby.

All the six chimpanzees leaped repeatedly for the banana but could not get it. Then Sultan, one
of the most intelligent chimpanzee, who had shown himself in the other tests also, after
surveying the whole situation paced up and down, suddenly stood in front of the box, moved it
quickly towards the goal, climbed, jumped, picked up the stick and finally placed the three boxes
one over the other to secure the banana, taking only twenty seconds in his final continuous act
with the boxes. The other apes acquired the performance with some difficulty. In this way a
number of experiments were performed.

Experiment 2 (Experiment with Human Subject):

To cite another experiment of the type performed by Norman R.F. Maier subjects were asked,
one at a time, to tie two strings together which were hanging from the ceiling for enough apart so
that they could not both be reached at the same time, even though the subject kept one in his
hand and walked as far as he could towards solved the problem at once. For the others, the
experimenter walked for one of the strings, leaving it swaying a little. To a few more students the

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string thus became a pendulum. They immediately tied a weight on the one end and swung it
until they could reach it while holding other string.

It will thus be evident that in the case of human individuals learning may take place at various
levels of intelligences and in any particular situation it may not always be possible to distinguish
the type of mental activity involved.

Basically, ‘trial and error’ learning is not an anti-thesis to ‘insight learning’. There are some
problems which cannot be solved by trial and error. Rather trial and error confuses all the more.
Sudden insight into the problem solves the problem. Thus, it is the nature of the problem and the
capacity of the learner which determines whether learning will be by trial and error of by insight.
But, trial is also essential for the development on insight.

Experiment 3:

With a slight modification in his previous experiment Kohler performed one more experiment on
chimpanzee named Sultan. In this experiment Kohler put Sultan, the most intelligent of the apes,
in a cage and some banana was placed outside the cage, beyond the reach of Sultan. Two
bamboo sticks, each too short to reach the banana, were also placed inside the cage.

However, the two sticks were constructed in such a way that they could be joined by fitting one
into the open end of the other. Sultan indulged in much trial and error and tried to reach the
banana with one stick but failed. After making various kinds of attempts, the chimpanzee squat
indifferently on the box kept in the rear of the cage. After sometime he got up the two sticks and
started playing carelessly with them.

In course of play, he found himself holding one stick in each hand in such a way that they made
a straight line. He pushed the thinner stick into the opening of the thicker one, and realizing that
he had a longer stick of the cage, jumped up and ran towards the railings and drew the banana
towards him with the stick. On the next day, he needed only a short time to get the banana. Thus,
Kohler emphasised suddenness with which the right solution appeared and chimpanzee’s
behaviour was not due to trial and error but due to his insight.

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3. Principles of Gestalt Theory:

The Gestaltians have mentioned some laws involved in the learning. The age at which memory
begins is determined chiefly by the development of a sufficient number of association fibres to
bring about recall. There are different modes of connection or association among percepts and
ideas.

(a) Law of Similarity:

Makes the individual to grasp things which are similar. They are picked out as it were from the
total context. Similar ideas and experiences get associated together. An object revives another
object which resembles it e.g., seeing a man and remembering an intimate friend by some
resemblance in his personal appearance, though never saw them together in the past. A photo
reminds us of the person when it represents.

(b) Law of Proximity:

Makes proximate or near together things to be picked up first learned as to how many these are
among the more distant things. In other words, perceptual groups are favoured according to the
nearness of their respective parts. It tend to form groups if they are spaced together. For instance,
the example of a triangle and a circle is enough to illustrate this point.

(c) Law of Closure:

The law of closure means that closed areas are more stable and satisfying than the unclosed ones.
Closed areas more readily form in groups. This law also means that when the perception of the
situation is incomplete, the individual is not able to solve the problem. The problem is solved
when he is able to bring the separate parts of the situation together into a closed perceptual
figure, consisting of the goal, and the means of achieving the goal.

(d) Law of Continuity:

Makes the individual to grasp things which are joined together in a string or along the line which
constituting a whole are grasped together than the dis-connected, dis joined or scattered. In other

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words, experiences which occur together either simultaneously or in close succession, tend
towards reviving one another e.g., the perception of a ripe mango suggests the idea of its sweet
taste and flavour because they are perceived together in the past or the idea of inkpot suggests
the idea of pen.

(e) Law of Contrast:

A perception or an idea tends to suggest its contrary opposite. For instance, adversity reminds a
person of his days of prosperity. Similarly, the heat of summer suggests the cold of winter. In
these laws of learning is brought out the Gestalt point of view that the organizational capacity of
the brain makes to grasp the whole in priority with the parts.

Keeping in view these principles for learning the teacher should present all curricular material to
his students in the form of simple, concrete and patterned units of experience which constitute a
whole. Children should be taught tune or melody rather than separate notes, whole dance pattern
rather than separate steps and simple meaningful sentences rather than discrete words and they
should better be taught whole meaningful words than separate letters for alphabets.

Implication of Gestalt Theory Learning in Education

Gestalt psychology’s contribution to education lies in its concepts of the organization of stimuli
and of insight. The world of the classroom in which the child is living and learning is not just a
body of discrete stimuli nor is his responses to it those of trial and error adaptions. The world is
organized, it has meaning. The child can reach with understanding, he has insight (Ikehara,
1999),

Arithmetic is not isolated fact but a system of numbers. History is not names and dates but the
sweep of events through time, with one thing leading to or following another. The child can
respond to 3 to 4 because he can add three and four. Learning is meaningful. So say the
educators and so says Gestalt psychology.

Gestalt psychologists suggest educators to conceive the problem of learning in more

comprehensive terms. The teacher should organize the learning situations so that significant

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relations emerge and understanding of the material results. The learning experiences should be so
arranged that the learner discovers and generalizes the relationship for himself. The subject
matter should be organized into larger units or in meaningful wholes. The concept of unit-
planning is based on the same.

The daily lesson plan is many times fragmentary. It may encourage mere accumulation of facts,
principles, concepts and skills; the student does not get a clear cut picture of the whole. A lesson
of prose may be taught in four or five steps or periods. But, if the matter taught on the first day
and the last day fails to establish relationship on the part of the teacher, students get confused.
They do not see any significance. It is thus said that whole is just not equal to its parts.

Whenever any students appreciate, the beauty of a poem, the sip of a soft drink or the beauty of a
song or picture, he appreciates it as a whole. The flower is just not equal to its various parts.
Similarly the taste of lemonade cannot be analysed into coldness and yellowness and taste of
lemonade cannot be analysed into coldness and yellowness and taste etc. That is why it has been
seen that for fuller aesthetic appreciation poetry should not be taught in the same manner as
prose. It should be taught as far as possible as a whole, not for meanings, grammar or translation
sake.

When there is no clear connection between act and goal, when the parts are presented singly, so
that no view of the whole is possible, when the level of performance lies far beyond the pupil’s
equipment and experience, blundering occurs and blundering is time consuming and in itself
fruitless. But with properly graded steps and with adequate preparation of expectancy from stage
to stage, this blundering can be reduced to a minimum. The presence of blundering is thus a
barometer which measures the intelligence of the teacher and not merely of the performer.

There are two important stresses with regard to the presentation of material. Firstly, where
possible one should use visual presentations, outlines, maps, charts, graphs. In short, those
devices which permit a survey of the whole problem, which being out configurationally and
relational factors-simultaneously presenting what otherwise would remain discrete-have special
value. The child who is learning colours finds it difficult to dissociate the film of colour from the
object itself and he does not see the blue to which the teacher points but the dress itself.

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To overcome this difficulty the teacher will have to discover the gaps which exist between his
perceptual tendencies and those of the pupil for what appears to be clear and definite
configuration to the experienced and intelligent may not be to the novice. Secondly, there is clear
distinction between a ‘psychological’ and a ‘logical’ order of presentation.

The abstract conceptual items with which science works are really the last items to become
knowledge. If this is correct one should begin with the living totality and reach last of all the
abstract formulations, the unitary process. We can further make this point clear by taking an
example from Geography. One teacher begins teaching geography by considering the map of the
world an orange, and the relation of sun and earth.

A much more meaningful method would begin with the world of the child, his own home, and
the houses in the locality or with his school house and surrounding town. These are wholes too
and meaningful ones and from this base a significant geography could be taught.

PSYCHOLOGY OF PERCEPTION

Perception refers to the way sensory information is organized, interpreted, and consciously
experienced. Perception involves both bottom-up and top-down processing. Perception is the
sensory experience of the world. It involves both recognizing environmental stimuli and actions
in response to these stimuli. Through the perceptual process, we gain information about the
properties and elements of the environment that are critical to our survival. Perception not only
creates our experience of the world around us; it allows us to act within our environment.

Perception includes the five senses; touch, sight, sound, smell, and taste. It also includes what is
known as proprioception, a set of senses involving the ability to detect changes in body positions
and movements. It also involves the cognitive processes required to process information, such as
recognizing the face of a friend or detecting a familiar scent.

Everyday different stimuli around us will be stimulating our sense organs. Many of these stimuli
are received by our sense organs and are converted into sensations. These sensations are
transmitted to the concerned parts of brain.

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In turn the brain will interpret these sensations. It is only after such interpretation we understand
what the stimulus is. Hence in understanding the world around us, attention occurs first, followed
by sensation and finally interpretation by brain. This process of ‘interpretation of stimulus is
known as perception’. So perception involves two processes: sensation interpretation. But
interpretation of any stimulus requires past experience also. For example, a child who has not
seen an elephant earlier either in photo or directly cannot identify that animal, whereas another
child who has seen earlier will identify the animal easily.

1. Needs and Motives:

Our need pattern play an important part in how we perceive things. A need is a feeling of
discomfort or tension when one things he is missing something or requires something. Therefore,
unsatisfied needs or motives stimulate individuals and may exert a strong influence on their
perception. When people are not able to satisfy their needs they are engaged in wishful thinking
which is a way to satisfy their needs not in the real world but imaginary world. In such cases,
people will perceive only those items which suit their wishful thinking. Motives also influence
the perception of people. People who are devious are prone to see others as also devious.

2. Self Concept:
Self concept indicates how we perceive ourselves which then influences how we perceive others
and the situation we are in. The more we understand ourselves, the more we are able to perceive
others accurately. For example, secure people tend to see others as warm and friendly. Less
secure people often find fault with others. Perceiving ourselves accurately and enhancing our-
self concept are factors that enhance accurate perception.

3. Past Experience:
Our perceptions are often guided by our past experiences and what we expect to see. A person’s
past experiences mould the way he perceives the current situation. If a person has been betrayed
by a couple of friends in the past, he would tend to distrust any new friendship that he might be
in the process of developing.

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4. Current Psychological State:
The psychological and emotional states of an individual are likely to influence how things are
perceived. If a person is depressed, he is likely to perceive the same situation differently than if
he is elated. Similarly, if a person is scared out of wits by seeing a snake in the garden, she is
likely to perceive a rope under the bed as a snake.

5. Beliefs:
A person’s beliefs influence his perception to a great extent. Thus, a fact is conceived not on
what it is but what a person believes it to be. The individual normally censors stimulus inputs to
avoid disturbance of his existing beliefs.

6. Expectations:
Expectations affect the perception of a person. Expectations are related with the state of
anticipation of particular behaviour from a person. For example, a technical manager will expect
that the non- technical people will be ignorant about the technical features of the product.

7. Situation:
Elements in the environment surrounding an individual like time, location, light, heat etc.,
influence his perception. The context in which a person sees the objects or events is very
important.

8. Cultural Upbringing:
A person’s ethics, values and his cultural upbringing also play an important role in his perception
about others. It is difficult to perceive the personality of a person raised in another culture
because our judgment is based upon our own values.

THEORIES OF PERCEPTION

Gibson Cognitive Theory of Perception

Cognitive theories of perception assume there is a poverty of stimulus. This is the claim that
sensations, by themselves, are unable to provide a unique description of the world (Stone, 2012).
Sensations require 'enriching', which is the role of the mental model.

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The perceptual ecology approach was introduced by James J. Gibson, who rejected the
assumption of a poverty of stimulus and the idea that perception is based upon sensations.
Instead, Gibson investigated what information is actually presented to the perceptual systems.
His theory "assumes the existence of stable, unbounded, and permanent stimulus-information in
the ambient optic array. And it supposes that the visual system can explore and detect this
information. The theory is information-based, not sensation-based (Gibson, 2002). He and the
psychologists who work within this paradigm detailed how the world could be specified to a
mobile, exploring organism via the lawful projection of information about the world into energy
arrays (Sokolowski, (2008). Specification" would be a 1:1 mapping of some aspect of the world
into a perceptual array. Given such a mapping, no enrichment is required and perception is direct
(Richards, 1976).

Bruner's model of the perceptual process

Psychologist Jerome Bruner developed a model of perception, in which people put "together the
information contained in" a target and a situation to form "perceptions of ourselves and others
based on social categories (Bernstein, 2010: Alan and Gary, 2011). This model is composed of
three states:

1. When we encounter an unfamiliar target, we are very open to the informational cues
contained in the target and the situation surrounding it.
2. The first stage doesn't give us enough information on which to base perceptions of the
target, so we will actively seek out cues to resolve this ambiguity. Gradually, we collect
some familiar cues that enable us to make a rough categorization of the target. (see also
Social Identity Theory)
3. The cues become less open and selective. We try to search for more cues that confirm the
categorization of the target. We also actively ignore and even distort cues that violate our
initial perceptions. Our perception becomes more selective and we finally paint a
consistent picture of the target.

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Saks and John's three components to perception

According to Alan Saks and Gary Johns, there are three components to perception (Sincero,
2013).

1. The Perceiver: a person whose awareness is focused on the stimulus, and thus begins to
perceive it. There are many factors that may influence the perceptions of the perceiver,
while the three major ones include (1) motivational state, (2) emotional state, and (3)
experience. All of these factors, especially the first two, greatly contribute to how the
person perceives a situation. Oftentimes, the perceiver may employ what is called a
"perceptual defense," where the person will only "see what they want to see"—i.e., they
will only perceives what they want to perceive even though the stimulus acts on his or her
senses.
2. The Target: the object of perception; something or someone who is being perceived. The
amount of information gathered by the sensory organs of the perceiver affects the
interpretation and understanding about the target.
3. The Situation: the environmental factors, timing, and degree of stimulation that affect
the process of perception. These factors may render a single stimulus to be left as merely
a stimulus, not a percept that is subject for brain interpretation.

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Alan S. and Gary J. (2011). Perception, Attribution, and Judgment of Others. Organizational
Behaviour: Understanding and Managing Life at Work, Vol. 7.

Bernstein, D. A. (2010). Essentials of Psychology. Cengage Learning. pp. 123–124.

Bredekamp, S. & Copple, C. (1997). Developmentally appropriate practice, Revised edition.

Washington, D.C.: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Gibson, J. J. (2002): "A Theory of Direct Visual Perception". In: Alva Noë/Evan Thompson
(Eds.), Vision and Mind. Selected Readings in the Philosophy of Perception, Cambridge,
MIT Press, pp. 77–89.

Ikehara, H.T. (1999), "Implications of gestalt theory and practice for the learning organisation",
The Learning Organization, Vol. 6 No. 2, pp. 63-69

Inhelder, B. & Piaget, J. (1958). The growth of logical thinking from childhood to adolescence:
An essay on the growth of formal operational structures. New York: Basic Books.

Mayer S. (2011). "The evolution of brain activation during temporal processing". Nature
Neuroscience. 4 (3): 317–23.

Matthews, G. (1998). The philosophy of childhood. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Piaget, J. (2001). The psychology of intelligence. Oxford, UK: Routledge

Richards, R. J. (1976). "James Gibson's Passive Theory of Perception: A Rejection of the

Doctrine of Specific Nerve Energies" (PDF). Philosophy and Phenomenological Research.
37 (2): 218–233.

Sincero, S.M (2013). "Perception." Explorable. Retrieved 29/11/2021

(https://explorable.com/perception).

Stone, J.V, (2012): "Vision and Brain: How we perceive the world", Cambridge, MIT Press, pp.
155-178.

Sokolowski, R, (2008). Phenomenology of the Human Person. New York: Cambridge University
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