Lab Manual 2024-2025 Sem1

Mechanical Fundamentals (EN6903)
Course: Mechanical Fundamentals
Course Code: EN6903
Level: 6
Credit: 15
Lab Manual
Location: 19.001D (Campus A)
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EN6903: Mechanical Fundamentals

The tasks within this lab satisfy the Learning Outcomes (LOs) of the course according to the table
Below:
Task Date of conducting

Task Description LOs Submission Date
No the experiments
Week3 Lab Practical

Lab-1- Friction (Horizontal
1 1,5 Test
and inclined plane)
Week2 Lab Practical

Lab-2- Simple Screw Jack
2 1 Test
Experiment
Lab Practical
3 Lab-3- Worm and Wheel 1 Week2
As per Assessment Test
Plan
Lab 4 is NOT
4 Lab-4- Centrifugal Force 4 -
required
Week 1 Lab Practical

5 Lab-5-Conservation of energy 2,3 Test
Week 1 Lab Practical

Lab-6- Moment of inertia-
6 4 Test
Flywheel
Learning outcomes (LOs):
1. Demonstrate an understanding of SI Units, fundamental, supplementary & derived units, and apply the concepts
of mass, force, moments, torque, and equilibrium conditions in engineering systems
2. Apply the concepts of energy, energy conservation and conversion as related to mechanical engineering systems
3. Analyse & solve linear motion problems involving inertia, momentum, and impulse to formulate requirements of
power and energy needs
4. Examine and solve angular motion problems including centripetal and centrifugal forces and rotational inertia
for various engineering applications
5. Justify & apply the laws of friction to simple engineering problems
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Introduction to History of Mechanics

Father of Experimental Physics – Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
Galileo Galilei, born on February 15, 1564, in Pisa, Italy, is known as the Father of Experimental Physics.
His pioneering work and revolutionary approach to scientific inquiry laid the foundation for the field of
experimental physics as we know it today. Galileo Galilei's contributions to experimental physics were
multifaceted and groundbreaking.
o He was a relentless advocate for empirical evidence and the use of controlled experiments to
validate or refute scientific theories. Galileo believed that knowledge about the natural world
should be derived from direct observation and experimentation rather than relying solely on
philosophical or theological arguments.
o One of Galileo's most famous contributions to experimental physics was his work on motion and
mechanics. Through careful experiments with inclined planes and falling bodies, he formulated
the laws of motion that laid the groundwork for Isaac Newton's later work.
o Galileo's meticulous measurements and observations challenged the prevailing Aristotelian view
of motion and demonstrated that the rate of descent of objects is independent of their mass.
o Galileo's advancements in the development and use of telescopes also significantly impacted
experimental physics.
o He made improvements to the design of the telescope and was the first to use it for
astronomical observations. His observations of celestial bodies, such as the four largest moons
of Jupiter, provided strong evidence in support of the heliocentric model of the solar system,
which placed the Sun at the center.
Galileo's unwavering commitment to empirical evidence, his development of experimental techniques,

and his formulation of fundamental laws and principles make him the undisputed father of experimental
physics. His legacy continues to inspire scientists and researchers to explore the mysteries of the natural
world through empirical investigation and experimentation.
Source: Father of Experimental Physics – Galileo Galilei’s Major Discoveries (testbook.com)
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Sir Isaac Newton – Laws of Motion, Universal Law of

Gravitation and Calculus (1643-1727)
Isaac Newton is best know for his theory about the law of gravity, but his “Principia
Mathematica” (1686) with its three laws of motion greatly influenced the Enlightenment in
Europe. Born in 1643 in Woolsthorpe, England, Sir Isaac Newton began developing his theories
on light, calculus and celestial mechanics while on break from Cambridge University.
Years of research culminated with the 1687 publication of “Principia,” a landmark work that
established the universal laws of motion and gravity. Newton’s second major book, “Opticks,”
detailed his experiments to determine the properties of light. Also a student of Biblical history
and alchemy, the famed scientist served as president of the Royal Society of London and master
of England’s Royal Mint until his death in 1727.
Source Isaac Newton - Facts, Biography & Laws (history.com)
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Introduction
Students must attend all lab sessions.

Health and Safety considerations. All learning activities will be carried out in accordance with
Bahrain Polytechnic health and safety policies.
Students are expected to conduct 5 experiments as a group during the lab session in order to
be ready for the Lab Practical Test (weightage 30%)
The Lab Practical Test (LPT) will be conducted during weeks 5 and 6 in
Lab 19.001D. The LPT will take place during the student’s lab session
according to the student’s timetable.
The total weightage for the Lab Practical Test is 30%
Assessment Dates
Assessments From To weightage
Lab Practical Test Week5 Week6 30%
(13 -17 Oct2024) (20 -24 Oct2024)
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Task 1: Lab-1 Friction (Horizontal and Inclined plane)
Room Location: Building 19-001D (Campus A)

Student Requirements: Graph Paper, Ruler, Pencil, Calculator
Objective:
1. To measure the coefficient of Static friction (µS)and coefficient of Kinetic friction (µk) of a range of
materials on both horizontal Planes and Inclined Planes.
Part 1: Coefficient of Static Friction (μS)

Theory: Horizontal Plane
Consider a block at rest on a horizontal plane. The block has a weight of W and there is a normal
reaction force N. The force N is clearly equal to and opposite in sign to W.
Now suppose that a horizontal force (P) is applied to the block, as shown in the diagram. Due to friction
the block remains stationary. The friction force F and the normal reaction have a resultant force R
which is at an angle β with the normal to the plane, such that:
F
tan  =
N
As the force P is increased, the friction force must be equal and opposite to P as long as the block does
not slip. During this period the block is in equilibrium and all the forces acting on the block must satisfy
equilibrium equations. Finally, we reach a value of P which causes the block to slip and to move in the
direction of the applied force.
For a given pair of mating surface, the maximum value of static friction F is:
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Where µs = is called Coefficient of Static Friction and N is the Norma reaction force
Theory: Inclined Plane
Consider an inclined plane, at an angle α to the horizontal. The block remains at rest.
When block begins to move (slide) down

The normal pressure of the block on the plane is W cos α. The component of W acting along the plane is
W sin α. If the angle of inclination of the plane, α, is increased until the block just begins to move, then:
The force acting down to the plane = µs .W cos α
which is also = W sin α
Hence: µs = tan β = tan α
N= W cosα ------- (1)
F=W sinα -------- (2)
Also F=µs.N --------- (3)
Substitute the value of equation 1 in 3
F=µs .W cosα --------- (4)
Now divide equation 2 and equation 4
and hence, then
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α= angle of inclination or angle of repose.
Hence µs=tanα=tanβ
So, α=β
β= angle of friction
Thus the coefficient of friction between the block and the plane is the tangent of the angle at which the
block just begins to slide down the plane.
When block begins to move up
When the plane is at an angle α less that β then a force P must be applied to the block to make it move
down the plane with uniform speed.
P +W sin α = F
P = µs. W cos α – W sin α
When the plane is at an angle greater than β then a force must be applied up the plane so as to lower
the block at a constant speed.
Then: P+F= W sinα
P= W sin α - µs .W cos α
Consider an inclined plane again. To move the block up the plane when the angle of inclination is less
than the angle of friction we must apply a force P.
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P= F+ W sin α
Hence P = µs .W cos α + W sin α

Apparatus:
Ed Lab Quip: ME 080 – Friction on an Inclined Plane Model
Main Features: Adjustable steel plane +45 to -45 degrees, Sliders – Brass, Felt material, Wood,
Plastic, End Pulley and Hanger
Components 1: Slider, 2: Handle to adjust the angle, 3: Angle scale, 4: Loading cord, 5: Pulley, 6: Load
hanger, 7: Foot, 8: Base stand, 9: Sliders
1 2 3 4 5
9 8 7 6
Procedure:
Part A Coefficient of Friction on a Horizontal Plane using varied loads
1. Set the plane horizontal.
2. Weigh a slider on the weighing scale, and place it on the horizontal plane along. Note the material
type.
3. Weigh the hanger and then attach the load cord to the slider. Move the load cord over the pulley and
place the hanger on the end of the cord.
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4. Add weights onto the hanger until the slider just begins to move. Record the hanger weights loaded
and calculate the force. Also calculate the coefficient of Friction.
5. Place a weight (say 5 or 10 N) on the slider and again determine the load F required to just start
moving the slider.
6. Try about three different weights in the slider and tabulate your results as below.
7. Try at least three different sliders.

8. Plot the graph {Frictional force (Applied force)- slider weight (Normal reaction)} and find its slope.
Record the following information
Test Slider Material Slider Weight (N) Applied Force (F) Coefficient of Friction (F/N)
Number
Number
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Number
Note: Analyse the effect of different materials in determining the coefficient of friction
Part B Coefficient of Friction on an inclined Plane using varied loads- Angle adjustment
1. Select and weigh a slider and place it on the horizontal plane.
2. Slacken the plane clamp and slowly tilt the plane until the slider just begins to move down the plane.
3. Some care will be required in order to obtain accurate results.
4. Tabulate your results as below and calculate the remaining columns.
5. You should try about three or four masses on the slider to obtain a set of results to determine an
average value.
6. Plot the graph (Frictional force along the plane – Normal Reaction) and find its slope.
Test Number Slider Material Slider Weight (N) Plane angle (α) Tan α = µs
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Part C Coefficient of Friction on an inclined Plane using varied loads- Upward Incline –
downward motion
1. Incline the plane so that the pulley is at the higher end.
2. Set the plane angle to be greater than the angle of friction.
3. Weigh a slider and place it on the plane.
4. Place a load F on the hanger to prevent it moving.
5. Gradually reduce the load F, until the load F can be determined which lowers the load at which a slow
steady speed.
6. You should try about three or four masses on the slider to obtain a set of results to determine an
average value
7. Plot the graph (Frictional force along the plane – Normal Reaction) and find its slope
8. Tabulate your results as below.
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Slider material: Plane angle α =

Slider weight (N)
Load F (N) W sin α W cos α µs
W

Slider weight (N)
W

Slider weight (N)
W
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Part D Coefficient of Friction on an inclined Plane using varied loads- Upward Incline upward
motion
1. Incline the plane as before and determine F to move the slider up the plane at a slow uniform speed

3. Plot the graph (Frictional force along the plane – Normal Reaction) and find its slope

Slider weight (N)
Load F (N) W sin α W cos α µ
W

Slider weight (N)
W

Slider weight (N)
W
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Results:
Each team undertaking the experiment will select Experiment “A” and “B” plus one other Experiment
from C, or D.
Each individual will then proceed to write up his own experiment.
Comments and Conclusions
Please use the following, as support towards writing your comments and discussion.
Utilize www.Matweb.com, and other resources to establish the coefficient of the materials which you
are using.
• Compare the values for the coefficient of friction found in each experiment for the same
material. How well do the values agree?
• Account for any discrepancies “% Error”
• Draw up a table of the different materials with the values of μs found by experiment. Compare
your values of μ with those given in text books, materials websites or other sources found while
undertaking your research.
• If a difference of greater than five % occurs what explanation can you provide to why this might
be the case
• Use the 5m’s methodology to establish the source of the error.
Useful data and information -Dry Friction (i.e., Static and kinetic friction)
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Part 2: Coefficient of Kinetic Friction (μk)

Dry friction is subdivided into static friction (“stiction”) between non-moving surfaces, and kinetic
friction between moving surfaces. In this part of the experiment, you will learn how to determine the
Coefficient of Kinetic Friction (μk) for a range of materials on an inclined plane.
Theory: Inclined Plane

When a block slides along the inclined surface shown below, it starts from and will cover a distance of x
in t time. From the Free Body Diagram (FBD) and by applying Newton’s second law to the block yields
the following equation:
∑Fx=max; W.sinθ -Ff = max ------------------1
∑Fy=may; N-W.cosθ =0 ------------------2 (ay=0, why?)
From Law of friction, Ff=μk.N -------------------3
Substitute 2 and 3 in 1 gives:
W.sinθ - μk. (W.cosθ) = max

Since, W=mg
mg.sinθ - μk. (mg.cosθ) = max ----------------------5
divide by m, re-arrange Eq 5 and solve for μk
--------------------------------6
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In order to determine μk from the above equation, it is necessary to find ax first.
ax is determined using Newton’s law of motion, e.g.,
----------------------------------------------7
Since Vo=0 (block starts from rest), then, the acceleration along x-axis is given by
------------------------------------------------8
Procedure:
Determination of Coefficient of Kinetic Friction (μk) on an inclined Plane
1. Incline the plane so that it makes an angle with horizontal more than the angle of friction (i.e.,
more than α=tan-1(μs) in order to ensure the block will slide by itself.
2. Place the block at the top of the inclined plane
3. Measure the distance X that the block will travel as shown in the figure above.
4. Measure the time the block will take to reach to the bottom of the inclined plane (For more
accuracy, take the average time of THREE readings)
Test Slider Plane Distance, Time, t Average

Material angle X [m] time
No. (θ) [sec]
[sec] [m/s2]
1 t1=
2 t2=
3 t3=
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Please use the following, as support towards writing your comments and discussion.
Utilize www.Matweb.com, and other resources to establish the coefficient of the materials which you
are using.
• Compare the values for the coefficient of Static friction (μs) found in part 1 and the coefficient of
Kinetic friction (μk) found in part 2. Which one is greater? Explain
• Compare your values of μk with those given in the table above, text books, materials websites or
other sources found while undertaking your research.
• If a difference of greater than 5 % occurs what explanation can you provide to why this might be
the case
• Use the 5m’s methodology to establish the source of the error.
Percentage Error Formula
Note:
True Value = Theoritical Value = Actual Value
Measured value = Experimental value
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Task 2: Lab-2 Simple Screw Jack Experiment
Objectives:
a) Determine the relationship between effort and load for a screw jack when the load is being
raised and lowered.
b) Determine the value of the velocity ratio, efficiency and law of machines in relation to
performance.
Introduction
In this lab we can investigate how we can take advantage of machines to provide a mechanical
advantage and determine how efficient the machine actually is. For example, we use machines to help
us lift heavy loads using a small effort.
Apparatus:
The apparatus consists of a screw thread which is guided by a nut. The thread is loaded by a platform
pulley, which is used to apply a dead load and a torque to turn upon the screw. The effort used to raise
the load is applied by a cord wrapped around the load platform. The effort can be applied by weights on
the hanger.
3
1 Base 4
2 Larger pulley platform 2

5
3 Load
4 load cord
1
5 smaller pulley
6 Weight hanger
Theory:
Consider a screw jack as shown below. The screw is loaded by placing weights (large load) on the top
surface of the platform pulley. The weight (effort) on the hanger will then cause the platform to rotate
on the screw which will raise or lower the large load. Based on the design of the screw jack machine,
only a small effort, FE, is required to raise or lower a large load, FL. The ratio of the small effort, FE , that
is require to move the large load, FL , will give us a mechanical advantage. However, there is a drawback
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to the screw jack machine – the effort must move a large distance, SE, to move the large load only a
small distance, SL.
Large Load
FL
SL
Small effort
FE SE
Let FL = load (N)

FE = effort (N)
SL = distance moved by the load (m)
SE = distance moved by the effort (m)
MA = mechanical advantage
VR = velocity ratio
η = Efficiency
Machines are designed so that only a small effort is needed to move a large load. Therefore, machines
have a mechanical advantage, MA, which we can calculate by the following
FL
MA = (1)
FE
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The drawback of a machine is that we typically have to move the small effort a large distance, S E , to
move the large load by only a small distance, SL. Therefore, machines have a velocity ratio, VR, which
can be calculated by the following
SE
VR = (2)
SL
A machine’s efficiency is calculated as a percentage and is always less than 100% as no machine is
perfectly efficient. We can calculate the Efficiency, η, of the machine by the following
MA
=  100 (3)
VR
Procedure:
Calculation of system Performance
- Remove the platform from the apparatus and weigh it.

- Place a load on the platform and find the effort required on the load hanger to just begin to
raise or lower the load.
- Repeat the experiment for increasing loads, noting the efforts required in each case, ensuring
to record all values.
- Calculate the MA, VR and Efficiency of the system
- Draw a graph of FL vs. FE
Results:
Weight of platform = W1
Weight of load = W2
Total load = W1 + W2
Table 1. Lowering a load
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FL : Total load(N) FE: Effort required(N) SE:

SL:
MA Distance VR Efficiency η
Distance
Load lowered – moved
(FL/FE) moved by (SE/SL) %
FL= (W1* + W2 ) clockwise winding by
load (m)
effort(m)
(*) Take the weight of the platform as W1=8.1 N
Table 2. Raising a load
FL : Total load(N) FE: Effort required(N) SE:

SL:
MA Distance VR Efficiency η
Load raised –
Distance
moved
Anitclockwise winding (FL/FE) moved by (SE/SL) %
FL= (W1 + W2 ) by
load(m)
effort(m)
In your report be sure to analyse these results. Compare the values of MA, VR and efficiency obtained
from the graphs and the equations.
You must ask yourself these questions:
What happens when the load FL is increased? How does it affect the effort FE?
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What is the difference between raising and lowering the load? How does it influence the effort or MA or
η?
Calculations
Plot a graph of effort against load:
Effort FE Raised
((N(N)
Lowered
Load FL
(N)
Using your graphs determine the Law of the Machine for both raising and lowering. The law of the
machine is of the form:
FE = aFL + b
Where FE is the effort
FL is the load
a is the slope of the graph
b is the value of FE where the graph cuts the FE axis
a is the slope of the Graph and b is the point that the Load cuts the Y axis are constants.
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Comments/Discussion
Here you must explain why there is a difference between raising and lowering the load. You must
explain why the results appear the way they do.
- Comment of the form of the graphs obtained above.

- What is the significance of the constant b in the law of the machine?
- What problems did you encounter?
- How did you overcome those problems?
- What did you learn?
Note:
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Task 3: Lab-3 Worm and Wheel
Object:
To determine Mechanical Advantage, Velocity Ratio (V.R), and Efficiency of worm and worm
gear.
Apparatus used: Worm and Worm wheel, rope and weight.
Construction and theory:
It consists of a square threaded screw (known as worm) and a toothed wheel (known as worm wheel)
geared with each other as shown in figure. Wheel is attached to the worm over which passes a rope.
Sometimes a handle is also fixed to the worm (instead of the wheel). A load drum is securely mounted
on the worm wheel.
Let l= radius of the effort drum
R= radius of the load drum
FL= Load lifted
FE= Effort applied to lift the load and
T= Number of teeth on the worm wheel
The distance moved by the effort in one revolution of the wheel= 2πl
If the worm is single threaded, then the load drum will move through = 1/T revolution and distance
through which the load will move = 2πR/T
V.R= Distance moved by effort/Distance moved by load

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2 l Tl
= =
2R R
T
Load M .A
M.A= and efficiency =  100
Effort V .R
Note:
If the worm is double threaded, i.e., for one revolution of wheel, the screw pushes the worm wheel
through two teeths, then
Tl
V.R=
2R
If the worm is triple threaded
Tl
V.R=
3R
Procedure:
1. Wind the cord around the load drum and attach the hanger. Add a weight of 10N to the hanger.
2. Wind the fine cord around the drum on the worm-shaft, add a hanger and apply weights to the
hanger.
3. Put the weight on the effort side and go on adding weights till the load or weight is just on a
point of moving up worm and worm wheel.
4. Note the effort applied also (which is weight)
5. Note down the distance moved by effort and load sides
6. Repeat the experiment with different load or weights.
Tabulate your results as shown below
S.No Load, FL (N) Effort, FE (N) SE: Distance SL: Distance V.R M.A Efficiency.
moved by moved by
effort (m) load (m)
1
2
3
4
5
6
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Calculations:
FL
M.A=
FE
Tl S
V.R= (theoretical ) and VR = E (Experimental )
R SL
Efficiency= (M.A/V.R) X100
Plot your results and find the law for the machine. Put the applied Load FL on the x -axis and Effort FE on
Y-axis.
Plot graphs of:
1. Load against effort.
2. Load against efficiency.
Then use graph 1 to find the law of the machine. As the graph should be a straight line assume that the
relationship is of the form:
FE = aFL + b
Note Excel can make this an easy process

In this section comment on the outcome of the experiment.
1. What is the significance of the Law of the Machine?

2. Is the increase in effort directly proportional to the increase in load?
3. How close to Linear was the law, why would it vary
4. How closely does the experiment match the theory?
• Possible reasons for errors? Use the 5m’s methodology to establish the source of the
error.
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Task 4: Lab-4 Centrifugal Force
Room Location: Building 19-004F

Student Requirements : Graph Paper, Ruler, Pencil, Calculator
Object:
To investigate the relationship of centrifugal force exerted by a body of mass ‘m’ travelling in a
circular path against
• A varying mass
• A varying radius of rotation
• A varying angular velocity
Apparatus:
The TQ Centrifugal Force Apparatus is designed to demonstrate the relationship between centrifugal
force, mass of a rotating body, its distance from the centre of rotation and its angular velocity. It consists
of two pivoted counter balanced bell-cranks housed in slideable blocks, as shown in Figure 1 below.
Various combinations of masses fit to the ends of the bell-crank arms. The slideable blocks are held in
position by locating pins. Each block fits in five different radial positions corresponding to five equally
spaced holes in each end of the horizontal rotating member. Also included are a speed control unit, and
a tachometer to measure revs/min.
Figure 1. Centrifugal force apparatus
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Theory
Newton’s law states:
F = ma
Where F: Accelerating force (N)
m: Mass (kg)
: Acceleration (m/s2)
Centripetal acceleration:
Where : Angular velocity;
ω = (2πN/60) rad/sd
: radius of the circular path
Thus centrifugal force:
Figure 2 shows the horizontal rotating member carrying two counter-balanced bell-cranks. The bell-
cranks pivot in brackets, which can fix at several points along the rotating member. When the unit
rotates, the upper mass ma tends to move outwards under the action of centrifugal force.
With the upper masses ma at radius r and the rotating with an angular velocity ω, the centrifugal
force of each mass is:
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Figure 2. Horizontal beam member with bell-cranks and forces
Gravitational force on the lower masses mb restrains any movement of the bell-cranks until the
centrifugal force balances this gravitational force. AT this point, the upper masses will move
outwards. Taking moments about the pivot point at the condition of balance:
Thus, the centrifugal force at the condition of balance is equal to the weight of the lower mass .
The angular velocity can be determined by measuring the speed of rotation when the upper
masses move outwards. The theoretical centrifugal force can then be calculated and compared with
the value mbg.
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Procedure:
Part A Constant Radius; Variable Weight and speed
1. Raise the locating pins on the sliding blocks so that they are both the same distance from the
centre. Then push down the pins to locate the blocks firmly on the horizontal member. Note
the distance from the axis to the pivots of the bell-crank.
2. Screw a 25 gm mass onto each vertical arm of the two bell cranks. The mass of the arm of the
bell crank is 15 gm so the total is 40 gm. The magnitude of the masses on the respective
arms of the bell crank must be the same.
3. Screw mass (25 gm) on the horizontal arm of the two bell cranks. The magnitude of the mass on
the respective arms of the bell crank must be the same.
4. Replace the dome and start the motor using the Speed Control Unit. Slowly increase the speed
until the bell-cranks are flung outwards with an audible ‘click’. Note the approximate speed
that you heard the click.
5. Slowly decrease the speed until the arms come to a complete stop.
6. Repeat the experiment but with added masses (50,75,100 and 125 gm) on the horizontal arm.
The magnitude of the masses on the respective arms of the bell crank must be the same.
7. Repeat the above experiment but with different ma (50gm).
8. Plot the F- graph showing the two different masses
Record the following information: Radius (r)..............................[m]
Table A
ma = 25+15 [gm] ma = 50+15 [gm]

Centrifugal
Exp.
Force= Speed, N % Speed, N %
F=maω2r F=maω2r
No. [gm]
[N] Error Error
[rads/s]2 [N] [rads/s]2 [N]
[revs/min] [revs/min]
1 25+15
2 50+15
3 75+15
4 100+15
5 125+15
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Part B Constant mass (ma); Variable Radius and speed

1. Raise the locating pins on the sliding blocks so that they are both the same distance from the
centre. Then push down the pins to locate the blocks firmly on the horizontal member. Note the
distance from the axis to the pivots of the bell-crank.
2. Screw a 50 gm mass onto each vertical arm of the two bell cranks. The mass of the arm of the
vertical bell crank is 15 gm so the total is 65 gm. Screw a 25 gm mass on the horizontal bell-
crank arms. The mass of the arm of the horizontal bell crank is 15 gm so the total is 40 g.
The magnitude of the masses on the respective arms of the bell crank must be the same.
3. Replace the dome and start the motor using the Speed Control Unit. Slowly increase the speed
until the bell-cranks are flung outwards with an audible ‘click’. Note the approximate speed that
you heard the click.
4. Slowly decrease the speed until the arms come to a complete stop.
5. Reduce the radii of rotation by one increments while keeping the mass (m a) constant and repeat
experiment. For each different position take speed readings for a range of lower masses (m b)
(25,50,75,100,125 gm)
6. Plot the F- graph showing the different radii
Figure 3. Radius dimensions of the horizontal beam member
Record the following information: = .................... (gm)
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Table B1
Centrifugal ma = [gm]
Radius, r Force
Exp. No. Speed, N %
=
[m] [gm]
[revs/min] [rads/s]2 [N] Error
[N]
1 25+15
2 50+15
3 75+15
4 100+15
5 125+15
Table B2
Radius, r Force
Exp. No. Speed, N %
=
[m] [gm]
[N]
1 25+15
2 50+15
3 75+15
4 100+15
5 125+15
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Table B3
Radius, r Force
Exp. No. Speed, N %
=
[m] [gm]
[N]
1 25+15
2 50+15
3 75+15
4 100+15
5 125+15
Table B4
Radius, r Force
Exp. No. Speed, N %
=
[m] [gm]
[N]
1 25+15
2 50+15
3 75+15
4 100+15
5 125+15
Page
35
Table B5
Radius, r Force
Exp. No. Speed, N %
=
[m] [gm]
[N]
1 25+15
2 50+15
3 75+15
4 100+15
5 125+15
Results:
Your results will consist of tables A and B along with the associated graphs
Comments:
• Which graphs reveal a linear relationship?

• How close is the data to linear?
• How closely do the experiments match the theory?
• Possible reasons for errors) – List the factors which may have resulted in errors and
explain, how they contributed to the error. Use the 5m’s methodology to establish the
source of the error.
Conclusions:
Did you achieve your aims?
How might the insights gained in this analysis be used to help you solve your problem?
Page
36
Task 5: Lab-5 Conservation of energy
Object:
To verify the Law of Conservation of Energy, which tells us that energy can neither be created nor
destroyed, it can only be transformed from one state to another.
Apparatus:
The apparatus consists of a rail bed which can be adjusted for slope. On the bed are two ground guide
rails upon which a wheel & axle can roll down. The inclination of the rails can be adjusted by the
elevation screw. The wheel & axle can roll down the inclined plane from the highest to the lowest part
at the end ramp.
Starting posts
Wheel & axle
Elevation screw End ramp

Rail bed
Procedure:
1. Place the wheel & axle on a weigh scale and accurately determine the mass, m.
2. Incline the plane to an angle and place the wheel and axle at the top of the plane.
3. Use a stopwatch (mobile phone) to determine the time taken for the wheel & axle to roll down
the plane.
4. Measure and note the heights, h1,h2, h= h1-h2 and also the distance, s, as well as the time, t.
5. For each height, run the experiment several times to obtain an average time for the descent.
6. Now increase the height, which will therefore increase the angle, and repeat the above
experiments. Again measure and note, the height, distance and average time.
7. Repeat the experiment for 4 different heights.
Page
37
Theory:
The diagram below shows a wheel rolling down an inclined plane. The wheel rolls from point A to point
between, with a distance, s, between each point.
Wheel & axle
h1
h2
Datum
Figure 2. Schematic of height and displacement on slope
If we consider the energy and its conservation, then:

Potential energy at point A = Kinetic energy at point B of translation and rotation. There are also energy
losses due to friction, sound, heat etc. However, these are small and can be neglected.
Where
m = mass of the wheel & axle.

h = height of the plane.
= velocity.
I = moment of inertia; for a solid disk (refer to Mass Moment of Inertia Table on Page 42 or
52)
R = radius of the wheel.
ω = angular velocity;
r = radius of the axle.
Page
38
Results:
• If we assume that the wheel & axle accelerate at a constant rate down the plane, then we can use
the equations of linear motion:
Assuming the wheel starts from rest i.e. = 0, then
and
Substituting into gives
Therefore, the Average velocity of the rolling wheel is given by (assuming initial velocity vo=0)
Record your data and results below:
Length of plane (distance along inclined plane), s =
Mass of wheel & axle, m =
Radius of wheel, R =
Radius of axle, r =
Moment of inertia of a solid disk,
Page
39
Wheel
r
Axle
Table 1. Experimental results
t, Average
mgh,
time to Error %
h=h1-h2 Potential Kinetic Kinetic
Test roll down Angular
energy Velocity energy of energy of
number [m] plane velocity
Translation Rotation
[J=Joule] [m/s]
[sec.] [rad/sec.]
[J=Joule] [J=Joule]
Always, be careful with units in your calculations!
Page
40
Note:
Comments/Discussion:
In this section comment on the outcome of the experiment

How closely does the experiment match the theory?
Possible reasons for errors?, Use the 5m’s methodology to establish the source of the error.
Page
41
Page
42
Task 6: Lab-6 Moment of inertia -Flywheel
Object:
To compare the theoretical value of the Moment of Inertia, I, of a flywheel to that found by
experiment.
Introduction:
The Moment of Inertia, I, is a mathematical description which tells us, in basic terms, how difficult it is to
turn an object. For example, the wheel of a bicycle is light and small and therefore easy to spin by hand.
However, the wheel of a truck is large and heavy, if you tried to spin a truck wheel, it would be more
difficult.
Apparatus:
Procedure:
1. Arrange the length of the cord to allow winding on the axle of the apparatus.
2. Wrap the cord onto the axle and add sufficient weight to it to balance flywheel bearing friction.
3. Add accelerating mass of 250g
4. Measure the time from point of release to when the weight hits the floor. Record the time
measured.
5. Measure the distance travelled by the weight
6. Repeat the test for accelerating masses of 500 g, 1 kg and 2 kg.
7. From these test use table 1 to find a moment of inertia
8. Compare these with the calculated moment of inertia obtained using table 2 from the physical
properties of the flywheel.
Page
43
To calculate the moment of inertia of the flywheel using experimental procedure:
Consider a flywheel mounted on a shaft which is, in turn, mounted in bearings. The shaft is horizontal
and has a cord wound around it with a mass attached to the free end
α Relationships:
Flywheel:
T
rs and
Therefore
F
Accelerating Mass:
Mass a Then rearrange
mg
Combined equation:
I=
(mg − ma ) rs
2
The mass is released and allowed to fall through a height, h, in time t before the cord detaches from the
shaft. What is the moment of inertia of the flywheel?
First consider the motion of the acceleration mass:
s = ut + ½ at2
Page
44
u = 0 and s = h, thus:
2h
a=
t2
The angular acceleration of the flywheel is:
a
=
rs
Now consider the tension in the cord whilst the accelerating mass is falling:
Let F = cord tension, then using F=ma
mg − F = ma
F = m (g − a )
This force will produce an accelerating torque on the flywheel shaft of:
T = F  rs
The equation of motion of a flywheel is:

T =I
a
Since =
rs
F rs2
thus I=
a
Page
45
Results: Experimental and Calculated Data.
Table 1 Experimental Moment of Inertia
Test Mass (gm) 250 500 1000 2000
Time Measured
texp , [sec]
Travel distance s, [m]
Linear Acceleration,
, [m/s2]
Angular Acceleration
, [rad/s2]
Accelerating Torque
T=m. rs.(g - a) ,[N.m]
Moment of Inertia
, [kg.m2]
% Error
Plot the graph of accelerating torque vertical axis vs angular acceleration (horizontal axis). Measure
the slope of the graph to determine the experimental moment of inertia.
Page
46
Theory
To calculate the theoretical Moment of Inertia, I, of the flywheel using its physical properties:
The inertia of a hollow cylinder is I=

2
(
m 2
)
r2 + r1 , refer to the Mass Moment of Inertia Table
2
on Page 52.
r2
r1
The flywheel is made of steel with a density of 7800kg/m 3. So finding the volume of the cylinder we
can then find the mass and hence find its inertia. We can split the flywheel into 4 separate hollow
cylinders, inertia’s for each of the hollow cylinders in the flywheel can then be added together to get the
total inertia. See figure on next page showing dimensions of each of the sections of the
flywheel.
Page
47
Mechanical Fundamentals (EN6903) t
Flywheel, (Part A)
Shaft or Axle, (Part B)
r2
r1=rs B
h
A
Figure: The cross section of the flywheel can be separated into four cylinders
Page
48
Now calculate the volume of each section of the flywheel to find the mass. Then calculate the
Moment of Inertia and put the values in the table on the next page.
Note: The volume of a hollow cylinder (Part A) is
(
V =  r2 − r1 h
2 2
)
And the volume of a cylindrical solid shaft (part B) is
Page
49
Table 2 calculated theoretical moment of inertia
Section Mass of section (kg) Moment of Inertia (Kgm 2)
(mass = density x volume)
Total
Comparison
Comparison of Experimental, Theoretical and Numerical (solid works) Moment of Inertia
Note: Another method is to model the flywheel in Solidworks and let the program calculate its moment
of inertia
Page
50
Write down the theoretical, experimental and numerical Moments of Inertia in the table below
Experimental Calculated
Moment of Moment of
Inertia Inertia
Comments:
• How closely does the experimental match the theoretical Moment of inertia?
• Possible reasons for errors – List the factors which may have resulted in errors and explain, how
they contributed to the error. Use the 5m’s methodology to establish the source of the
error.
• Percentage Error Formula
•
• Note:
• True Value = Theoritical Value = Actual Value
• Measured value = Experimental value
Page
51
Mass Moment of Inertia Table
Page
52
Page
53

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Mechanical Fundamentals (EN6903)

Course: Mechanical Fundamentals

Course Code: EN6903

Location: 19.001D (Campus A)

EN6903: Mechanical Fundamentals

Task Date of conducting

Week3 Lab Practical

Week2 Lab Practical

Week 1 Lab Practical

Week 1 Lab Practical

Learning outcomes (LOs):

5. Justify & apply the laws of friction to simple engineering problems

Introduction to History of Mechanics

Galileo's unwavering commitment to empirical evidence, his development of experimental techniques,

Source: Father of Experimental Physics – Galileo Galilei’s Major Discoveries (testbook.com)

Sir Isaac Newton – Laws of Motion, Universal Law of

Source Isaac Newton - Facts, Biography & Laws (history.com)

Students must attend all lab sessions.

The total weightage for the Lab Practical Test is 30%

Assessments From To weightage

Lab Practical Test Week5 Week6 30%

(13 -17 Oct2024) (20 -24 Oct2024)

Task 1: Lab-1 Friction (Horizontal and Inclined plane)

Room Location: Building 19-001D (Campus A)

Part 1: Coefficient of Static Friction (μS)

When block begins to move (slide) down

α= angle of inclination or angle of repose.

When block begins to move up

Hence P = µs .W cos α + W sin α

Ed Lab Quip: ME 080 – Friction on an Inclined Plane Model

Part A Coefficient of Friction on a Horizontal Plane using varied loads

1. Set the plane horizontal.

7. Try at least three different sliders.

Record the following information

1. Select and weigh a slider and place it on the horizontal plane.

3. Some care will be required in order to obtain accurate results.

4. Tabulate your results as below and calculate the remaining columns.

1. Incline the plane so that the pulley is at the higher end.

2. Set the plane angle to be greater than the angle of friction.

3. Weigh a slider and place it on the plane.

4. Place a load F on the hanger to prevent it moving.

8. Tabulate your results as below.

Slider material: Plane angle α =

Slider material: Plane angle α =

Slider material: Plane angle α =

2. Tabulate your results as below.

Slider material: Plane angle α =

Slider material: Plane angle α =

Slider material: Plane angle α =

Comments and Conclusions

• Account for any discrepancies “% Error”

• Use the 5m’s methodology to establish the source of the error.

Part 2: Coefficient of Kinetic Friction (μk)

Theory: Inclined Plane

∑Fx=max; W.sinθ -Ff = max ------------------1

∑Fy=may; N-W.cosθ =0 ------------------2 (ay=0, why?)

From Law of friction, Ff=μk.N -------------------3

Substitute 2 and 3 in 1 gives:

W.sinθ - μk. (W.cosθ) = max

In order to determine μk from the above equation, it is necessary to find ax first.