Fixed partial dentures

Color matching in dentistry. Part h The

three-dimensional nature of color

Robert C. Sproull, D.D.S.*

William Beaumont General Hospital, El Paso, Texas

F orty years ago, Clark 1 said, "Color, like form, has three dimensions, but they are
not in general use. M a n y of us have not been taught their names, nor the scales of
their measurement. In other words, we as dentists are not educationally equipped
to approach a color problem." This statement is unfortunately still valid. 2
Today's approach to a color-matching problem is somewhat different from what
it was then. Research and education have made possible a planned approach and
a better understanding of the problems involved. Professional color matchers today
have a greater appreciation of the role of the human observer, the differences in
light sources, the analysis of surfaces, the effect of the surrounding color--adjacent
or b a c k g r o u n d - - a n d the m a n y other aspects of color matching that enter into the
final evaluation by the brain. Nevertheless, the basic truth of Clark's statement has
been strengthened, not weakened, by the passage of time.
Color is complex and encompasses both subjective and objective phenomena, but
there are laws of color just as there are other laws in nature? For a good analogy
concerning some of the problems of color, we can consider the entity known as heat.
" H e a t " is objective and can be measured, but "hot" and "cold" are subjective at-
tributes and cannot be objectively measured. 4 Our perception of color is accepted as
subjective, 5-9 and problems in its measurement can be anticipated. In an effort to
translate from the physical facts of color, such as measurement of reflectance as a
function of wavelength, to the psychologic (i.e., perceptual) facts of color, the sci-
ence of color measurement (colorimetry) has established an international psycho-
physical method of color specification ~ which includes a "standard observer" and
standardized light sources. 1°-12 This approach has supplied an operating base for our
attempts to measure objectively this subjective phenomenon.
Color matching in dentistry must depend upon colorimetry in order to correctly
specify the colors needed in the dental shade guides and to manufacture the ma-
Read before the American College of Prosthodontists in Las Vegas.
~Chief, Fixed Prosthodontic Service.
~ N . W. Hale, Munsell Color Company, Kollmorgen Corp.: Personal communication,
May 30, 1972.
416
Volume 29
Number 4
Color matching in dentistry, 417

3.75Y
WHITE

I
." ....

7/jl---+--U I E ."
6.s/~.~ I ~ :
6/~ /- "q
•.. -.

rALUE •

g
g

BLACK
Fig. 1. An idealized representation of the three-dimensional Munsell Color Order System. The
dimension of Hue is represented by the ten colors arranged around the central axis. Chroma
is related to the spokes of the wheels; the colors are purest at the periphery and become
progressively grayer as they approach the central achromatic Value axis. Value refers to the
lightness/darkness of a color, and the nine Value levels are represented by the nine wheels.
The darkest colors are in the bottom wheel, the lightest colors are in the top wheel. The
dots illustrate the distortion of the cylinder to reflect the actual outline form of the color
solid for the yellow and purple-blue Hues. The pie-shaped wedge of color of the natural
teeth is seen within the upper left of the solid. A representation of the Hayashi guide and how
it relates to this pie-shaped wedge is seen to the upper left of the cylinder. The Chroma
spokes have been represented only in the Value wheels Nos. 1 and 9.

terials used w i t h these guides. H o w e v e r , the m a n i p u l a t i o n of the guides a n d m a -

terials at t h e c h a i r side is a p e r c e p t u a l c h a l l e n g e to the ability of the dentist to see
a n d to recognize t h e t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s of color. T h e n a m e s of these d i m e n s i o n s m a y
vary, b u t n o t the d i m e n s i o n s themselves. Colors of objects ( a p a r t f r o m spatial a n d
418 SprouU J. Prosthet. Dent.
April, 1973

temporal aspects) will vary, but in no way that cannot be described in terms of
combinations of these three dimensions? :*
As early as 1611, color was presented as a three-dimensional entity by Sigfrid
Forsius. lt Since that time, there have been numerous systems devised and numerous
approaches used to explain this tridimensional property? ~-19 The three-dimensional
nature of'form--length, width, and height--is a familiar concept; the three-dimen-
sional nature of color (color being the abstract property that it is) is not as readily
understood.
The purpose of this article (Part I) is to explore the three-dimensional nature
of color and the correct terminology. Part II will investigate the practical applica-
tion of this concept to color-matching problems in dentistry.

MUNSELL COLOR ORDER SYSTEM

Many color order systems are available, but for a variety of reasons, including
worldwide recognition, consistency, flexibility, and simplicity, the Munsell Color
Order System is the system of choice for color matching in dentistry. The attempt
to achieve equal visual (perceptual) spacing in this system further recommends it.
The color tree (Plate I) is a representation of the tridimensional organization of
the colors within the Munsell system. The Munsell color solid can be likened to a
sphere or to a cylinder, 2°, _ol as it is an irregular three-dimensional figure that has
characteristics of both. Although usually described as a sphere (Munsell's original
concept), for the purpose of this article, it will be treated as a cylinder (Fig. 1).
The relationship of one color to another becomes apparent when the organization of
the colors within the three-dimensional solid is understood. A colorless or achromatic
axis extends through the center of the cylinder, pure white at the top, pure black at
the bottom. A series of grays, progressing from black to white in equal visual steps,
connects these extremities (Plate II, A, and Fig. 1). Colors (Hues) are arranged
around this axis, and within each Hue, the colors are arranged in scales according
to their lightness/darkness (Value) and their purity or strength (Chroma). (In the
Munsell System, Hue, Value, and Chroma are capitalized.) Light colors are toward
t h e top of the cylinder; dark colors are toward the bottom. The colors are purest
on the outer skin of the cylinder, and they become progressively grayer as they ap-
proach the gray Value axis. Within each of these scales of Hue, Value, and Chroma,
the intervals were chosen to represent ,equal visual spacing under a standard light
source.
The cylinder may be considered as a series of wheels stacked one upon the other,
each wheel of ascending lightness as we progress to the top of the cylinder (Fig. 1).
The hub of each wheel represents the Value axis. The Hues are arranged sequen-
tially around the rim. The spokes represent the gradations of Chroma from the
colorless axis to the purest Hues at the rim. In actuality, as can be seen by examin-
ing Plate I, the Hues project unevenly beyond the surface of the solid, but this is
one of the advantages of the system. As technology permits the creation of purer
colors, they can easily be added to the periphery. These unequal extensions of the
Chroma spokes obviously make some of the wheels flat or lopsided, but basically we
have a cylinder, even if it is bent out of shape. The line of dots extending through
and beyond the cylinder to top left and bottom right outline the distortion of our
 A B C
Plate I. The Munsell color tree, Munsell Color Company, Division of Kollmorgen Corp.
Plate II. (A) Value scale---theoretical white and black included in addition to the nine Value
steps. (B) Page from the Munsell Book o[ Color, Baltimore, 1966, Munsell Color Company,
Division of Kollmorgen Corp., p. 5R. (C) Color wheel.
Vol.m~ 29 Color matching in dentistry, 421
Number 4

°. ......
:3 o°

i" ...,..2. ":

lo s to s Io s lo s lO s lo s Io s ~o s ~o s lO
R w vr v v GY GY G G m eG e e r,e ~ P P RF' r p

Fig. 2. The color wheel cut and placed in a horizontal strip. The Hue ranges of natural teeth
from three studies are shown: (1) speetrophotometric analysis; (2) Hayashi study: (3) Clark
study.

basic cylinder to conform to the actual outline of the Munsell perceptual color solid
for the yellow and purple-blue Hues (Fig. 1).

DIMENSIONS OF COLOR

Hue, Value, and Chroma; the dimensions of color, are just as descriptive in
describing color as length, width, and breadth are in describing form, once the
language is understood by those using it. Since it is so important in working with
color to understand thoroughly the three-dimensional concept of color, 22 a more
explicit description of each is presented.
Hue. Hue, the first dimension, is the easiest to understand, and in Munsell's 2:~
words, "it is that quality by which we distinguish one color family from another, as
red from yellow, green from blue or purple." The color wheel is a familiar form of
this dimension and consists of the Hues that are arranged sequentially around the
central axis of the Munsell Color Solid (Plate II, C). T o refer to a Hue in the
Munsell system, the initials are used: R for red, YR for yellow-red, Y for yellow,
and so on. Each Hue is subdivided into ten segments, equally spaced visually (by
psychologic criteria) from each other. Fig. 2 represents the color wheel cut and
placed in a horizontal strip.
Value and Chroma are more difficult to understand and are often confused with
one another. Special attention must be focused on these dimensions.
Value. Value "is that quality by which we distinguish a light color from a dark
color, ''2:~ and this is related to the achromatic (colorless) polar axis going through
the Munsell color solid (Fig. 1 and Plate II, A). The Value of a color is deter-
mined by which gray on the Value scale it matches in lightness/darkness. The black
of the Value scale is assigned a Value of zero, the white a Value of 10. An infinite
number of gradations of gray is possible as we go froin black to white, but only nine
Value (gray) steps are used in the Munsell system. Pure white (10) and pure black
(0) are unattainable. Fractional numbers are used when a finer evaluation is needed.
"Low" Values refer to dark colors; "high" Values to light colors.
We perceive Value differences when we watch a black-and-white television pic-
ture. The actual scene is full of color, but only the lightness/darkness (Value) of
a color is transmitted; a blue, red, or yellow could all be transmitted as the same
422 Sproull j. Prosthet. Dell.
April, 1973

indistinguishable gray if they are of the same Value (a part of the same Value
"wheel"). Colors of high Value would be transmitted as light grays, and those of
low Value as dark grays, regardless of the Hue or Chroma. It could be said that the
Value of a color is the gray it would match if it were seen on a black-and-white
television screen. Tab c in Plate II, B, and all the tabs directly to its left have the
same Value and would, therefore, transmit as the same indistinguishable gray.
Chroma. Chroma, the remaining dimension, "is that quality by which we dis-
tinguish a strong color from a weak one; the departure of a color sensation from
that of white or gray; the intensity of a distinctive Hue; color intensity. ''24 Chroma
describes the amount of Hue in a color. The gradations of Chroma were referred
to as the spokes of our wheels (Fig. i ) . The concept of painting a box will help to
clarify this dimension. Suppose it is desired to paint one side of a box pure red. If
an amount of gray paint is added to the bucket before the second side is painted,
the red on the second side will be perceived as less than a pure red; the Chroma
will be reduced. If additional gray paint is added to the bucket before each addi-
tional side is painted, the paint will come closer and closer to being perceived as a
gray. Plate II, B, is from the Munsell Book of Color, and studying this illustration
will aid in the understanding of these points. If the red to the extreme right at
Value level 4 (tab c) is considered as the original color of the paint, the reds to the
left of this would represent the paints of reduced Chroma. Adding a gray always
reduces the Chroma and theoretically will not affect the Hue. The change in Value
of the original color depends upon the Value of the gray added to it. If a gray of
higher Value than that of the original color is used, the resulting color will be of
the same Hue, lessened Chroma, and higher Value (tab a could represent such a
result). If a gray of the same Value is used, only the Chroma will be affected (less-
ened) (e.g., tab d). If a gray of a lower Value is used, the Chroma will be lessened,
and the Value will be lowered (e.g., tab b). Emphasis is placed on this point in
order to dispel the confusing statements seen in some dental literature to the effect
that Value depends upon the relative amount of gray in a Hue and that adding
gray always lowers the Value.
The need to refer to gray in describing both Value and Chroma is a major
factor in the confusion concerning these two dimensions. To think of Value in rela,
tion to the television picture and Chroma in relation to the painting of the box will
provide a simple, easily recalled memory aid.

IDENTIFICATION OF MUNSELL COLORS

MunselF 5 explained the system of designating colors in these words: " T h e nota-
tion used in this system places Hue (expressed by an initial, as mentioned earlier) at
the left; Value (expressed by a number) above and to the right of the Hue symbol;
and Chroma, also expressed by a number, below and to the r i g h t of the slanting
line." The over-all format in common usage is .H V / C . The H is preceded by a
number to indicate the precise subdivision of the Hue. The designation for tab a
would be 5R 7/8; tab b, 5R 2/8; tab c, 5R 4/14, and tab d, 5R 4/8 (Plate I I ) .
Such designations provide an exact identification of a color that is internationally
understood.
v,,I ...... 29
Number 4
Color rnatchin~• in dentistry 423
IDEAL COLOR SPACE
T h e goal sought in a r r a n g i n g colors according to the psychologic attributes of
Hue, Value, a n d C h r o m a is to create an "ideal" color space with a constant, per-
ceptually equal difference between any one color (as defined by its Hue, Value, a n d
C,h r o m a ) a n d any of the colors s u r r o u n d i n g it. F o r each color, the next closest
matches are easily located since each color is considered the center of a sphere sur-
r o u n d e d by the next closest color matches in Hue, Value, a n d / o r C h r o m a . '-'~ If the
a r r a n g e m e n t of such a system is successful, a linear relationship will exist between
tile distance traveled in such color space a n d the color differences that resultY ~
T h e Munsell Color O r d e r System was designed to fulfill the requirements of ideal
color space. T h e fact that the ideal has not been completely achieved ( a n d perhaps
is impossible to achieve)"T does not d e t r a c t from the worth of such a system. T o
work with color, thoughts on color must first be organized to the p o i n t that differ-
ences between surfaces can be recognized for w h a t the?, are and described in ob-
jective terms.

SUMMARY
I t is possible to arrange color in a m a n n e r t h a t makes this three-dimensional enig-
m a understandable. T h e Munsell Color O r d e r System is r e c o m m e n d e d as the system
of choice for dentists who wish to gain a working knowledge of color. O n c e the di-
mensions of color (Hue, Value, a n d C h r o m a ) become familiar terms, dentists will
have the color language and the necessary tools to a p p r o a c h color m a t c h i n g problems
in a logical manner.

References
1. Clark, E. B.: Seventy-fourth Annual Session of the American Dental Association, Buf-
falo, N. Y., Sept. 15, 1932.
2. Sproull, R. C.: A Survey of Color Education in the Dental Schools of the World, E1
Paso, Texas, 1967, U. S. Army Research Report.
3. Bond, F.: Color: How to See and Use It, San Francisco, 1954. Camera Craft Publish-
ing Company, p. 7.
4. Ronchi, V.: The Nature of Light, Cambridge, Mass., 1970, Harvard University Press,
Inc., p. 265.
5. Billmeyer, F. W., Jr., and Saltzman, M.: Principles of Color Technology, New York,
1966, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., p. 2.
6. Birren, F.: Color: A Survey in Words and Pictures, New Hyde Park, N. Y., 1963,
University Books, Inc., pp. 83, 84.
7. Judd, D. B., and Wyszecki, G.: Color in Business, Science and Industry, ed. 2, New
York, 1963, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., pp. 5, 24-26.
8. Aronoff, J., et al.: Psychology Today, Del Mar, Calif., 1970, CRM Books, p. 309.
9. Wright, W. D.: The Rays are Not Coloured, New York, 1968, American Elsevier
Publishing Company, Inc,, pp. 2, I9, 20.
10. Burnham, R. W., Hanes, R. M., and Bartleson, C. J.: Color: A Guide to Basic Facts and
Concepts, New York, 1963, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., pp. 123-150.
11. Billmeyer, F. W., Jr., and Saltzman, M.: Principles of Color Technology, New York.
1966, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., pp. 53-89.
12. Judd, D. B., and Wyszecki, G.: Color in Business, Science and Industry, ed. 2, New
York, 1963, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., pp. 8-71.
4:~4 ~5p r o u l l j. p,,,~,~,,:,t, t, .....
\rail. t97'~

13. Burnham, R. W., Hanes, R. M., and Bartleson, C. J.: Color: A Guide to Basic Facts
and Concepts, New York, 1963, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., p. 14.
t4. Feller, R. L., and Stenius, A. S.: On the Color Space of Sigfrid Forsius. 1611. C,~to~
Eng. 8: 48-51, 1970.
15. Burnham, R. W., Hanes, R. M., and Bartleson, C. J.: A Guide tt* Basic Facts and C,m-
cepts, New York, 1963, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., pp. 163-172.
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1966, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., pp. 25-52.
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Publishing Company, Inc., pp. 28-74.
Ig. Birren, F.: Color, a Survey- in Words and Pictures, New Hyde Park, N. Y.. t963. (.'~21-
versity Books, Inc., pp. 141-152.
19. Judd, D. B., and Wyszecki, G.: Color in Business, Science and Industry, ed. 2. New
York, 1963, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., pp. 221-243.
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York, 1963, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., pp. 226.
21. Nickerson, D.: Color Measurement, U. S. Department of Agriculture Misc. Pub. 5'd,
March, 1946, p. 9.
22. Clark, E. B.: An Analysis of Tooth Color, J. Am. Dent. Assoc. 18: 2093-2103, 1931.
23. Munsell, A. H.: A Color Notation, ed. I1, Baltimare, 1961, Munsell Color C o m p a n y .
Inc., p. 15.
24. Munsell, A. H.: A Color Notation, ed. 11, Baltimore, 1961, Munsell Color Company,
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25. Munsell, A. H.: A Color Notation, ed. 11, Baltimore, 1961, Munsell Color Company,
Inc., p. 20.
26. Judd, D. B.: Ideal Color Space, Color Eng. 8: 38, 1970.
27. Judd, D. B.: Ideal Color Space, Color Eng. 8: 44, 1970.

2405 GAIRLOCtt Dl~k

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