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Indian culture

The culture of India refers collectively to the thousands of distinct and unique cultures of all
religions and communities present in India.
India’s languages, religions, dance, music, architecture, food, and customs differ from place to place
within the country. Indian culture, often labeled as an amalgamation of several cultures, spans
across the Indian subcontinentand has been influenced by a history that is several millennia old. [1]
[2]
Many elements of India’s diverse cultures, such as Indian
religions, philosophy, cuisine, languages, martial arts, dance, music and movies have a profound
impact across the Indosphere, Greater Indiaand the world.
Culture :
 Indian-origin religionsinclude Jainism, Buddhism, Sikhism and Hinduism. all of which are
based on the concept of dharma and karma. Ahimsa, a philosophy of nonviolence, is an important
aspect of native Indian faiths whose most well known proponent was Gandhi who through civil
disobedience brought India together against the British Raj and this philosophy further
inspired Martin Luther King, Jr. during the American civil rights movement.
 India has 29 states with different culture and civilizations and one of the most populated
countries in the world. The Indian culture, often labeled as an amalgamation of several various
cultures, spans across the Indian subcontinentand has been influenced and shaped by a history that
is several thousand years old. Throughout the history of India, Indian culture has been heavily
influenced by Dharmic They have been credited with shaping much of
Indian philosophy, literature, architecture, art and music. Greater India was the historical extent of
Indian culture beyond the Indian subcontinent.
 India is the birthplace of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, and other religions. They
are collectively known as Indian religions.Indian religions are a major form of world religions along
with Abrahamic Today, Hinduism and Buddhism are the world’s third and fourth-largest religions
respectively, with over 2 billion followers altogether, and possibly as many as 2.5 or 2.6 billion
followers.
Phisolophy :
 Indian philosophy comprises the philosophical traditions of the Indian subcontinent. There
are six schools of orthodox Hindu philosophy—
Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mīmāṃsāand Vedanta—and four heterodox schools—
Jain, Buddhist, Ājīvika and Cārvāka – last two are also schools of Hinduism.
 The main schools of Indian philosophy were formalised chiefly between 1000 BCE to the
early centuries of the Common Era. According to philosopher Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, the earliest
of these, which date back to the composition of the Upanishadsin the later Vedic period (1000–500
BCE), constitute “the earliest philosophical compositions of the world.
Family Structure and Marriage :
 For generations, India has a prevailing tradition of the joint family system. It is when
extended members of a family – parents, children, the children’s spouses and their offspring, etc. –
live together. Usually, the oldest male member is the head in the joint Indian family system. He
mostly makes all important decisions and rules, and other family members are likely to abide by
them.
 In a 1966 study, Orenstein and Micklin analysed India’s population data and family
structure. Their studies suggest that Indian household sizes had remained similar over the 1911 to
1951 period. There after, with urbanisation and economic development, India has witnessed a
break up of traditional joint family into more nuclear-like families.
Arranged Marriage :
 Arranged marriages have long been the norm in Indian society. Even today, the majority of
Indians have their marriages planned by their parents and other respected family-members. In the
past, the age of marriage was young.The average age of marriage for women in India has increased
to 21 years, according to 2011 Census of India. In 2009, about 7% of women got married before the
age of 18.
 In most of the marriages the bride’s family provide a dowry to the bridegroom.
Traditionally, the dowry was considered a woman’s share of the family wealth, since a daughter had
no legal claim on her natal family’s real estate. It also typically included portable valuables such as
jewellery and household goods that a bride could control throughout her life.
Wedding Rituals :
 Weddings are festive occasions in India with extensive decorations, colors, music, dance,
costumes and rituals that depend on the religion of the bride and the groom, as well as their
preferences. The nation celebrates about 10 million weddings per year, of which over 80%
are Hindu weddings.
 While there are many festival-related rituals in Hinduism, vivaha(wedding) is the most
extensive personal ritual an adult Hindu undertakes in his or her life. [71][72] Typical Hindu families
spend significant effort and financial resources to prepare and celebrate weddings. The rituals and
process of a Hindu wedding vary depending on region of India, local adaptations, resources of the
family and preferences of the bride and the groom. Nevertheless, there are a few key
ritualscommon in Hindu weddings –Kanyadaan, Panigrahana, and Saptapadi; these are respectively,
gifting away of daughter by the father, voluntarily holding hand near the fire to signify impending
union, and taking seven steps before fire with each step including a set of mutual vows. After the
seventh step and vows of Saptapadi, the couple is legally husband and wife.
Festivals :
 India, being a multi-cultural, multi-ethnic and multi-religious society, celebrates holidays
and festivals of various religions. The three national holidays in India, the Independence Day,
the Republic Dayand the Gandhi Jayanti, are celebrated with zeal and enthusiasm across India. In
addition, many Indian states and regions have local festivals depending on prevalent religious and
linguistic demographics. Popular religious festivals include the Hindu festivals
of Navratri, Janmashtami, Diwali, Maha Shivratri, Ganesh Chaturthi, Durga Puja, Holi, Rath
Yatra, Ugadi, Onam, Vasant Panchami, Rakshabandhan, and Dussehra. Several harvest festivals such
as Makar Sankranti, Pusnâ, Hornbill, Chapchar Kut, Pongal and Raja sankaranti swinging festival are
also fairly popular.
 Islam in Indiais the second largest religion with over 172 million Muslims, according to
India’s 2011 census. The Islamic festivals which are observed and are declared public holiday in
India are; Eid ul Fitr, Eid ul Adha-(Bakri Eid), Milad un Nabi, Muharram and Shab-e-Barat.[80] Some
of the Indian states have declared regional holidays for the particular regional popular festivals;
such as Arba’een, Jumu’ah-tul-Wida and Shab-e-Qadar..
Greetings :
 Greetings include Namaste (Hindi and Sanskrit), Namaskar (Hindi), Juhar/Namaskar
in Odia, Namaskar (Marathi),Namaskara (Kannada), Namaskaram (Telugu, Malayalam), Vanakkam
(Tamil), Nomoshkaar (Bengali), Nomoskar (Assamese), Aadab (Urdu), and Sat Shri Akal (Punjabi).
All these are common spoken greetings or salutations when people meet, and are forms of farewell
when they depart. Namaskar is considered slightly more formal than Namaste but both express
deep respect. Namaskar is commonly used in India and Nepal by Hindus, Jains and Buddhists, and
many continue to use this outside the Indian subcontinent. In Indian and Nepali culture, the word is
spoken at the beginning of written or verbal communication.
 Other greetings include Jai Jagannath(used in Odia) Ami Aschi (used in Bengali), Jai Shri
Krishna (in Gujarati and the Braj Bhasha and Rajasthani dialects of Hindi), Ram Ram/(Jai) Sita Ram
ji (Awadhi and Bhojpuri dialects of Hindi and other Bihari dialects), and Sat Sri Akal(Punjabi; used
by followers of Sikhism), As-salamu alaykum (Urdu; used by follower of Islam), Jai Jinendra (a
common greeting used by followers of Jainism), Namo Buddha (used by followers
of Buddhism), Allah Abho (used by followers of Bahá’í), Shalom aleichem (used by followers
of Judaism), Hamazor Hama Ashobed (used by followers
of Zoroastrianism), Sahebji (Persian and Gujarati; used by
the Parsi people), Dorood (Persian and Guarati; used by the Irani people),
Animals :
 The varied and rich wildlife of India has had a profound impact on the region’s popular
culture. Common name for wilderness in India is Junglewhich was adopted by the
British colonialists to the English language. The word has been also made famous in The Jungle
Bookby Rudyard Kipling. India’s wildlife has been the subject of numerous other tales and fables
such as the Panchatantra and the Jataka tales.
 In Hinduism, the cow is regarded as a symbol of ahimsa(non-violence), mother goddess and
bringer of good fortune and wealth.[86] For this reason, cows are revered in Hindu culture and
feeding a cow is seen as an act of worship. This is why beef remains a taboo food in mainstream
Hindu and Jain society.
 Hinduism, the cow is regarded as a symbol of ahimsa (non-violence), mother goddess and
bringer of good fortune and wealth.[86] For this reason, cows are revered in Hindu culture and
feeding a cow is seen as an act of worship. This is why beef remains a taboo food in mainstream
Hindu and Jain society.

A brief discussion on the fundamental characteristics of Indian culture


reveals two important aspects:
1. Its diversity or diverse cultural traits
2. Its unity or the fundamental underlying flame of unity.
The present name of the country “India” refers to ancient “Bharatavarsha” or the Land of Bharata of
mythological fame. Various Muslim nations to the west of India prefer to call it as Hind or
Hindustan. Thus we find diversity in the nomenclature of the land itself. For a better understanding
on the diverse elements of Indian culture we shall first should focus on its various aspects. Then we
shall examine how among these diverse elements there is the eternal flow of unity which is the
fundamental characteristic of Indian culture.
1. Physical Diversity:
Geography has given India different physical diversities in its very structure. It has vast varieties of
soil, wide differences of the frontiers with four distinct geographical divisions.
They are as follows:

1. The Himalayan Mountains with its Eastern and Western ranges


2. The Northern plains enriched by Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra and their tributaries
3. The Central Indian plateau and the Deccan plateau
4. Long strips of coastal lands between the sea and the Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats
Mountain ranges
These different geographical units very well show that India represents extreme diversities of
mountains, plains, rivers, deserts, plateaus and coastal areas in its physical features. Thus it is
referred to as a sub-continent rather Chan a mere country. Physical diversity has its side effects.
Differences in physical features automatically have brought differences in altitude, climate,
temperature, rainfall, flora and fauna.
It is very interesting to note that India represents the three main climates of the earth:
1. The Polar Climate
2. The Temperate Climate
3. The Tropical Climate
The Great Himalayan region is known for its snowy and cold climate having its impact on the North
and North Eastern states. The Southern Indian states are typically prone to tropical climate
whereas in other parts of India we find the prevalence of a temperate climate. This is a unique
example of the diversity of the country with multi-climatic zones.
The climatic conditions very well affect the soil of the region. If we have comparatively barren and
rocky lands in the extreme north, we have a contrast in the very fertile and productive lands of the
Gangetic plains and the Malabar territories. Physical diversity is again found in case of seasons. All
the traditional six seasons are experienced in India.
They are:
1. Summer Rains
2. Autumn
3. Dewy
4. Winter
5. Spring
Out of the six seasons the main four seasons such as Summer, Rains, Winter and Spring amply
justify the existence of striking varieties in the climate of the country. Similarly differences are also
found in the percentage of rainfall in various parts of the country. The rainfall varies from 7.5 cms.
to 1200 cms. per year. As a result the temperature varies from the eternal snowy mountains to the
scorching heat of the Thar desert.
The North-Eastern region and the marshy lands of Bengal have the highest degrees of rainfall
whereas Western India has relatively scanty rainfall. Thus if we have the rich alluvial soil in the
Gangetic plain we also have the high table lands of Deccan plateau and the sandy deserts of
Rajasthan.
The differences in the rainfall, soil and temperature have their impact on the flora and fauna of the
country. India possesses many of the striking varieties of botanical as well as zoological specimens
found all over the world. If we have the rare variety of Olive Ridley at Gahirmatha in Orissa, the
forests of Assam have the unique one-horned rhinoceros.

Further the geographical division of the country has stood on the way of a united history of the
country. We find the growth of different regional kingdoms, different dynasties and different ideals
of kingship through the ages. This is mainly due to the physical diversity of the land.
2. Racial Diversity:
In the words of the prominent historian V.A. Smith: “India is an ethnological museum.” Even the
ancient Greek historian Herodotus remarked: “Of all the nations that we know of India has the
largest population.” In the 21st century also India is the second most populous country of the world.
This population is composed of so many races and it represents primarily all the ethnographical
dimensions of mankind.
They are:
1. White type constituting Caucasian group
2. Yellow type signifying the Mongolian group
3. Black type of the Ethiopian group
These three basic types of human races are present in India.
The 1901 census of India gives the following eight ethnic groups present in the land:
1. Pre-Dravidian
2. Dravidian
3. Indo-Aryan
4. Turko-Iranian
5. Scytho-Dravidian
6. Arya-Dravidian.
7. Mongoloid
8. Mongoloid-Dravidian
These ethnic groups prove one thing. The Dravidians, Aryans, Greeks, Parthians, Sakas, Hunas,
Arabs, Turks, Mughals, Afghans, Anglo-Indians, tribals like Bhils, Kurals, Nagas, Mizos etc. have all
merged with the Indian population to form a greater human race. Because of this racial diversity,
the physical features of her inhabitants are bound to differ. That is why the people of sub-
Himalayan regions resemble the mongoloids while in the Gangetic plain they have similarities with
the people of the middle-East. Likewise the Southern Indian region also has lots of dissimilarities.

3. Linguistic Diversity:
Racial diversity of India has its direct reflection on the linguistic variety of India. As per the
Linguistic Survey of India, India possesses 179 languages and 544 dialects. These languages and
dialects are spoken by the people of different regions and different races.
The Constitution of India has given recognition to 18 languages as modern Indian languages.
Among the prominent Indian languages mention may be made of Hindi, Bengali, Assamese, Oriya,
Guajarati, Telugu, Tamil, Kannada, Malayalam, Manipuri, Sindhi, Punjabi and Urdu Even foreign
languages like Arabic and Persian are still in vogue.
4. Scriptural and Literary Diversity:
India being a multi-lingual country has a vast treasure of different scripts and literatures. When the
languages are many, naturally scripts are of different types. No wonder then literatures have
emerged in various languages and dialects, both major and minor, thus contributing to the richness
of a Pan- Indian literature including Sanskrit. So far as script is concerned India has got a good
number of scripts.
The major ones among them are:
1. Brahmi
2. Kharosthi
3. Devnagari
4. Persian
5. Roman
6. Olchiki
Similar is the case with literature. We have a vast variety of Indian literature such as Hindi
literature, Oriya literature, Bengali literature, Tamil literature, Dingal literature, so on and so forth.
The literature of one language exhibits its own specific characteristics, easily distinguished from the
literature of other languages.
5. Socio-Cultural Diversity:
The variations in physical features, racial structure and languages have resulted in considerable
differences in dress, food habits, social customs and beliefs of the people. The people of India differ
considerably in their social practices and cultural differences vary from state to state.
For example the dress habit of the people of a hot place like Rajasthan will definitely differ from
that of Kashmir because of a very cold climate. The North-Eastern people have their traditional
dress whereas the tribal dress is unique of its own. Even the style of wearing a dhoti or a saree
differs from Uttar Pradesh to Bengal to Tamil Nadu to Maharashtra and Gujarat.
In matters of diet and mode of living Indians also show extreme diversities. The North-
Western people are mainly wheat-eaters but in Eastern India it is rice and fish which constitute the
staple food of the people. In the South people prefer hot and spicy dishes. Though majority of the
people of the country are vegetarians the number of non-vegetarian people is no less.
The Hindu society as such is divided a into a four-fold caste system which include:
The Brahmanas, The Kshatriyas, The Vaisyas and The Sudras.
In fact the social structure of the Indian society is composed of the social organisation of her
original inhabitants, the Aryans and the invaders who settled here later.
The traditions, customs, rituals in Indian society have their regional variations. Diverse elements
are found in the performance of social rites, festivals and ceremonies.
In the words of R.K. Mukherjee:
“India is a museum of cults and customs, creeds and cultures, faiths and tongues, racial types and
social systems.” Thus various conflicting trends of social systems and modes of life style have
together built up a rich and complex diversity in India.
6. Religious Diversity:
India is a country of many religions. All the major religions of the world are found here. Mention
may be made of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Christianity, Islam, Sikhism, Zoroastrianism etc.
People of different religions live here in sizeable numbers. All these religions have grown here quite
freely with their different sects and sub-sects.
India is in a sense unique that it is the motherland of four major religions of the world —
Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism. Hinduism which is the religion of the majority has
various sects like Saivism, Vaishnavism, Shaktism, Tantricism, Sun-cult, Ganapatya-cult etc.
Buddhism with Mahayana, Hinayana, Vajrayana and Kalachakrayana sects, Jainism with Svetambar
and Digambar sects, Islam with Shia, Suni, Shafi and Hannafi sects, Christians with Catholic and
Protestant sects live in this country alongside each other quite peacefully. The primitive tribes of
the country have their own peculiar cults too.
Fairs and festivals peculiar to each religion are celebrated here with much gaiety and pomp.
Religious preachers of different religions have preached their sermons in different ages of history.
We cannot claim any single religion as the religion of the entire land. Rather it is a land which
encourages people of various religions to live in peace and harmony. Thus India is a land of
religious variety— both old and new.
7. Economic Diversity:
Since ancient times India has been regarded as the land of milk and honey. It is for this economic
prosperity of the land India has been invaded and occupied by the foreigners many a time though at
present the picture is not so rosy.
Rather from economic point of view India presents a picture of diversity. It is a country of princes
and paupers, aristocrats and middle class people, highly rich and extremely poor people. If India is
proud of possessing some richest people of the world, it is also a matter of shame that millions go
without two square meals a day. Crores of Indians live below the poverty line for generations while
the rich continue to grow richer and richer.
Besides these two extreme classes we have a middle class who maintain a balanced standard of
living. Interestingly this rising middle class has formed a strong backbone of the country’s economy
in various fields like infrastructure, agriculture, science and technology.
States like Punjab, Maharashtra and Union Territories like Delhi and Goa are economically far
ahead of states like Bihar, Orissa and Nagaland. The per capita income of a Delhite is far more than
that of a Bihari or an Oriya. Some states continue to function better economically than the average
national level while many others lag behind pathetically. The reasons behind such economic
disparity are many and varied and quite puzzling too. Thus richness and poverty go side by side.
8. Political Diversity:
The vastness of the country, its geographical diversities, various races with various languages,
religions, creeds and systems of belief have all contributed significantly to the political unification
of India. Regionalism and local identity have played a great role in the path of maintaining this
unity. Interestingly, history has time and again proved that Indians never presented a united front
in the face of foreign invasion.
The regions in the extreme South never came under Northern rule. They remained independent
under local dynasties. Chandragupta Maurya, Ashoka, Samudragupta and a few other kings in the
ancient period, Alauddin Khilji, Akbar and Aurangzeb in the medieval period tried hard to achieve
the political unity of the country and fought a number of battles to materialize this dream. But they
were not totally successful in this regard. After the death of any such powerful ruler, internal
weakness, strong regionalism, separatist tendency and mutual dissension used to play their part. So
the attempt of partial political unification attempted by the previous ruler used to end in failure
leading to disintegration.
Even in the modern period when India was under the British rule, the Indians never gave a united
resistance to the Britishers. Certain regions had waged heroic struggles for liberation against all
odds. The Marathas, the Rajput’s or the Sikhs, for example, took up arms against the foreigners but
never as a united Indian front. A united resistance might have checked the establishment of British
rule in India.
In fact a popular national feeling was absent among the Indians till the 19th century. There were
regional resistance movements or glorification of local rulers. This absence of political unity was
largely due to the prevailing diversities in race, language, religion, caste, creed and, last but not the
least, the imposing geographical barriers.
The physical features and natural barriers almost made some kingdoms, big or small, little worlds
by themselves. They behaved like independent states. The principle of localism used to work more
effectively which hampered the political progress of the country and checked the growth of a united
kingdom of India.
9. Geographical Unity:
The unity of a culture to a great extent depends on its geography. It is geography that determines
the spread of a civilization. Be it in Egypt, Greece, China or India, the topography of the land around
a major river has played the most significant role in the growth of culture and history of a
civilization.
The geographical unity of India is an age-old concept which was very much present in the mind of
its inhabitants since ancient times. The first expression given to this sense of unity was naming the
entire land from the Himalayas up to Cape Comorin by the single name of Bharatavarsha’ or the
Land of Bharata till modern times.
Thus nature has provided a very well defined geographical boundary. On the three sides the
country is surrounded by the seas and oceans while the Himalayas stands as a sentinel from North-
East to North-West. The location of Bay of Bengal in the East, Indian Ocean in the South and Arabian
Sea in the West has detached the land from the rest of the world. These boundaries have helped to
make India a compact geographical unit by acting as a kind of natural line of control.
The epics and Puranas also vividly give a sense of unity to the people of the land. The very name of
the land “Bharatavarsha” has a deep historical significance. From “Bharatavarsha” to “Bharata
Mata” and “Vande Mataram” we find a flow of deep sentiment of geographical unity. Our national
anthem “Jana Gana Mana” incorporates the unity of our motherland in so far as it highlights the
integral wholeness of India by mentioning Punjab, Sindh, Gujarat, Maratha, Dravida, Utkala, Banga,
Vindhya, Himachal, Yamuna, Ganga etc.
Thus the vastness of the country with its natural forests, mountains, rivers etc. has created among
its subjects a consciousness of fundamental unity from the earliest times.
10. Political Unity:
The unity of Indian culture has also been amply promoted by the political atmosphere prevailing iji
the country through different ages. In the pages of Indian history we come across several rulers
who tried to bring India under one administrative unit.
Mention may be made of Ashoka and Samudragupta in the ancient period who had established their
suzerainty all over India. In the epics, Puranas and ancient literature we find frequent use of titles
such as Chakravartin, Ekrat, Samrat, Rajadhiraj, Sarbabhauma, Mahurajadhiraj etc. The kings
aspired to gain such titles by bringing the whole of India under one control. Kautilya defines the
extent of area of a Chakarvarti king in the following manner:
“The field of a Chakarvarti king extends from Himalaya to the sea, in other words covers the whole
of India.”
The repeated performances of rites and sacrifices such as the Rajasuya, Asvamedha, Vajapeya and
Mahabhisheka show the ideal of universal conquest and an all Indian over-lordship of the ancient
Hindu rulers. The medieval rulers like Alauddin Khilji, Akbar and Aurangzeb partially fulfilled the
concept of political unity of India by their wars and conquests. They tried to give a good centralised
administrative system for the whole of India. The uniform official designations, laws, customs and
system of coinage strengthened the bond of political unity.
Even during the time of British rule in India a unitary setup was given to the Indian territories. This
led to the growth of national consciousness. The achievement of independence was the result of the
sense of unity in political sphere.
The constitution of India also begins with “We, the people of India” and “India that is Bharat shall be
a union of states.” Thus since the epic age a somewhat coherent political unity has been maintained
over the land extending from the Himalayas to the Indian Ocean.
11. Religious Unity:
India is a country where several religions are freely adopted and practiced. While discussing the
diversity of Indian religions we have found the existence of all major religions of the world. But the
significant feature is that among all these religions we find a peaceful and harmonious co-existence.
The term ‘secular’ used in the Indian Constitution, guarantees the citizens equality of all religions.
People of all religions and beliefs enjoy this freedom.
Hinduism being the religion of the majority has an overwhelming impact on Indian minds. It can be
considered as the single most important unifying factor. Hinduism in India has provided an attitude
or a way of thinking which is shared and cherished even by the people of other religions.
The gods and goddesses of the Hindu pantheon like Vishnu, Durga, Laxmi, Siva and Parvati are
worshipped with same reverence all over India. The Vedas, Upanishads, Bhagavat Gita, Ramayana
and Mahabharat have their appeal all over the country. There are four dhamas of Hinduism,
(Badrinathdham in the North, Dwarakadham in the West, Rameshvaram in the South and
Jagannathdham in the East), twelve Jotirlingas and fifty one Sakta pithas in the whole country. This
network of holy places creates a sense of unity among all Hindus. Festivals like Rakhi, Diwali, Durga
puja, Vaishakhi and Pongal have an all India fervour.
If Jainism and Buddhism spread to the South from the North, Sankaracharya brought the message
from the South, Kabir, Nanak and Sri Chaitanya established a link between the North and South
through their universal faith. Further Sufi saints like Nizam-ud-din-Aulia and Moin-ud-din-Chisti
added the message of fraternity and liberalism among the different sects. Thus among the diverse
religious beliefs, faiths and customs the stream of religious unity works as a strong binding factor of
Indian cultural heritage.
12. Cultural Unity:
The cultural unity of India is equally strong amidst its manifold diversities. The cultural roots of
Indian life can be traced back to the Vedic period. This root gradually spread to Indian culture in
course of time with its branches. Thus the basic unity of literary ideas, philosophy, outlook,
conventions and practices has prevailed all over the country.
The social ceremonies, religious rites, festivals and modes of life are the same all over the country.
The sanctity of family, the rules of the castes, the sanskaras like Upanayun, Namakaran, rites of
cremating a dead body, the cleanliness of the kitchen etc. are common to all communities and sects.
Besides regional festivals there are some typical festivals like Dussera, Holi, Diwali etc. that are
celebrated throughout the country.
13. Scriptural, Linguistic and Literary Unity:
Although India possesses several languages, dialects, scripts and literary products in different
languages, a sense of uniformity and oneness prevails among them. Brahmi is the oldest form of
Indian script. The script of Modern Indian language has been derived from it. The other type of
script called Kharosthi was in less use relatively. At present the Indian Constitution recognises the
Devnagari script as the script of national language.
The strong root of Hinduism lies in the use of Sanskrit language which was the official and court
language of the rulers of India for more than two thousand years. Before the Christian era Prakrit
was the language of the people. The message of Buddhism was written in this language. Gradually
Pali and Sanskrit replaced Prakrit after the downfall of the Mauryan rulers. Then in spite of regional
linguistic varieties, Hindi and English have been in use all over India.
Now we find a three-language formula trying to bring about a linguistic unity of the country. The
theoretical and the linguistic unity are provided by Sanskrit language because it is the original
source of Hindi, Marathi, Guajarati, Bengali, Oriya, Telugu, Tamil, Kannada, Malayalam etc. Then
during the British period English became the official language to bind all the Indians under one
administration. In the post-independence era Hindi has been made Rashtrabhasa or national
language to bring a linguistic assimilation among the Indian languages.
With different languages trying to maintain a national unity, literature of different regions too
reflect this unified structure of the country. Sanskrit literature is the main source from which the
writers, poets and dramatists of modern Indian languages have taken both inspiration and material.
The Vedas, Upanishads, Gita or the works of Kalidas or Jaydev in Sanskrit are rich treasures of
regional literature. Tulsidas, Iqbal and Tagore are respected in all parts of India because they have
portrayed “Indian character” in their scholarly works.
14. Socio—Economic Unity:
The social diversity of Indian life is superficial. Irrespective of differences in dress, food and other
habits there is the mark of traditional unity. For example, whatever may be the regional variation in
dresses, Dhoti and Saree still remain the traditional Indian costumes. In spite of the differences in
food habits, the way of taking food while squatting on the ground, the treatment in vegetarian and
non-vegetarian diet have a standard pattern throughout the country.
Respect to the superiors, family bond, salutation by joining of both hands, marriage rites etc. bear
the same amount of unitary strength irrespective of differences. Similar is the case with Indian
economy. Economic disparity among the Indians is quite visible. But one thing we must agree is that
the root of Indian economy lies in agriculture.
It is predominantly agrarian in nature. From the tiller of the soil to the owner of the soil, indirectly
there is the bond of production from the soil which determines their way of living. Moreover, there
are large numbers of agro-based industries in India because of our dependence on agriculture.
15. Physical Uniformity:
From the very beginning many foreigners like Aryans, Sakas, Hunas, Scythians etc. have entered the
Indian soil. They came here, settled here and mingled themselves with the original Indian
inhabitants and adopted the local culture.
The Muslims came during the medieval period, settled here and completely absorbed themselves
into the fold of Indianness. In different periods of history different tribes and races have come to
India and have acquired a sort of physical uniformity. An all-Indian character and a general Indian
personality have been evolved out of this process of physical assimilation.
From physical uniformity a feeling of nationalism has flavoured the Indian soul. Mother and
motherland have mingled into the very existence of India. Thus in spite of all diversities Indian
culture has maintained a unique bond of unity. Indian religion, language, society etc. have
preserved this sense of unity amidst its variety. The outsiders and invaders have lost themselves in
the veritable ocean of Indian culture and have been Indianised thoroughly. This is the most
wonderful part of Indian culture.
In Balmiki Ramayana we find its reference in an indirect way. When Rama killed the demon Ravana,
the ruler of Lanka (Modern Sri Lanka), he advised his younger brother Lakshman not to stay in the
prosperous land of Lanka. Rather Rama advised Lakshman to go back to his “Motherland Ayodhya.”
He said so because for Lord Rama, “the mother and the motherland are more glorious than the
heavens.”
This very feeling constitutes the essence of Indian culture and India has been worshipped as a
mother-figure throughout the ages. This undercurrent has been able to preserve the traditional
unity of the land despite thousand diversities.
INFLUENCE OF GEOGRAPHY ON INDIAN CULTURE Indian culture is influenced by its unique
geographical features. India is a peninsula with five geographical divisions and these are: i) The
mountains of northern India which are mainly the Himalayan mountain range. ii) Northern plains in
the river valleys of the Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra iii) The Central Indian plateau iv) The South
Indian plateau and v) The Coastal regions Indian art, architecture, spirituality, music, dance are all
influenced by these geographical features. South of the Vindhyas, the distinct Dravidian culture is
developed which is different from the northern Aryan culture. Indian culture has 6 influenced Asia,
Delhi has been the site of many bitter battles. From the region around Delhi to Patna,

Significance of Geography on Indian Culture


The ancient civilization of India arose in a clearly defined sub-continent
bounded on the north by the world's largest mountain range, the Himalayan chain,
which divides India from the rest of Asia and the rest of the world with its extensions
to the east and west. The barrier, however, was never insurmountable, and settlers
and traders have always found their way into India via the high and desolate passes,
while Indians have carried their commerce and culture beyond the country's borders
via the same route. India's isolation has never been complete, and the impact of the
mountain wall on the development of her unique culture has frequently been
exaggerated.

Religion and Indian Philosophy


The majority of Asian Indians practice the Hinduism. The other major regions are Sikhism,
Buddhism, Jainism, Christianity and Islam; and a small percentage of population practice Judaism,
Zoroastrianism, and Baha’I’ Faith.
1. Hinduism
About 900 million of the 6.5 billion world population are Hindus, making Hinduism the fourth-
largest religion in the world. Most Hindus living in the United States are of Asian Indian origin.
About 80% of Asian Indian immigrants practice Hinduism.
The US Hindu population is growing rapidly, from an estimated 227,000 in 1990 to an estimated
766,000 in 2001. Current estimates range from 1.1 to 1.5 million. Most US Hindus are either first-,
second-, or thirdgeneration immigrants with their religious and cultural practices of Hinduism
greatly influenced by their country of origin (see Table 1) and their level of acculturation.

The correct name of this ancient religion is Sanatana Dharma, which means “eternal law” in
Sanskrit. Also known as, the Hindu Dharma, Hinduism is one of the oldest organized religions in the
world, tracing its roots back to 5000 BC. It originated in the Indian subcontinent on the banks of the
Sindhu river (now Indus river) and was practiced by the Sindus (people who lived on the banks of
the Sindhu), who were later known to the Greeks as Sindhus and finally as Hindus (a Persian word).
In contrast to some of the other organized religions, Hinduism can be more aptly described as a
philosophy or way of life that has been subject to numerous interpretations over several millennia,
now resulting in a religious practice that incorporates a remarkable diversity of cultural rituals and
customs. Hinduism’s philosophical core is rooted for the most part in the three fundamental Hindu
scriptures: the Vedas, the Upanishads, and the Bhagvad Gita. Since Hinduism’s inception over 5000
years ago, countless interpretations and reinterpretations of the sacred texts have obscured the line
between religion and cultural practice. However, the philosophical tenets have remained
remarkably constant.

18th/19th Century painting depicting Krishna and Arjuna at


Kurukshetra—a scene from the Bhagvad Gita. Source: Wikipedia. Public Domain.
The pursuit and practice of the Hindu dharma is governed by a belief in karma (from the Sanskrit
root kri meaning “action”)—the concept that every action leaves an imprint on one’s Atman (soul or
spirit). Karma is determined by a universal law (or order) in which good actions produce good
results and bad actions produce bad results. Karmic theory greatly influences the patient’s world
view of health, death, and dying and of the Hindu’s explanatory model of illness.
Many Hindus may believe that pain and suffering (both physical and psychosocial) are the result of
bad karma and not of medical or mental illness.
Many older and more traditional Hindu adults may believe their illness is caused by bad karma
from a past life or by past actions in this lifetime, and they may not entirely believe in the organic
etiology propounded by Western biomedicine. As a result, an illness may be viewed as something to
be accepted and endured rather than fixed or cured. In some situations, these beliefs may induce a
quiet fatalism that can result in therapeutic non-adherence.
2. Buddhism

Buddhism is an ancient Indian religion founded by Siddhartha Gautama Buddha. Gautama was a
Hindu Prince of Kapilavatsu. India who was deeply disturbed by the experiences of worldly
suffering. He gave up his royal life and became an ascetic. After years of meditation, he attained
bodhi (enlightenment) when sitting under the Bodhi tree in Gaya, India. Buddhism adheres to
ahimsa (non-violence) and advocates for giving up worldly desire in order to attain nirvana or
salvation.
The Four Noble Truths
The Four Noble Truths were taught by Gautama Buddha after attaining Nirvana and are thought to
be the essence of Buddhism:
 1. Life leads to suffering suffering (dukkha).
 2. Suffering is caused desire (kama).
 3. Suffering ends when a person gives up desire and enables attainment of the liberated
state of Enlightenment (bodhi).
 4. Reaching this liberated state is achieved by following the eightfold path laid out by the
Buddha.
The Noble Eightfold Path
The Noble Eightfold Path is a way to attain prajña (consciousness) and thereby nirvana (liberation):
 1. 1. dṛṣṭi (Sanskrit for sight): viewing reality as it is, not just as it appears to be.
 2. saṃkalpa (intention): intention of renunciation, freedom and harmlessness.
 3. Vāca (Sanskrit for speech): speaking in a truthful and non-hurtful way.
 4. Karma (Sanskrit for actions): acting in a nonharmful way.
 5. ājīvana: a non-harmful livelihood.
 6. vyāyāma (Sanskrit for effort): making an effort to improve.
 7. smṛti (स्मृति Sanskrit for “that which is remembered”): Self-awareness and
mindfulness with equanimity.
 8. samādhi (समाधि Sanskrit for state of consciousness): This is a temporary liberated state
attained by dyana (meditation). Nirvana is a permanent state of liberation.
Buddhism is one of the largest religions in the world. Many Asian Indians are Buddhists. As
Buddhism is derived from Hinduism, many of the Hindu tenets like karma, ahimsa and the concept
of rebirth are followed in Buddhism. Most Buddhists are vegetarians.
3. Jainism
Jainism (Samana
Drarma) is an ancient Indian religion derived from Hinduism. Jains believe in the wheel of time
which revolves. During every upward (utsarpini) and downward (avasarpini) motion of this wheel
of time, 24 Tirthankars (pathfinders or prophets) are thought to be reborn to propagate the eternal
truth and help human being attain salvation.
According to Jainism, every living being has a soul. Every soul is potentially divine, with innate
qualities of infinite knowledge, perception, power, and bliss (masked by its karma and desires). The
present cycle, thought to be a downward swing, has 24 Tirthankars, the first of which was
Rishabhdev and Vardhaman Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankar for this cycle of time. Vardhaman
Mahavir is a prince-turned-ascetic who lived 2,600 years ago and was a contemporary of Gautam
Buddha and is mistakenly thought to be the founder of Jainism.
“The three gems of Jainism— Right Faith, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct provide the path to
salvation.”
The three gems of Jainism—Right Faith, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct provide the path to
salvation. Jains believe that there is no supreme divine creator. The universe is thought to be self-
regulated and every soul has the potential to achieve divine consciousness (siddha) through its own
efforts.
Attaining Enlightenment
Jains believe that to attain enlightenment and ultimately liberation, one must practice the following
ethical principles:
 1. Non-violence (Ahimsa) – to cause no harm to living beings. This is the fundamental vow
from which all other vows stem. It involves avoiding intentional and unintentional harm to any
other living creature.
 2. Truthfulness (Satya) – to always speak the truth Given that non-violence has priority, all
other principles yield to it, whenever there is a conflict. For example, if speaking truth will lead to
harm of violence, it is perfectly ethical to be silent. Thus Jains may practice non-disclosure and
practice the concept of protective truthfulness.
 3. Non-stealing (Asteya) – to not take anything that is not willingly given.
Dietary Practices
Traditional Jains don’t normally eat or drink anything after sundown is because it is believed that
this can cause the death of microorganisms that emerge in the dark. The Jain lifestyle is geared
towards causing least harm to other creatures and the environment. Jains are vegetarians. They do
not eat onions and garlic (as these are thought to increase sexual desires). Jains also do not eat any
roots and tubers like potatoes and carrots because uprooting the plant leads to the death of the
plant. Additionally uprooting the plant may result in the death of smaller underground insects and
microbes.
Fasting
Many traditional Jains (especially women) undertake fasting. There are four common types of
fasting:
 1. Vruti Sankshepa: limiting the number of items of food eaten
 2. Rasa Parityaga: giving up favorite foods
 3. Partial fasting: eating just enough food to avoid hunger
 4. Total fasting: giving up food and water completely for a short period
Fasting to death (Santhara or Sallenkhana)
Santhara or Sallenkhana is a procedure in which a Jain voluntarily stops eating and drinking with
the intention of dying. In addition to voluntary cessation of eating and drinking, the practitioner of
santhara also has to abandons desires (kama) and meditate as they peacefully await death which is
thought to liberate their body from worldly ties and free the Atman imprisoned within.
Jain older adults may opt to undertake santhara at the end of life and they are revered by fellow
Jains. Santhara deaths may be even celebrated publicly with friends and family showering praise
and homage on them and families even placing full page announcement of the event in news papers.
It is to be noted that santhara is thought to be distinct from suicide. In santhara, the person stops
eating and drinking and meditates constantly praying for liberation from worldly suffering while
allowing nature to takes it course and resulting in the death of the body. Suicide, in contrast, is
thought to be an act of violence.

Vedic religion
Vedic religion, also called Vedism, the religion of the ancient Indo-European-speaking peoples
who entered India about 1500 BCE from the region of present-day Iran. It takes its name from the
collections of sacred texts known as the Vedas. Vedism is the oldest stratum of religious activity in
India for which there exist written materials. It was one of the major traditions that
shaped Hinduism.
Knowledge of Vedic religion is derived from surviving texts and also from certain rites that
continue to be observed within the framework of modern Hinduism. The earliest Vedic religious
beliefs included some held in common with other Indo-European-speaking peoples, particularly
with the early Iranians. Though it is impossible to say when Vedism eventually gave way to classical
Hinduism, a decrease in literary activity among the Vedic schools from the 5th century BCE onward
can be observed, and about that time a more Hindu character began to appear.
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Hinduism: Indo-European sources
Vedic texts
The only extant Vedic materials are the texts known as the Vedas, which were composed and
handed down orally over a period of about 10 centuries, from about the 15th to the 5th
century BCE. The Vedic corpus is composed in an archaic Sanskrit. The most important texts are
also the oldest ones. They are the four collections (Samhitas) that are called the Veda, or Vedas.
The Rigveda, or “Veda of Verses,” the earliest of those, is composed of about 1,000 hymns addressed
to various deities and mostly arranged to serve the needs of the priestly families who were the
custodians of that sacred literature. The Yajurveda, or “Veda of Sacrificial Formulas,” contains prose
formulas applicable to various rites, along with verses intended for a similar purpose.
The Samaveda, or “Veda of Chants,” is made up of a selection of verses—drawn almost wholly from
the Rigveda—that are provided with musical notation and are intended as an aid to the
performance of sacred songs. Finally, the Atharvaveda is a later compilation that includes
incantations and magic spells.
To each Veda is attached a body of prose writings of later date called Brahmanas (c. 800–600 BCE),
which explain the ceremonial applications of the texts and the origin and importance of the
sacrificial rites for which the Vedas were composed. Further appendices,
the Aranyakas (c. 600 BCE) and the Upanishads (c. 700–500 BCE), respectively expound the
symbolism of the more difficult rites and speculate on the nature of the universe and humanity’s
relation to it.
When Vedic religion gradually evolved into Hinduism between the 6th and 2nd centuries BCE, the
texts, taken collectively, became the most sacred literature of Hinduism. They are known
as Shruti (“What Is Heard”), the divinely revealed section of Hindu literature—in contrast to the
later strata of religious literature known as Smriti (“What Is Remembered”), traditional texts
attributed to human authors. But in modern Hinduism the Shruti, with the exception of the
Upanishads and a few hymns of the Rigveda, is now little known, while some of the Smriti texts
remain extremely influential.
Mythology
Vedism was a polytheistic sacrificial religion involving the worship of numerous male divinities
(and a few goddesses), most of whom were connected with the sky and natural phenomena. The
priests who officiated at that worship were drawn from the Brahman social class. The complex
Vedic ceremonies, for which the hymns of the Rigveda were composed, centred on
the ritual sacrifice of animals and the drinking of a sacred, mind-altering liquor pressed from a
plant called soma. The basic Vedic rite was performed by offering those to a sacred fire, which was
itself deified as Agni and which carried the oblations to the gods of the Vedic pantheon. Agni and
Soma were at the same time material elements of the ritual offering: Agni was the fire of the sun, of
lightning, and of burning wood; Soma was the deified aspect of the liquid poured in the oblation.
The god of highest rank, however, was Indra, a warlike god who conquered innumerable human
and demon enemies and brought back the sun after it had been stolen, among other feats. Another
great deity was Varuna, who was the upholder of the cosmic and moral laws. Vedism had many
other lesser deities, among whom were gods, goddesses, demigods, and demons.
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Ritual
The ancient Vedic worshippers offered sacrifices to those gods in the hope that they in return
would grant abundant numbers of cattle, good fortune, good health, long life, and male progeny,
among other material benefits. To ensure the efficacy of their prayers, the people came to believe
that their offerings could be made more acceptable to the gods if accompanied by songs of praise
and other invocations of the gods’ might and power. Thus originated the rites described in the
Vedas. Every sacrifice was performed on behalf of an individual, the patron
or yajamana (“sacrificer”), who bore the expenses.
The rites of Vedic sacrifice were relatively simple in the early period, when the Rigveda was
composed. They required neither temples nor images. The ceremonies took place in an open space
that was consecrated afresh for every important occasion. The altar (vedi) was a quadrangle
marked out by hollowing or slightly raising the ground. The agnyadheya (“installation of the fire”)
was a necessary preliminary to all the large public rituals and was preceded by the patron’s fast.
The sacrifices themselves were of two major types—domestic (grihya) and public (srauta,
or vaitanika). The domestic rites were observed by the householder himself or with the help of a
single priest and were performed over the domestic hearth fire. Some occurred daily or monthly,
and others accompanied a particular event, such as the samskaras, sacraments marking each stage
of an upper-caste Indian’s life, from conception to death.
The grand rites performed in public, by contrast, lasted several days or months and could usually be
undertaken only by wealthy men or kings. They required the services of many priests and were
usually performed at three fire-altars. Most characteristic of the public ceremonies was the soma
sacrifice, which ensured the prosperity and well-being of both human beings and gods. In that basic
ritual, a lay sacrificer was first consecrated, after which juice was pressed three times from the
soma plant, part being offered to the fire and part consumed by the priests. Each of the three
occasions was preceded and followed by recitations and chants. Edibles such as meat, butter, milk,
and barley cake could also be offered to a sacred fire.
Animal sacrifice—the killing of a ram or goat—existed either independently or as an integral part of
the sacrifice of soma. The celebrated ashvamedha, “horse sacrifice,” was an elaborate variant of the
soma sacrifice. Human sacrifice (purushamedha) is described and alluded to as a former practice
but probably was merely symbolic. The sacrifice of the mythical giant Purusha, from whose
dismembered limbs sprang up the four major social classes (varnas), probably served as a model
for the conjectured human sacrifices. Other ceremonies marked fixed dates of the lunar calendar,
such as the full or new moon or the change of seasons.
Development and decline
Over the centuries, the Vedic rites became increasingly complex and governed by innumerable
rules, which were embodied, together with the hymns and prayer formulas used, in the Vedas.
During the late Vedic period the complexities of ritual were emphasized to such an extent that only
highly trained Brahmans could carry them out correctly, and it was maintained that improperly or
incorrectly performed rites could, unless rectified, bring about disaster or death.
In reaction against this excessive emphasis on ritual (as well as the growing power of the
Brahmans), Vedic thought in its late period became more speculative and philosophical in
approach. Much speculation was directed toward the search for harmony and for correspondences
between macrocosm and microcosm, with the ultimate goal being a reduction of reality to an all-
embracing unity by way of successive equations. In the Aranyakas, Vedic ritual is interpreted in a
symbolic rather than literal manner, and the Upanishads question the very assumptions on which
Vedism rested. The crucial idea that emerged from that period of intense questioning was that
of brahman, the ultimate reality and also a sort of guiding principle. The central theme of the
Upanishads is that the atman, the unchanging core of a human being, is a part of brahman. The
equation of atman with brahman became the basis of Hindu metaphysics. The spread in the 6th
century BCE of the related concepts of reincarnation, of karma, and of the attainment of release
(moksha) from this cycle (samsara) by meditation rather than through sacrifice marked the end of
the Vedic period.
The legacy of Vedic worship is apparent in several aspects of modern Hinduism. The basic
stratification of Vedic society into four varnas—the Brahmans (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors or
rulers), Vaishyas (traders), and Shudras (servants)—by and large persisted in later Hinduism.
Sacrifices performed according to Vedic rites continue to be performed in India occasionally, and
the offering of oblations to a sacred fire (homa) is an important element of much modern Hindu
worship (see yajna). The Hindu rite of initiation (upanayama) is another direct survival of Vedic
tradition. Vishnu and Shiva, the major deities of classical Hinduism, are briefly mentioned in Vedic
mythology, and Indra remains the king of the gods in narratives, although he is no
longer worshipped.

Pre Vedic Period: Economy, Society and Religion


Early Vedic Period: Economy, Education, Culture, Society and Religion.

The Early Vedic period was characterised by distinct economy, which depended on pastoralism and
agriculture. It had a society which was divided into various strata according to birth. The early
vedic society also had characteristic features of various religions and they carried out various
rituals for different gods.
Economy:
 Pastoralism and agriculture combined to maintain the Vedic economy
 The Rigveda mentions field levelling, seed preparation, and grain storage in big jars
 War loot was also a significant source of income. Gift giving, notably to monarchs (bali) and
priests (dana), and barter utilising cattle as a unit of money were used to conduct economic trades
Agriculture
 Private land ownership was not yet established
 Wheat and barley were the main crops, while rice/paddy production was only in its early
stages
 However, the cultivation of this stage was only of subsistence-type
Pastoralism
 Animals were reared for wool, milk, agriculture, leather and drawing chariots. Aryans’
staple diet consisted mainly of milk products
 Their entire culture revolved around cattle as a source of wealth. As a result, the family unit
was dubbed as ‘Gotra’ (literally means cattle pen)
 The return of cattle from pastures was thought to be a lucky time. As a result, ceremonies
known as ‘Goraja Muhurta’ were held
 The wars were mostly fought for the purpose of cattle-lifting or cattle-lifting defence
 As a result, the term for war became ‘Gavishti.’ Cattle’s ears were cut in a particular way to
distinguish them. They had special pasture land that belonged to the community
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Trade
 Trade is usually carried under barter- system
 Bullock-carts and pack-bulls were used, and boats were also used as well
 People who worked in trade were known as ‘Pani’. Clothes and leathers were the most
common objects traded
 The unit of exchange was cattle, but there is mention of nascent currency such as Nishka.
Fishing was also a part of the occupation
Education
 The rulers sponsored the classes, which were held at the teachers’ homes
 Both boys and girls were allowed to join classes
 In such Gurukulas, students received both vocational and moral value education
 There was no record of writing, but the information was passed down by the generations
through oral tradition
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Society
 The Vedic family was patriarchal and joint, with the eldest person (Grihapati) serving as the
family’s head. Society was largely egalitarian
 Varna was the term for colour. The indigenous people conquered by Aryans were called
Dasas and Dasyus
 Differentiation based on occupation existed. Vedic people wore clothes made from cotton,
wool, and animal hide. The clothes were called ‘Nivi’, ‘Vasam’, ‘Adhirasam’, ‘Drapi’ etc
Culture
 Since the early Vedic people practised pastoralism, their main diet consisted primarily of
milk and meat
 They also ate a variety of foods, such as barley, oilseed, vegetables, wheat, and fruits
 Non-vegetarian feasts were traditionally held during weddings, celebrations, and marriages
 They even drank intoxicating liquids on a regular basis
 However, such intoxication is condemned in Vedic literature
 In general, Vedic people were entertained by animal races and battles
 They went hunting for fun as well, and they enjoyed music. There are references to various
musical instruments made of animal skin, such as string instruments and percussion instruments
 They also enjoyed group dancing. During the festival season, both men and women took
part in a common dance, and gambling was a popular pastime
 Women and men, in general, were fond of different styles of ornaments
What was pre-Vedic period?
The Indus Valley Civilisation. The civilisation covers the period from 2800 to 1900 B.C. (Kenoyer,
1998; Shinde & Willis, 2014) and in history, this period is known variously as the IVC, Harappan
civilisation or the pre-Vedic period as it refers to the era before the Vedas were written.
Similarities between Jainism and Buddhism
The similarities between the two are listed as follows:
 Both religions believe in faith and Karma.
 Both of them are non-theistic religions.
 They both had a common background associated with the Aryan Culture.
 Both religions are founded by the Kshatriyas of Northern India.
 Both the religions were against Vedas and the Vedic culture as well as against Brahmanism.
 Both opposed the sacrifice of animals.
 Both the leaders in their religion preached Satya, Ahimsa, Brahmacharya, and detachment
from the materialistic world.

Which is the best description of the Vedic religion?


 The Vedic religion is described in the Vedas and associated voluminous Vedic literature
preserved into the modern times by the different priestly schools. The Vedic religion texts are
cerebral, orderly and intellectual, but it is unclear if the theory in diverse Vedic texts actually reflect
the folk practices,…

Conclusion
To know well about the features of the Early vedic society, it is essential to learn about their culture
and economy. The varna system was one of the distinct features of the early vedic society which
still has its different from existing in the Indian society.

BHUDDHISM
Gautama Buddha & Buddhism
The early Buddhist literature is divided into canonical and non-canonical texts:
1. Canonical texts: are believed to be the actual words of the Buddha. Canonical texts are
books which lay down the basic tenets and principles of Buddhism such as the Tipitakas.
2. Non-canonical texts or semi-canonical texts: these are commentaries and observations
on canonical texts, quotes, definitions, historical information, grammars and other writings in Pali,
Tibetian, Chinese and other East Asian languages. Some important ones are:
a. Mahavastu (written in Sanskrit-Prakrit mixed) – it is about the sacred biography,
i.e hagiography of the Buddha.
b. Nidanakatha – first connected life story of Buddha.
c. The Dipavamsa & the Mahavamsa (both in Pali) – both give historical and mythical
accounts of the Buddha’s life, Buddhist Councils, Asoka and the arrival of Buddhism to Sri Lanka.
d. Visuddhimagga (the path to purification written by Buddhaghosa) – deals with the
development from the purity of discipline to enlightenment (Nibbana).
e. Milindapanho (in Pali) – consists of a dialogue between the Indo-Greek king
Milinda/Menander and the monk Nagasena on various philosophical issues.
f. Nettipakarana (The book of guidance) – which gives a connected account of the
Buddha’s teachings.
The Tipitakas (Canonical Texts)
The earliest compilation of Buddhist teachings which were written on long, narrow leaves is “The
Tipitakas” (in Pali) and “Tripitaka” (in Sanskrit). All the branches of Buddhism have the Tripitakas
(also called three baskets/collections) as part of their core scriptures, which comprise three books

 The Sutta (conventional teaching)
 The Vinaya (disciplinary code)
 The Abhidhamma (moral psychology)
1. The Sutta Pitaka (Basket of Discourses) – these texts are also known as Buddha Vacana or
the word of the Buddha. It contains Buddha’s discourse on various doctrinal issues in dialogue
form.

2. The Vinaya Pitaka (Discipline Basket) – this contains rules for monks and nuns of the
monastic order (Sangha). It includes the Patimokka – a list of transgressions against monastic
discipline and atonements for these. The Vinaya text also includes doctrinal expositions, ritual texts,
biographical stories and some elements of Jatakas or “birth stories”.
3. The Abhidhamma Pitaka (Basket of Higher Teachings) – this contains a thorough study and
systematisation of the teachings of the Sutta Pitaka through summaries, questions and answers,
lists, etc.
The Tipitakas are divided into Nikayas (books):
1. Sutta Pitaka (5 collections)
1. Digha-Nikaya
2. Majjhima Nikaya
3. Samyutta Nikaya
4. Anguttara Nikaya
5. Khuddaka Nikaya
 Further subdivided into 15 books
2. Vinaya Pitaka (3 books)
1. Sutta Vibhanga
1. Maha-Vibhanga
2. Bhikkuni-Vibhanga
2. Khandaka
1. Mahavagga
2. Cullavagga
3. Parivara
3. Abhidhamma Pitaka (7 books)
1. Dhamma-sangani
2. Vibhanga
3. Dhatu-katha
4. Puggala-pannati
5. Kayha-vatthu
6. Yamaka
7. Patthana
The Buddha – Biography
Hagiography
The Gautama Buddha was born to Suddhodana (chief of republican Sakya clan) as Siddhartha in
563 BCE on Vaishakha Poornima day at Lumbini (Nepal). He lost his mother (Mahamaya) just a few
days after his birth and was brought up by his stepmother Gautami. There were 32 birthmarks on
his body and Brahmanas predicted that either he would be a world conqueror or a world
renouncer. He lived a life of luxury and comfort in his early years.
 He was married to Yashodhara at the early age of 16 and had a son named Rahula. At the
age of 29, he left his palace and decided to become a wanderer. He along with Channa, his
charioteer and his horse, Kanthaka, wandered for six long years in search of truth
(Mahabhinishkramana/Great Renunciation).
 He first meditated with Alara Kalama and then Uddaka Ramaputta. They were considered to
be the established teachers of that era but he was not convinced with their teachings that liberation
from sorrow can be obtained by mental discipline and knowledge only.
 The Buddha later joined five wandering ascetics – Assaji, Mahanama, Vappa, Bhaddiya and
Kondanna. He practised severe austerities until his body was almost emaciated and realising that
austerities could not lead to realisation, he left them. He then moved towards the village of Senani
and took a seat under a peepal tree facing east. He then resolved not to rise until enlightenment was
achieved.
 As Gautama sat in deep meditation – Mara, the Lord of illusions, recognising that his power
was about to be broken, tried to distract him. The Buddha touched the earth, calling it to bear
witness to the countless lifetimes of virtue that had led him to this place of enlightenment. The
earth shook, on hearing the truth of Gautama’s words. Mara then unleashed his army of demons. In
the epic battle that ensued, Gautama’s wisdom broke through the illusions and the power of his
compassion transformed the demon’s weapons into flowers. Mara and his army fled in disarray.
Thus, at the age of 35, he ultimately attained Nirvana/enlightenment at Gaya, Magadha (Bihar)
under a peepal tree (Bodhi tree), on the banks of river Niranjana and came to be known as the
Buddha – the Enlightened One. It is believed that Ashoka’s queen was envious of the Bodhi tree, and
tried to kill it but it grew again. The tree was cut down many times, but it grew again at the same
place and is still revered by Buddhists.
 The Buddha delivered his first sermon on deliverance from sufferings to his five former
companions at Sarnath. This event is known as Dhamma Chakka-Pavattana, which means turning
the wheel of dharma. The Buddha wandered about for over four decades, and established an order
of monks and nuns known as Sangha. He attained Parinirvana at the age of 80 at Kusinara (of the
Mallas). His last words were “All composite things decay, strive diligently”.
 The five forms that represent Buddha are:
 Lotus and Bull – Birth
 Horse – Renunciation
 Bodhi Tree – Mahabodhi
 Dhammachakra Pravartana – First sermon
 Footprints – Nirvana
Doctrines of Buddhism
The core of Buddha’s doctrine is expressed in the Ariya-Sacchani (four noble truths), Ashtangika-
Marga (Eight Fold Path), Middle Path, Social Code of Conduct, and Attainment of Nibbana/Nirvana.
Buddha urges that one should not cling to anything (including his teachings). The teachings are
only Upaya (skillful means or expedient tools) and are not dogma. It is fingers pointing at the moon
and one should not confuse the finger for the moon.
The three pillars of his teachings are:
 Buddha – Founder/Teacher
 Dhamma – Teachings
 Sangha – Order of Buddhist Monks and Nuns (Upasakas)
The four noble truths form the core of the teachings of Buddhism, which are:
1. Dukha (The truth of suffering) – As per Buddhism, everything is suffering (Sabbam
Dukham). It refers to the potential to experience pain and not only the actual pain and sorrow
experienced by an individual.
2. Samudaya (The truth of the cause of suffering) – Trishna (desire) is the main cause of
suffering. Every suffering has a reason and it is a part and parcel of living.
3. Nirodha (The truth of the end of suffering) – the pain/sorrow can be ended by the
attainment of Nibbana/Nirvana.
4. Ashtangika-Marga (The truth of the path leading to the end of suffering) – the end to the
suffering is contained in the eightfold path.
Eight-Fold Paths
The Eight-Fold Path is more about unlearning rather than learning, i.e., to learn in order to unlearn
and uncover. The path consists of eight interconnected activities and is a process that helps one to
move beyond the conditioned responses that obscure one’s nature. The Ashtangika-Marga consists
of the following:
1. Right Vision (Samma-Ditthi) – it is about understanding the nature of reality and the path of
transformation.
2. Right Thought or Attitude (Samma-Sankappa) – it signifies having emotional intelligence
and acting from love and compassion.
3. Right or Whole Speech (Samma-Vacca) – it signifies truthful, clear, uplifting and unharmful
communications.
4. Right or Integral Action (Samma-Kammanta) – it signifies an ethical foundation of life, on
the principles of non-exploitation of oneself and others. It consists of five rules, which form the
ethical code of conduct for the members of the monastic order and the laity. These are:
 Do not commit violence.
 Do not covet the property of others.
 Do not indulge in corrupt practices or sensual behaviour.
 Do not speak a lie.
 Do not use intoxicants.
In addition to these, monks and nuns were strictly instructed to observe the following three
additional precepts-
 To avoid eating after mid-day.
 To refrain from any sort of entertainment and use of ornaments to adorn oneself.
 To refrain from using high or luxurious beds, and from handling gold and silver (including
money).
5. Right or Proper Livelihood (Samma-Ajiva) – it lays emphasis on livelihood based on correct
action and on the ethical principles of non-exploitation. It is believed that this forms the basis of an
ideal society.
6. Right Effort or Energy (Samma-Vayama) – it signifies consciously directing our life energy
to the transformative path of creative and healing action that fosters wholeness thus moving
towards conscious evolution.
7. Right Mindfulness or Thorough Awareness ( Samma-Sati) – it means knowing one’s own
self and watching self behaviour. There is a saying by the Buddha, “If you hold yourself dear, watch
yourself well”.
8. Right Concentration or Meditation (Samma-Samadhi) – samadhi literally means to be fixed,
absorbed in. It means getting one’s whole being absorbed in various levels or modes of
consciousness and awareness.

The teachings of the Buddha follow the middle path (the one between extreme indulgence
and extreme asceticism). Buddha has emphasised that if a person follows the eightfold path, then he
will reach his destination (Nirvana) without the involvement of the monks/nuns. In the above-
eightfold path, the word “right” signifies “whole”,” integral”, “complete”, “perfect”.
The ultimate aim of the Buddha’s teachings is the attainment of Nibbana/Nirvana. The Nibbana is a
Pali word formed of ‘Ni’ and ‘vanna’, ni means negative and vanna refers to lust or craving.
So, Nirvana means departure from cravings and lust. It signifies dying out or extinction of desire,
greed, hatred, ignorance, attachment and the sense of ego. In Nibbana, nothing is eternalised nor is
anything annihilated, other than the suffering. It is a supramundane state and an attainment
(Dhamma) which is within the reach of all, even in this present life. The main difference between
the Buddhist conception of Nibbana and the non-Buddhist concept is that Nibbana can be attained
during life also. In the non-Buddhist concept, eternal heaven is realised only after death or union
with God. When Nibbana is achieved in this life, it is called Sopadisesa Nibbana-dhatu. When an
Arhat attains parinibbana (used for the death of enlightened beings such as Buddha), after the
dissolution of his body, it is called Anupadisesa Nibbana-dhatu.
The philosophy of Buddha accepts impermanence and transmigration but denies the existence of
God and believes that the soul is a myth. Buddhism teaches the existence of ten realms of being and
one can be born as any one of them. At the top is Buddha followed by Bodhisattva (an enlightened
being destined to be a Buddha but purposely remains on earth to propagate teachings), Pratyeka
Buddha (a Buddha on their own), Sravaka (disciple of Buddha), heavenly beings (superhumans,
angels), human beings, Asura (fighting spirits), beasts, Preta (hungry ghosts) and depraved
men (hellish beings). These ten realms of existence are “mutually immanent and mutually
inclusive”, each one having in it the remaining nine realms, e.g., the realm of human beings has all
other nine states – from hell to Buddhahood in it. A man can be selfish or can rise to the enlightened
state of Buddha. In Buddhism, karma is the result of actions depending on the intentions more than
the action itself. Rebirth is the result of the karma of the previous life. Though Buddhism lays
emphasis on non-violence, it doesn’t forbid masses from eating meat.
Other Important Aspects of Buddhism
Some other important aspects of Buddhism include:
 The Five Aggregates (Pancha-khanda or Panch skandha).
 The Law of Dependent Origination (Paticca- samuppada).
The Five Aggregates
The Buddha believed that a human being is a collection of Five Aggregates and a proper
understanding of these is an essential step towards the attainment of freedom from suffering:
1. Material Form (Rupa) – It includes the five physical organs (ear, eye, tongue, nose & body)
and the corresponding objects of the sense organs (sound, sight, taste, smell and tangible objects).
2. Feeling or Sensation (Vedana) – The aggregate of feelings arising out of contact with the
objects of the senses is of three kinds-pleasant, unpleasant and indifferent.
3. Perception (Sanna) – This aggregate is the capacity to recognise & conceptualize things by
associating them with other things.
4. Mental formation (Santharas) – This aggregate may be described as a conditioned response
to the object of experience. In this sense, it partakes the meaning of habit as well. However, it not
only has a static value, but dynamic value as well.
5. Consciousness (Vinnana) – The aggregate of consciousness is an indispensable element in
the prediction of experience. It is essential to understand that consciousness depends on the other
aggregates and does not exist independently.
All the Five Aggregates of experience are impermanent and constantly changing, like our
perceptions change over time. Buddha stresses that the utility of the five aggregates is to make
people understand them in terms of impersonal processes and through this understanding, they
can get rid of the idea of self and can overcome hope and fear. They can regard happiness and pain,
praise and blame and everything with equanimity, with even-mindedness and thus will then no
longer be subject to the imbalance of alternating between hope and fear.
The Law of Dependent Origination (Paticca- Samuppada)
The Law of Dependent Origination explains the reason of suffering (Dukkha), as well as the key to
its liberation. The law is associated with twelve links (Nidanas)-all arranged in a wheel and one
leading to the next. This principle can be given in a short formula of four lines-
When this is, that is
This arising, that arises
When this is not, that is not
This ceasing, that ceases.
This law emphasizes an important principle that all phenomena in this universe are relative,
conditioned states and do not arise independently of supportive conditions.
The twelve links of the Dependent Origination are:
1. Ignorance (Avija)
2. Mental formation (Sankhara)
3. Consciousness (Vinnana)
4. Name & Form (Nama-Rupa)
5. The six senses (Salayatana)
6. Contact (Phassa)
7. Feeling (Vedana)
8. Craving (Tanha)
9. Clinging (Upadana)
10. Becoming (Bhava)
11. Birth (Jati)
12. Aging & death (Jara-marana)
All the links are interrelated and dependent on each other, thus there is no starting point nor
end point-a cyclic phenomenon.
Dividing the 12 links into three groups-
1. Defilement (Klesha)– ignorance, craving and clinging. Defilement is the impurities of mind
resulting in actions.
2. Action (Karma)– mental formation and becoming.
3. Suffering (Dukkha)– consciousness, name & form, the six senses, feeling, birth, aging and
death.
Together, the defilements and actions explain the origin of suffering and particular circumstances
in which each one of us finds ourselves, or in which we are born. The Buddha emphasizes that he
who sees Dependent Origination sees the Dharma and he who sees the Dharma sees the Buddha. If
one can see and understand the functioning of dependent origination, he can then set about
breaking this vicious circle of dependent origination by removing the impurities of the mind –
ignorance, craving and clinging. Once these impurities are eliminated, actions will not be
performed, and habit-energy will not be produced. Once actions cease, rebirth and suffering will
also cease.
Reasons for Spread & Popularity of Buddhism
Buddhism gained wide acceptance and popularity and spread like a wildfire throughout India. With
the support of emperor Ashoka, it spread its wings to central Asia, west Asia and Sri Lanka. Various
causes for the rise and spread of Buddhism are:
1. Liberal & democratic – Unlike Brahmanism, it was far more liberal & democratic. It won
the hearts of the lower class as it attacked the varna system. It welcomed people of all castes and
even women were admitted to the Sangha. The people of Magadha readily accepted Buddhism as
they were looked down upon by the orthodox Brahmanas.
2. Simple language – The Buddha spread his message in the simple language of the masses.
The Pali language which Buddha used was the spoken language of the masses. The Vedic religion
was understood only with the help of Sanskrit language which was the monopoly of the Brahmins.
3. The personality of the Buddha – The personality of the Buddha endeared him and his
religion to the masses. He was kind and ego-less. His calm composure, sweet words of simple
philosophy and his life of renunciation drew the masses to him. He had ready moral solutions for
the problems of the people.
4. Royal patronage – Royal patronage of Buddhism also accounted for its rapid rise. Kings
like Prasenjit, Bimbisara, Ashoka, Kanishka patronised Buddhism and helped its spread throughout
India and outside as well. Ashoka deputed his children to Sri Lanka for the spread of Buddhism.
5. Inexpensive– Buddhism was inexpensive, without the expensive rituals that characterised
the Vedic religion. It advocated a spiritual path without any material obligation of satisfying gods
and Brahmins through gifts and rituals.
Buddhism tried to mitigate the evils resulting from the new material life of the sixth century BCE.
Since the Buddhists had a keen awareness of the problems (social & economic disparities), they
presented innovative solutions to these concerns. Buddhism asked people NOT to accumulate
wealth, indulge in cruelty or violence – ideas that were welcomed by the people.
Buddhism – Reasons for Decline
From the early 12th century, Buddhism began to disappear from the land of its birth. Various
causes that led to the decline of Buddhism are:
1. Corruption in Buddhist Sangha– In the course of time, the Buddhist Sangha became
corrupt. Receiving valuable gifts drew them towards luxury and enjoyment. The principles
prescribed by Buddha were conveniently forgotten and thus started the degradation of the
Buddhist monks and their preachings.
2. Division among Buddhists– Buddhism faced divisions from time to time. The division into
various splinter groups like Hinayana, Mahayana, Vajrayana, Tantrayana and Sahajayana led
Buddhism to lose its originality. The simplicity of Buddhism was lost and it was becoming complex.
3. Use of Sanskrit language– Pali, the spoken language of most people of India, was the
medium for the spread of the message of Buddhism. But Sanskrit replaced these at the Fourth
Buddhist Council during the reign of Kanishka. Sanskrit was the language of a few intellectuals,
hardly understood by masses and therefore became one of the many reasons for the fall of
Buddhism.
4. Buddha worship– Image worship was started in Buddhism by the Mahayana Buddhists.
They started worshipping the image of the Buddha. This mode of worship was a violation of the
Buddhist principles of opposing complex rites and rituals of Brahmanical worship. This paradox led
people to believe that Buddhism was tending towards the fold of Hinduism.
5. Persecution of Buddhists– In course of time there was the rise of the Brahmanical faith
again. Some Brahmana rulers, such as Pushiyamitra Shunga, the Huna king, Mihirakula (worshiper
of Shiva) and Shaivite Shashank of Gauda persecuted the Buddhists on a large scale. The liberal
donations to the monasteries gradually declined. Also, some rich monasteries were specifically
targeted by the Turkish and other invaders.
6. Muslim invasion– The Muslim invasion of India almost wiped out Buddhism. Their
invasions of India became regular, and repeated such invasions forced the Buddhist monks to seek
asylum and shelter in Nepal and Tibet. In the end, Buddhism died away in India, the land of its birth.
JAINISM
Vardhamana Mahavira – Life
Vardhamana Mahavira was born in 599 BCE in a village near Vaishali (Capital of Videha). He is
considered to be a contemporary of the Buddha. His father was the head of a famous Kshatriya
clan and his mother, a Lichchhavi princess. They were connected with the royal family of Magadha;
high connections made it easy for Mahavira to approach princes and nobles in the course of his
mission.
In the beginning, Mahavira led the life of a householder but in search of the truth, he abandoned the
world at the age of 30 and became an ascetic. He wandered for 12 years practising severe
austerities, fasting and meditation. At the age of 42, he attained perfect/infinite
knowledge (kevalajnana), on the banks of the Rijupalika river. He propagated his religion for 30
years. Through kevalajnana, he conquered misery and happiness. Because of this conquest, he is
known as ‘Mahavira’ or The Great Hero or ‘Jina’ i.e, the conqueror and his followers as ‘Jainas’. He
passed away and became a Siddha (fully liberated) at the age of 72 in 527 BCE at Pavapuri near
Patna.

Doctrines of Jainism
The Jaina doctrine is much older than Buddhism. In Jainism, ‘Tirthankara’ refers to 24 enlightened
spiritual masters who are believed to have achieved perfect knowledge through asceticism. Jainas
don’t see Mahavira as the founder of their religion but as the 24th Tirthankara in a long history of
spiritual masters. The first Tirthankara Rishabhadeva (symbol-bull) is believed to be the first
founder and has references in Rig Vega and Vayu Purana. Neminantha belonging to Saurashtra
(Gujarat) is believed to be the 22nd Tirthankara, and the 23rd Tirthankara is believed to be
Parshvanatha (of Banaras).
The core of Jaina doctrine is expressed in the principles given in the image below:

Anekantavada – According to this doctrine, the objects have infinite modes of existence
and qualities so they cannot be completely grasped in all aspects and manifestations by finite
human perception. Only the Kevalins- the omniscient beings can comprehend objects in all aspects
and manifestations; others are capable of only partial knowledge. Anekantavada is literally the
doctrine of “non- onesidedness” or “manifoldness”, it is often translated as “non-absolutism”.
Syadavada– According to this doctrine, all judgements are conditional, holding good only
in certain conditions, circumstances, or senses. As reality is complex no single proposition can
express the nature of reality fully. Thus the term “syat” (meaning – maybe) should be prefixed
before each proposition giving it a conditional point of view and thus removing any dogmatism.
Nayavada – Nayavada is the theory of partial standpoints or viewpoints. The doctrine of Nayavada
signifies the system of describing reality from different points of view. “Naya” can be understood as
partially true statements but they cannot lay claim to absolute validity. It can also be defined as a
particular opinion framed with a viewpoint, a viewpoint which does not rule out other viewpoints
and is, therefore, an expression of a partial truth about an object.
Triratna – The three jewels of Jaina ethics must be followed to achieve the liberation of the
soul. These are:
1. Samyag Darshana (Right faith) – This means seeing (hearing, feeling, etc.) things properly,
avoiding preconceptions and superstitions that get in the way of seeing clearly.
2. Samyag Jnana (Right knowledge) – This means having an accurate and sufficient knowledge
of the real universe. This requires a true knowledge of the five substances and nine truths of the
universe with the right mental attitude.
3. Samyag Charitra (Right conduct) – This means to avoid harming living beings and freeing
oneself from the attachment and other impure thoughts and attitudes.
Pancha Mahavrata (five great vows) – In order to attain Triratna, one has to observe Pancha
Mahavrata (five great vows).
1. Ahimsa (Non-violence) – Ahimsa parmo dharma – Non-violence is the supreme
religion. Non-violence is the cornerstone of Jainism, no living being has the right to injure, harm or
kill any other living being including animals, plants and even insects. There are four forms of
existence in Jainism – gods (deva), humans (manushya), hell beings (naraki), and animals and
plants (tiryancha). Tiryancha are further divided into ekendriyas (having only one sense) and
nigodas (having only sense of touch, they occur in clusters). The general laity following Jainism
should avoid harming organisms with two or more senses while monks/renunciants are supposed
to refrain from harming even ekendriyas and sthavara (element bodies), who are slightly higher
than nigodas. Jainism strictly preaches vegetarianism as it prohibits harming/killing animals with
two or more senses. In Jainism, it is the intention to harm, the absence of compassion, unawareness
and ignorance that makes a person violent. Non-violence is to be observed in action, speech as well
as thought.
2. Satya (Truth) – There is no place for lies in Jainism, one should always speak up the truth
and only those who have conquered greed, fear, jealousy, anger, ego and frivolity can speak the
truth.
3. Achaurya or Asteya (Non-stealing) – Jainism is against stealing/grabbing property by
unjust/immoral methods. Even while accepting help, aid, alms one should not take more than what
is required.
4. Brahmacharya (Celibacy, Chastity – this vow was added by Mahavira) – Celibacy refers
to the total refraining from sensual pleasures. Even the thought of sensual pleasure is prohibited in
Jainism. Monks are required to observe this vow completely while the general laity following
Jainism should not indulge in any physical relationship other than with one’s own spouse and that
too of limited nature.
5. Aparigraha (Non-attachment/Non-possession) – One who seeks spiritual liberation
should withdraw from all attachments to objects that please any of the five senses. Mahavira has
said that “wants and desires have no end, and only the sky is the limit for them”. The wealth which a
common man desires to attain creates attachment which will continuously result in greed, jealousy,
selfishness, ego, hatred, violence, etc.
For a common man, to observe all the above five vows are difficult and they can practise them as far
as their condition permits. The vows or “vratas” partially observed are called “Anuvratas” i.e, small
or partial vow.
Buddhism and Jainism
Among Indian religions, Jainism and Buddhism are most related to each other. Jainism and
Buddhism are alike in many aspects and have common features. Some of the similarities are:
 Both Buddhism and Jainism are atheistic, though Jainism believes in the existence of gods
but places them lower than Jina (the conqueror).
 Both the religions revolted against the prevalent varna system, laid emphasis on
renunciation and human efforts as a means to attain salvation. The people of all castes and social
backgrounds were welcomed in Buddhism and Jainism. There are frequent mentions of a learned
Jaina monk named Harikeshiya who belonged to a Chandala family.
 Buddha and Mahavira both belonged to the Kshatriya clan and gave it superiority over all
other varnas including Brahmanas. They used the word “brahmana” in the sense of acknowledging
a wise person who possesses true knowledge and lives an exemplary life.
Both the religions share so many similarities from outside, yet they are different upon deeper
investigation into their details and teachings.
Spread of Jainism
Under this section, we will talk about the spread and influence of Jainism.
In order to spread the teachings of Jainism, Mahavira organized an order of his followers
which admitted both men and women. Jainism gradually spread to western India where the
Brahmanical religion was weak. Jainas adopted the Prakrit language of the masses to preach their
doctrines and discarded the Sanskrit language which was patronized by the Brahmanas. The spread
of Jainism in Karnataka is attributed to Chandragupta Maurya who became a Jaina and gave up his
throne and spent the last years of his life in Karnataka as a Jaina ascetic. The second cause of the
spread of Jainism in Southern India is said to be the great famine that took place in Magadha, 200
years after the death of Mahavira. The famine lasted for 12 years and in order to protect themselves
many Jainas went to the south under the leadership of Bhadrabahu, but the rest stayed back in
Magadha under the leadership of Sthulabahu. When the immigrants came back to Magadha, they
developed differences with the local Jainas. The southerners began to be called Digambaras and the
Magadhas as Shvetambaras.
Jainism spread to Kalinga in Odisha in the 4th century BCE and in the first century it enjoyed the
patronage of the Kalinga King, Kharavela who had defeated the princes of Andhra & Magadha. In the
2nd and 1st centuries BCE, it reached the southern districts of Tamil Nadu. In later centuries,
Jainism penetrated Malwa, Gujarat, and Rajasthan and even now, these areas have a good number
of Jainas, mainly engaged in trade and commerce. Although Jainism didn’t win as much state
patronage as Buddhism and did not spread very fast in early times, it still retains its hold in the
areas where it spread. On the other hand, Buddhism has practically disappeared from the Indian
subcontinent.

Different Schools of Jainism


The different schools of Jainism are discussed below.
1. Digambara
1. Major sub-sects:
1. Bisapantha
2. Terapanth
3. Taranapantha/Samaiyapantha
2. Shvetambara
1. Major sub-sects:
1. Murtipujaka
2. Sthanakvasi
3. Terapanthi
Minor sub-sects:
1. Gumanapantha
2. Totapantha
DIGAMBARA SHVETAMBARA

1. Literally means “sky 1. Literally means “white


clad”. Digambaras emphasize on nudity, as it is clad”. Shvetambaras assert that
the absolute prerequisite to attain salvation. complete nudity is not important for
salvation.

2. They represent the Jainas who moved to the 2. They represent the Jainas who
south under the leadership of stayed back in Magadha under the
Bhadrabahu when the great famine took place leadership of Sthulabahu when the
in Magadha (200 years after the death of famine struck.
Mahavira).

3. According to Digambara tradition, 3. According to Shvetambara


on attaining enlightenment, an omniscient does tradition, an omniscient does
not experience hunger, thirst, sleep, disease or require food.
fear.

4. According to Digambara, a woman lacks the 4. Women are capable of attaining


kind of body and will power required to attain the same spiritual accomplishments
liberation (moksha), she has to be reborn as a as men. In Shvetambara tradition,
man before such an attainment is possible. This the 19th Tirthankara is a female
school of Jainism does not accept the 19th named Mali (the only female
Tirthankara as a female, but rather as a male Tirthankara).
named Mallinatha.

5. Digambara tradition holds that Mahavira did 5. Mahavira did marry and led a
not marry and renounced the world while his normal householder’s life till the age
parents were still alive. of 30. It was only after his parents’
death that he became an ascetic.

6. Digambara tradition represents the idols 6. Shvetambara tradition depicts


of Tirthankara as nude, unadorned and with the idols of Tirthankara wearing a
downcast eyes in the contemplative mood. loin-cloth, adorned with jewels and
with glass eyes inserted in the
marble.

7. For the hagiographies, the 7. The Shvetambaras use the


Digambaras make use of the term “Purana”. term “Charita”.

8. The Digambara ascetic must give up all 8. The Shvetambara ascetic is


his possessions including clothes and is allowed allowed to have fourteen belongings
to have Rajoharana (peacock feather broom to including loin-cloth, shoulder cloth,
brush away insects) and a Kamandalu (a etc.
wooden water pot for toilet hygiene).

9. Digambaras hold that the original 9. The Shvetambaras believe in


and genuine texts were lost long ago. They the validity and sacredness of
refused to accept the achievements of the first canonical literature, i.e, the 12 angas
council which met under the leadership of and sutras.
Acharya Sthulibhadra and consequently the
recasting of the angas.
Buddhism & Jainism – Causes for Growth
The various causes that led to alternative religions are:-
1. Kshatriya class’ resentment towards the domination of the priestly class
(Brahmanas) –
 The order of hierarchy in the Varna system was-Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas
and Shudras. The Kshatriyas who were ranked second strongly objected to the ritualistic
domination of the Brahmanas and the various privileges enjoyed by them. It should also be noted
that both Buddha and Mahavira belonged to the Kshatriya varna. It is important to mention that the
Buddhist Pali texts at many places reject the Brahmanical claim to superiority and places itself
(Kshatriyas) higher than the Brahmanas.
2. Rise of the new agricultural economy that needed animal husbandry-
 In the sixth century BCE, there was a shift of the centre of economic and political
activity from Haryana and western U.P to eastern U.P and Bihar where the land was more fertile
due to abundant rainfall. It became easier to utilize the iron reservoir of Bihar and its adjoining
areas. People started using more and more iron tools like ploughshare for agricultural purposes.
The use of iron ploughshare required the use of bullocks, which meant that the age-old custom in
the Vedic age of killing animals as sacrifices would have to be abandoned for this agricultural
economy to stabilize. Furthermore, the flourishing of animal husbandry became imminent to raise a
potential animal population to take up the work that was required to uphold the agricultural sector
development. Both Buddhism and Jainism were against any kind of sacrifices, so the peasant class
welcomed it.
3. The Vaishyas and other mercantile groups favoured Buddhism and Jainism as they
yearned for a better social and peaceful life-
 The agricultural boom led to the increased production of food which also helped in
the development of trade, craft production and urban centres. The discovery of thousands of silver
and copper Punch-Marked Coins (PMC) by the numismatists reflects the development of trade in
this era. This period is known as the era of second urbanisation. As many as sixty towns and cities
like Rajagriha, Shravasti, Varanasi, Vaishali and Champa developed between 600 and 300 BCE. The
Vaishyas and other mercantile groups rose to a better economic position and preferred to patronise
non-Vedic religions like Buddhism and Jainism through substantial donations. As both Buddhism
and Jainism promoted peace and non-violence, this could put an end to wars between different
kingdoms and consequently promote further trade and commerce, which was beneficial for this
economic class.
4. Acceptance of simple and peace centred principles of Buddhism and Jainism by
people-
 The common masses welcomed the new religions as they preached peace and social
equality, simple and ascetic living. People wanted relief from the growing social problems and
yearned to live a peaceful and uncorrupt life.

Buddhism is centered upon the life and teachings of Gautama Buddha, whereas Jainism is
centered on the life and teachings of Mahavira.
Both Buddhism and Jainism recognise that we are bound to the cycle of suffering by karma
(actions) and unwholesome mental states, primarily, ignorance.
Jainism's goals are the liberation of the soul through non-harm and non-action - to stop karma
directly by stopping actions.
Buddhism's goals are the liberation of the mind through the three high trainings leading to an
experiential verified engagement in the four noble truths.
Therefore, the main scope of Jainism is to eliminate karma (actions) whereas the main scope
of Buddhism is to eliminate unwholesome mental states - primarily ignorance.
Philosophically, Jainism recognises the soul, whereas Buddhism does not recognise the soul -
indeed considers that both the innate and acquired perceptions of a soul to be very unwholesome
mental states.
Both Buddhism and Jainism, as well as many other Indian traditions, are Śramaṇic traditions
which originally referred to several non-Brahmanical ascetic religions parallel to but separate from
the Vedic religions of India such as Hinduism. The Śramaṇa tradition includes primarily Jainism,
Buddhism, and others such as the Ājīvika.
Likewise both Jainism and Buddhism were founded more or less contemporaneously, and there is
mention of each other in their earliest texts.
Comparison chart
Buddhism versus Jainism comparison chart

Buddhism Jainism

Practices Meditation, the Eightfold Path; right Five vows of Truth, Non-violence, Non-
view, right aspiration, right speech, right stealing, Non-attachment, control over
action, right livelihood, right effort, right desires and senses. Greater emphasis on
mindfulness, right concentration non-violence and truth. Also follow 3
jewels of Right Perception, Right
Knowledge and Right Conduct

Place of origin Indian subcontinent India.

Use of statues Common. Statues are used as meditation Common.


and pictures objects, and revered as they reflect the
qualities of the Buddha.

Belief of God The idea of an omniscient, omnipotent, Jainism does not believe in a Creator
omnipresent creator is rejected by God.
Buddhists. The Buddha himself refuted
the theistic argument that the universe
was created by a self-conscious, personal
God.

Life after Rebirth is one of the central beliefs of Until liberation is achieved, circle of
death Buddhism. We are in an endless cycle of rebirths and deaths continue due to
birth, death and re-birth, which can only Karma via incarnations in any life form
be broken by attaining nirvana. Attaining on earth, as also heavenly and hellish life
nirvana is the only way to escape forms.
suffering permanently.

Founder The Buddha (born as Prince Siddhartha Rishabhdev- 1st Tirthankar in this era,
Gautama). Further revived by Vardhaman Mahavir-
24th and final Tirthankar of this era

Marriage It is not a religious duty to marry. Monks Marriage is a social convention and not
Buddhism versus Jainism comparison chart

Buddhism Jainism

and nuns do not marry and are celibate. linked to religion. But followers must
Advice in the Discourses on how to strictly follow monogamy. Monks,
maintain a happy and harmonious though have renounced material world,
marriage. hence strictly follow celibacy.

Clergy The Buddhist Sangha, composed of Monks, nuns.


bhikkhus (male monks) and bhikkhunis
(female nuns). The sangha is supported
by lay Buddhists.

Literal Buddhists are those who follow the To become a Jina (liberated soul) by
Meaning teachings of the Buddha. following the teachings of 24
Tirthankars (ford-makers/teachers)

Place of Buddhist monasteries, temples, shrines. Temple


worship

Followers Buddhists Jains.

View of the The highest teacher and the founder of Buddha is considered as contemporary
Buddha Buddhism, the all-transcending sage. of Mahavir

Goal of To attain enlightenment and be released To gain liberation and be released from
religion from the cycle of rebirth and death, thus cycle of rebirths, adopt a path of non-
attaining Nirvana. violence towards all living beings.

Human Nature Ignorance, as all sentient beings. In the Human suffering is due to negative
Buddhist texts, it is seen that when effects of bad karma and excessive
Gautama, after his awakening, was asked attachment to material aspects of world.
whether he was a normal human being,
he replied, "No".

Original Pali(Theravada tradition) and Ancient texts were written in various


Language(s) Sanskrit(Mahayana and Vajrayana languages, predominantly in Magadhi,
tradition) language prevalent at time of Mahavir
and Buddha.

Population 500-600 million 50-60 million

View of other Since the word Dharma means doctrine, Comradeship with other Dharmic
Dharmic law, way, teaching, or discipline, other religions.
religions Dharmas are rejected.

Means of Reaching Enlightenment or Nirvana, Goal is to unshackle the soul from


salvation following the Noble Eightfold Path. bondages of karma which results in
misery due to many rebirths and deaths.
Once soul is freed from these bondages,
it achieves Nirvana and becomes perfect
soul free from all attachments, in an
Buddhism versus Jainism comparison chart

Buddhism Jainism

eternal blissful state

Holy Vesak day in which the birth, the Paryushan festival


days/Official awakening, and the parinirvana of the
Holidays Buddha is celebrated.

Scriptures Tripitaka - a vast canon composed of 3 Religious scriptures called Agamas.


sections: the Discourses, the Discipline Many other canonical texts.
and the Commentaries, and some early
scriptures, such as the Gandhara texts.

Authority of Dalai Lamas are tulkus of the Gelug N/A.


Dalai Lama school of Tibetan Buddhism. They are
cultural figures and are independent of
the doctrinal basis of Buddhism.

Geographical (Majority or strong influence) Mainly in Mainly in India, lower Asian


distribution Thailand, Cambodia, Sri lanka, India, subcontinent throughout, and America.
and Nepal, Bhutan, Tibet, Japan, Myanmar Small groups exist in most countries.
predominance (Burma), Laos, Vietnam, China,
Mongolia, Korea, Singapore, Hong Kong
and Taiwan. Other small minorities exist
in other countries.

Status of No distinctions between men and Women can become nuns.


women women. Women are equal to men, and
men are equal to women in the Sangha.
The Buddha gave Men and Women equal
rights and a major part in the Sangha.

Goal of To eliminate mental suffering. Jainism is a way of life, adhere to


Philosophy teachings of Tirthankars, respect all life
forms and end goal is to achieve Nirvana.

Religion which Yes. Yes. Jains do not believe in the idea of a


atheists may Creator God. The laws revolve around
still be Karma. Good Karma lead to spiritual
adherents of elevation and bad Karma and bad deeds
to decline.

Principle This life is suffering, and the only way to Respect all living things. Attain
escape from this suffering is to dispel liberation by avoiding and shedding of
one's cravings and ignorance by bad karma which is the cause of rebirths
realizing the Four Noble Truths and and all sufferings. Five vows and three
practicing the Eightfold Path. jewels.

Time of origin 2,500 years ago, circa 563 B.C.E. (Before Very ancient. One of the oldest religions
Common Era) as origin of 1st Tirthankar is too ancient
and obscure. Mahavir (24th Tirthankar)
Buddhism versus Jainism comparison chart

Buddhism Jainism

born in 599 B.C.E.

Symbols The conch, endless knot, fish, lotus, Swastika(used it long before it became a
parasol, vase, dharmachakra (Wheel of symbol for antisemitism).
Dharma), and victory banner.

Can atheists Yes. Yes


partake in this
religion's
practices?

Confessing Sin is not a Buddhist concept. Sin is defined as harm to another.


sins

Views on Being a practical philosophy, Buddhism Belief in pluralism and respect other
Other is neutral against other religions. religious view points and try to
Religions accomodate them.

Place and The origin of Buddhism points to one Unending and un-beginning...it has
Time of origin man, Siddhartha Gautama, the historical always existed and will continue to do
Buddha, who was born in Lumbini (in so. Revived in every time cycle. Very
present-day Nepal). He became ancient, origin obscure dating many
enlightened at Bodhgaya, India and millenia
delivered his first set of teachings at a
deer park in Sarnath, India.

Concept of n/a. According to some interpretations, Numerous deities known as


Deity there are beings in heaven realms but Tirthenkaras. But Jains do not worship
they are also bound by "samsara". They them in literal sense of idol worship to
may have less suffering but have not yet ask favors. Rather, these Tirthankars are
achieved salvation (nibbana) venerated as ideal Men and teachers
whose teachings should be followed.

What They The principle of equality: that all living The teachings of the Buddha come from
Believe entities are equal Mahavira. Therefore, are similar.

Teachings Abstain from evil, strive for nirvana, All actions must strive to be non-violent.
about General constantly cleanse the mind.
Conduct

Clothing Bhikkhus (monks) and bhikkhunis One of two of the predominant sects
(nuns) are supposed to wear the wears white clothes. The other
Buddhist robe. There is no such rule for predominant sect is unclothed.
lay followers.

Animal Rights The Buddha taught that animals have As eating the flesh of another is
equal rights as humans. They are still considered harm, it is strictly forbidden.
bound in samsara, and suffer as humans
do. Although he urged vegetarianism, he
Buddhism versus Jainism comparison chart

Buddhism Jainism

didn't restrict monks from eating meat


when it was offered.

Moral The Buddha taught that karma is the The teachings of the Buddha come from
Obligations reason that we exist. According to the Mahavira. Therefore, are similar.
teaching, all our actions of body, speech
and mind, will yield results, either in this
state of existence, or in a later one.

Sexual The Buddha taught that a lay follower The concepts from the Buddha come
Conduct should subdue sexual misconduct, which from Mahavira. Therefore, are similar.
includes consciously cheating on one's
spouse, sexual intercourse with
another's wife or husband, a minor, or
an animal. Monks and nuns are celibate.

Compatibility Aside from the concepts of karma and The teachings of the Buddha come from
with Science rebirth, Buddhism is said to be Mahavira. Therefore, are similar.
compatible with many scientific findings.
Most Buddhist practices can also be
labeled as cognitive science.

Homosexualit The Buddha accepted both homosexuals Does not accept sexual activity as
y and asexuals into the Sangha. In the necessary for anything other than
Buddhist understanding, it is a natural reproduction. Therefore, it is not
phenomenon, and not different than acceptable.
heterosexualiy.

Sources of Siddhartha Gautama (The Buddha), and All 24 tirthankars of this time cycle.
Teachings later masters, such as Nagarjuna,
Bodhidharma, and Dogen.

Offshoot Sects None. Although Buddhism is divided into Svetambara and Digambara. There are
many sects in itself. Mahayana and many offshooting sects.
Vajrayana are the two big yanas, while
Theravada is closer to earlier Buddhism.

Authority of N/A. Not relevant


Pope

Virtues in Compassion. Ahimsa(Pacifism).


which religion
is based upon

Philosophy
What Is Philosophy? (LOVE OF WISDOM)
The word “philosophy” derives from ancient Greek, in which the philosopher is a lover or pursuer
(philia) of wisdom (sophia). The earliest Greek philosophers were not known as philosophers; they
were simply known as sages. The sage tradition is a largely prehistoric tradition that provides a
narrative about how intellect, wisdom, piety, and virtue lead to the innovations central to the
flourishing of ancient civilizations. Particularly in Greece, the sage tradition blends into a period of
natural philosophy, where ancient scientists or philosophers try to explain nature using rational
methods.

Wilfrid Sellars emphasizes that philosophy’s goal is to understand a very wide range of topics—in
fact, the widest possible range. That is to say, philosophers are committed to understanding
everything insofar as it can be understood. A philosopher chooses to study things that are
informative and interesting—things that provide a better understanding of the world and our place
in it. To make judgments about which areas are interesting or worthy of study philosophers need to
cultivate a special skill. Sellars describes this philosophical skill as a kind of know-how.
Philosophical know-how has to do with knowing your way around the world of concepts and being
able to understand and think about how concepts connect, link up, support, and rely upon one
another—in short, how things hang together.

ORTHODOX AND HETERODOX SCHOOL OF PHILOSOPHY


Distinguish Between Orthodox and Heterodox Schools of Indian Philosophy
The acknowledgement of Vedas is regarded to be the fundamental difference between these two
branches of Hindu Philosophy schools. Orthodox schools acknowledge the Vedas’ authority, whilst
heterodox schools do not.
Orthodoxy refers to belief in teaching that differs from the norm in religious life; heterodoxy refers
to belief in a doctrine that differs from the norm. In certain circumstances, the civil authority has
backed religious authorities, while in others, it has stayed neutral or uninterested.
The term “Indian Philosophy” refers to the orthodox and heterodox intellectual traditions of the
Indian subcontinent. However, the fundamental distinction is that orthodox schools acknowledge
the authority of the Vedas.
The Hindu philosophy is categorized into six Orthodox and three Heterodox philosophies. The
classification is based on the acceptance of the authority of the Vedas. The Orthodox school of
philosophy also called the Aastika school believes in the authority of Vedas, while the Heterodox
school of philosophy, popularly known as Nastika school rejects the principle of authority of Vedas.
Six Orthodox Schools of Hindu Philosophy
The six orthodox schools are called as shatdarshanas and include Nyaya, Sankhya, Yoga,
Vaisheshika, Purva Mimamsa and Uttara Mimamsa (Vedanta Philosophy). Most of these schools of
thought believe in the theory of Karma and rebirth. Moksha (salvation) is believed to be the
liberation from the cycle of birth and death and is the ultimate goal of human life.
1. Nyaya Philosophy
Nyaya school follows a scientific and a rational approach. Sage Gautama is the founder of this
school. Nyaya school banks upon various pramanas (mechanism of attaining knowledge). It
believes that gaining knowledge through the five senses is the sole way of attaining liberation from
the cycle of birth and death.
2. Sankhya Philosophy
Sankhya is the oldest of all philosophies put forth by the sage Kapila. It is a dualistic philosophy
with Purusha (soul) and Prakriti (nature) in it. Advaita Vedanta derives its base from Sankhya
School. Sankhya also devolves philosophical basis for Yoga. It emphasizes the attainment of
knowledge of self through meditation and concentration.
3. Yoga Philosophy
Yoga school introduces the methods of the discipline of body and mind. Sage Patanjali is the
founder of Yoga. Emancipation of Purusha from Prakriti by self-awareness through the discipline of
body and mind is conceptualized by Yoga. It is believed that practising Ashtanga Yoga is the way to
relieve oneself from past sins in order to make way for liberation.
4. Vaisheshika
Vaisheshika school deals with metaphysics. It was founded by the sage Kanada. It is an objective
and realistic philosophy of the Universe. According to the Vaisheshika school of philosophy, the
universe is reducible to a finite number of atoms, Brahman being the fundamental force causing
consciousness in these atoms.
5. Purva Mimamsa
Purva Mimamsa school believes in the complete authority of Vedas. It is based on sage Jaimini’s
Mimamsa Sutras. It emphasizes the power of yajnas and mantras in sustaining the activities of the
universe. It states that a human being can attain salvation only by acting in conformity with the
principles of Vedas.
6. Uttara Mimamsa (Vedanta)
Vedanta school is a monistic school of philosophy that believes that the world is unreal and the only
reality is Brahman. The three sub-branches of Vedanta are Advaita of Shankaracharya, Vishishta
Advaita of Ramanujacharya and Dvaita of Madhwacharya. Uttara Mimamsa is based on Upanishads
(the end portions of Vedas).

Heterodox School
 Heterodox (nastika) Hindu philosophy schools do not acknowledge the authority of the
Vedas.
 They do not believe in the originality of the Vedas and question the existence of God.
 It is also known as Nastika school.
 This orthodox-heterodox distinction is a Western language construct that has no scholarly
basis in Sanskrit. (These are orthodox (astika) Hindu philosophy schools that recognise the
authority of the Vedas;)
 Heterodox Schools are divided into three major sub-schools:
 Buddhist Philosophy
 Jainism Philosophy
 Charvaka School or Lokayata Philosophy
 The belief in a doctrine that departs from the norm is referred to as heterodoxy.
 In certain cases, the civil power has supported religious authorities, while in others, it has
remained neutral or indifferent.

Buddhist Philosophy
 The founder of this school is said to be Gautama Buddha, who was born in 563 BCE in
Lumbini, Nepal's foothills.
 He had life-changing experiences, and by the age of 29, he had renounced the world to seek
the truth of life.
 While meditating under a pipal tree in Bodhgaya, he is said to have found salvation.
 He spent his life traveling and helping people find salvation and freedom from the trappings
of this life from then until his death at the age of 80.
 After his death, his disciples convened a council at Rajagriha, where the fundamental
teachings of Buddhism were codified. They were as follows:
o Vinaya Pitaka (Rules of order for Buddhists) - Written by Upali
o Sutta Pitaka (Buddha’s sermons and doctrines) - Written by Ananda
o Abhidhamma Pitaka (Buddhist Philosophy) - Written by Mahakashyap
 According to Buddhist philosophy, the traditional teachings instilled in the Vedas may not
be useful for humans to achieve salvation, and one should not blindly trust them.
 Following his life experiences, Buddha realized that the world is full of misery and that
every human being should strive for liberation by realising the four noble truths.
o First, there is suffering in human life, which manifests itself in the form of sickness,
pain, and death. Even the circle of life and death is painful. Separation from one's beloved causes
pain in humans as well.
o Second, desire is the root cause of all suffering.
o Third, he advises man to destroy the materialistic passions, desires, and love that
govern his life. The annihilation of these passions, attachments, jealousy, sorrow, doubt, and ego
would mean the end of sorrow and pain in human life. This will result in complete peace and
nirvana.
o Finally, one must move away from the constant suffering and pessimism that
dominates an individual's life and toward liberation and optimism.
 According to Buddhist philosophy, the path to liberation (nirvana) is comprised of eight
steps. This is the path to take:
o Right Vision: This path ensures that people's visions are free of ignorance.
 One should consider one's relationship with the world to be a transient one,
and thus strive for salvation and to break free from the cycle of rebirth.
o Right, Resolve: To walk this path, one must cultivate strong willpower to destroy
desires, passions, and ill thoughts that would harm oneself and others.
 Sacrifice, sympathy, and kindness to others should all be practiced.
o Right Speech: This is related to the preceding path of controlling one's speech
through right speech cultivation. One should not speak ill of others or criticize them.
o Right Conduct: One should try to avoid all activities that are harmful to one's life. A
man should begin to abandon his desire for materialistic things.
o Right Ways of Earning a Living: This path advises men to avoid using unfair means
to earn a living. They should not engage in deception, theft, or bribery.
o Right Effort: Man should make an effort to avoid negative feelings and impressions.
Anything that diverts a person's attention away from the path to salvation should be avoided.
o Right Mindfulness: It is necessary to maintain one's body, mind, and health in good
working order. When the body is out of alignment, one experiences negative thoughts, which lead
to erroneous actions and, eventually, pain.
o Right Concentration: If any human being follows the seven paths mentioned above,
he will be able to concentrate correctly and achieve salvation or nirvana.

Jain Philosophy
 Rishabha Deva, a Jain tirthankar or wise person, was the first to develop Jain
philosophy. He was one of the Jain religion's 24 tirthankaras (rulers).
 The first to realise that the Adinath was the source of all Jain philosophy was one of
them. Aristanemi and AjitNath were also important in developing and disseminating Jain
philosophy.
 The Jains, like Buddhists, oppose the primacy of Vedas in achieving salvation.
 They also contend that man is surrounded by pain and that controlling one's mind and
regulating one's behavior can alleviate human suffering.
 They contended that a man should be able to control his mind by seeking correct perception
and knowledge.
 He would be able to continue on the path of salvation if he was accompanied by appropriate
behaviour.
 If a man wishes to be liberated from the cycle of birth and death on Earth, he should
practise brahamcharya, or celibacy, according to Jain's philosophy.
 They believed that all natural and supernatural things in the universe are made up of seven
fundamental elements: jiva, ajivaa, asrava, bandha, samvara, nirjara, and moksha.
There are two kinds of existences:
 One, Astikaya, or something with a physical shape, such as a body. It has the ability to
embrace and envelop a person.
 Second, Anastakiya, or that which has no physical form, such as 'time.'
 According to Jain philosophy, everything that has a substance is called dharma. These
substances serve as the foundation for the qualities that an object or man possesses.
 Furthermore, while the substance is eternal and unchanging, the qualities or attributes are
constantly changing.
 For example, consciousness is the soul's substance, but one can be happy or sad depending
on one's mood; this 'mood' is the attribute that changes.

Charvaka School or Lokayata Philosophy


 Brihaspati laid the groundwork for this school, which was supposed to be one of the first to
develop a philosophical theory.
 The philosophy dates back to the Vedas and the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad.
 The Charvaka School was a major proponent of the materialistic approach to salvation.
 Because it was aimed at the common people, the philosophy was quickly
dubbed Lokayata or something derived from the common people.
 Direct perception was accepted as the most reliable technique of proving the truth of
anything. Insists on having a happy life.
 Charvaka, the author of the Barhaspatya Sutras in the fourth and fifth century B.C., was
its founder.
Ajivika School
 Ajivika Philosophy is a similar philosophy that is classified as unorthodox by some.
 The ajivikas might have just been a loosely structured band of travelling ascetics
(shramanas or sannyasins).
 Makkhali Gosala and Sanjaya Belatthaputta were two of its most notable members.
 This was a Mahajanapada era ascetic movement on the Indian subcontinent.
 Original texts of the Ajivika school of philosophy may have existed in the past, but they
are now inaccessible and most likely lost.
 Their beliefs are based on references to Ajivikas in secondary sources of ancient Indian
literature, notably those of Jainism and Buddhism, both of which polemically denounced the
Ajivikas.
 The Ajivika school is famous for its Niyati philosophy of total determinism (fate), which
holds that there is no free choice and that everything that has occurred, is occurring, or will happen
is fully predetermined and a result of cosmic laws.
 Ajivika saw the karma idea as a logical error.
 Ajivika were atheists who denied the authority of the Vedas, but they believed in the
existence of a tman in all living beings, which is a basic tenet of Hinduism and Jainism.
Ajnana School
 Ajnana was an ancient school of radical Indian scepticism and one of the nastika or
"heterodox" schools of ancient Indian philosophy.
 It was a Sramana movement that competed with early Buddhism, Jainism, and the Ajivika
school.
 They are documented in Buddhist and Jain scriptures.
 They believed that obtaining knowledge of metaphysical nature or determining the truth
value of philosophical statements was impossible, and that even if information could be obtained, it
was meaningless and detrimental to eventual salvation.
 They concentrated in rebuttal rather than promoting any positive philosophy.
 Sanjaya Belatthiputta was a significant supporter of this school of thinking.

Conclusion
Unorthodox (nastika) systems or heterodox schools are those that do not acknowledge the
authority of the Vedas. These schools are also significant in India's philosophical tradition. The term
"Indian Philosophy" refers to the orthodox and heterodox intellectual traditions of the
subcontinent. Every school of thought in India believed in karma and reincarnation, and moksha
was described as deliverance from the cycle of births and deaths.

Schools of Vedanta
In this article, you will understand the meaning and purpose of Vedanta Hindu Philosophy. Vedanta
schools are developed much later in the philosophical system, and this article talks about different
schools of Vedanta in detail.
 Meaning of Vedanta Hindu Philosophy
 Purpose of Vedanta Hindu Philosophy
 Schools of Vedanta
The Vedanta philosophy encompasses all of the diverse groups that exist in India today. As a result,
there have been many different interpretations, all of which have been progressive, starting with
the dualistic or Dvaita and culminating with the non-dualistic or Advaita. However, these sections
are largely obsolete at the moment, and in India, the name Vedas mainly refers to Vedanta.
Meaning of Vedanta Hindu Philosophy
Vedanta is one of India’s six philosophical systems (darshans). The name Vedanta refers to the
“conclusion” (anta) of the Vedas, India’s oldest holy text. Vedanta also refers to a Hindu school or
philosophy. It refers to the Upanishads, which were elaborations of the Vedas, as well as the school
that evolved from the Upanishads’ study (Mimamsa). As a result, Vedanta is also known as Vedanta
Mimamsa.
The origins of Vedanta may be discovered in Yajnavalkya’s old teachings and an ancient teacher
named Gaudapada’s commentary on the Mandukya Upanishad. Badarayana’s Vedanta Sutra (5th
century BC) is the oldest known systematic study of the Upanishads, and hence of Vedanta. It
discusses Brahman’s knowledge, how to obtain it, and the benefits of emancipation. Apart from it,
the Bhagavadgita and the Upanishads are the school’s primary sources. The three are regarded as
the triple foundations for the Vedanta path’s grand journey of liberation (Pristine Tray).
Purpose of Vedanta Hindu Philosophy
Vedanta teaches you how to reach that condition and how to overcome your limitations to
experience unity with Brahman. The ultimate goal and objective of Vedic knowledge are to achieve
this. Seriousness about accomplishing a goal, is what they offer to give.
As a result, Vedanta puts an end to your spiritual journey as well as your life as a mortal creature
susceptible to births and deaths. It puts an end to doubts and despair, your searching and striving,
knowing, existence as a bound soul, awareness of duality, worldly knowledge as well as spiritual
ignorance, relationship with the objective world, bonds and attachments, and the misery and
suffering. Along with this, is all that futile effort you put forth to have and deal with your fears and
the impermanence of the world.
Schools of Vedanta
The Vedanta school emerged considerably later, roughly coinciding with the rise of Vaishnavism
and Shaivism as Hinduism’s two major groups. Its philosophy is not uniform, and it is divided into
various sub-schools, three of which are the most significant, with the remainder being variants on
those three. They all recognise the Vedas as infallible sources of verbal witness (sabda pramana) on
metaphysical facts of reality. The following are the major Vedanta sub-schools:
1. Advaita or nondualism: This argues that Brahman is the only transcendental reality and
projection or delusion. Individual souls vanish into Brahman and cease to exist after their
emancipation. Adi Shankaracharya (8th-9th century AD) was one of its most prominent
proponents, and it still has a large following.
2. Vishishtadvaita or qualified nondualism: It is a school of thought that maintains that
there are three universal, everlasting realities rather than one. Brahman (Isvara), individual souls
(cit), and nature are the three (acit). Brahman is the only one who is self-sufficient, whereas the
other two are reliant. Between Brahman and the souls, there is also a conceptual dualism. Spirits
join the land of the Brahman after their emancipation and remain as emancipated souls eternally
(muktas). Its main proponent was Sri Ramanujacharya. In several places in India, the school is also
highly well-known.
3. Dvaita or dualism: It is a school of thought that believes there are many everlasting
realities, not just one or three. Brahman’s realms are actual, not projections or illusions. Existential
dualities are also extremely real. The diversity of creation is also diverse. Its main proponent was
Madhavacharya, a medieval saint from the 12th to 13th centuries AD. God, according to the school,
is an active controller who is accountable for the emancipation of creatures, rather than a passive
spectator. Even when they join the domain of Brahman, the souls remain distinct and unique.
4. Other major Vedanta schools: The other important Vedanta schools are modifications of
the main ones. The following sub-schools are:-
Nimbarka: It established Dvaita Advaita (11th Century AD). It claims that the souls and nature are
both separate (Dvaita) and non-distinct (Advaita) from Brahman, the one independent reality.
Suddha Advaita: According to this school, Krishna – the greatest reality and his creation, the
dependent reality, has a connection of pure non-difference. According to Shankara, the world is
God’s change, not his projection. As a result, it is not unreal. Vallabha established the school (15th-
16th Century AD).
Jiva Gosvami popularised Achintya Bhedabheda, which is based on Chaitanya’s (5th Century AD)
teachings. Krishna is regarded as the absolute Brahman, who manifests himself in a variety of forms
and manifestations and is, in essence, truth, consciousness, and happiness (sat-chit-ananda). The
souls are everlasting, yet they are not connected to God. They are, nevertheless, distinct as well as
similar. Liberation can be attained with either knowledge or dedication.
Conclusion
Vedanta has had a significant impact on Indian philosophy. Although, the overwhelming presence of
works by Advaita academics has produced the mistaken idea in the West that Vedanta. Advaita is
just one of several Vedanta schools. Swami Vivekananda’s writings and efforts, as well as those of
several other spiritual gurus and secular intellectuals, have popularised Vedanta in modern times.
Mimamsa is a Sanskrit word that means to thoroughly analyze and comprehend. It is one of the
six astika (orthodox) schools of Ancient Indian philosophy, whose primary inquiry is into
the nature of dharma. By carrying out dharma, one earns merit, which leads to heaven after death.
Here we will discuss in detail the Mimamsa school, which will be helpful for aspirants preparing
for UPSC IAS Examination.
Mimamsa School - Features
 Mimamsa literally translates to "the art of thinking, interpretation, and application."
 This school focuses on the interpretation of Vedic writings such as the Samhita and
Brahmana.
 They claim that the Vedas are the repository of all knowledge and contain the ultimate
truth.
 If one wants to obtain religious merit, paradise, and salvation, one must perform all of the
responsibilities given by the Vedas.
 The Sutras of Jaimini (founder of this school), which were purportedly penned in the 3rd
century BC, are the books that describe Mimamsa philosophy in full.
 Two of their most ardent supporters, Sabar Swami and Kumarila Bhatta, made further
inroads into the doctrine.
 They say that practicing rituals can lead to salvation, but that understanding the
explanation and reasoning behind Vedic rites is also required.
o It was vital to comprehend this logic if one wished to follow the rituals flawlessly
and thereby achieve redemption.
 The merits and demerits of a person were determined by their activities, and a person
would experience the bliss of paradise as long as their virtuous acts lasted.
o They would not, however, be exempt from the cycle of life and death. They will be
able to break away from this never-ending cycle after they have found redemption.
 Purva Mimamsa is a karma-Mimamsa system that examines Vedic teachings through the
lens of karma-kanda rituals.
 Purva Mimamsa (or simply Mimamsa) emphasizes the yagya's performance in order to
gain various spiritual and worldly benefits. As a result, this philosophy is based on the Brahmana
(and Samhita) portions of the Vedas.
 The major focus of this ideology was on the Vedic ceremonial aspect, i.e., performing
Vedic rites to gain salvation.
 Because most people did not comprehend the ceremonies, they would have to enlist the
help of priests.
 As a result, this theory implicitly legitimized the social divide between classes.
 The Brahmanas utilized this as a tactic to preserve their power over people, and they
continued to rule the social structure.
Conclusion
This philosophy incorporates the Nyaya-vaisheshika systems and places a premium on the concept
of valid knowledge. Mimamsa is more accurately known as Purva Mimamsa (prior inquiry) since it
investigates the "earlier" (Purva) portions of the Vedas, the Samhitas, and Brahmanas. Purva
Mimamsa believes that the Vedas are eternal and contain all knowledge.

Significance of GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES in India

A country’s Geography largely determines its historical events. The History of India is also
influenced by its geography. The study of Indian geographical features contributes to the better
understanding of its history.
Indian sub-continent is a well-defined geographical unit. It is divided into 3 major regions
The Himalayan Mountains The Indo-Gangetic Plains The Southern Peninsula
The Himalayan Mountains
It is situated on the North of India starting from the Pamir in the extreme north west of India, and
extends towards north east.
Length of nearly 250 kms with the Breadth of 240 to 320 kms.
The highest peak of Himalayas is known as Mount Everest with its height being 8848 metres. It acts as a
natural wall and protects the country against the cold arctic winds blowing from Siberia through Central Asia.
It helps in keeping the climate of north India fairly warm throughout the year.
It was considered that the Himalayas stood as a natural barrier to protect India against invasions.
But the passes in the North West Mountains such as the Khyber, Bolan, Kurram, Gomal provided
easy routes between India and Central Asia. These passes are situated in the Hindukush, Sulaiman
and Kirthar ranges. Many people came to India through these passes as invaders and immigrants.
The Indo-Aryans, The Indo Greeks, Parthians, Sakas, Kushanas, Hunas and Turks entered India
through these passes.
The Swat valley in this region formed another route. Alexander of Macedon came to India through
this route. The Missionaries, invading armies and merchants came to India using these routes.
These passes in northwest mountains had facilitated trade as well as cultural contents between
India and the Central Asia.
In the north of Kashmir is Karakoram Range, which is the second highest peak in the world.
Eventhough its way is connected to central Asia there was only a little communication through this
route.
In the east, the Himalayas extend upto Assam. The important mountain in this region are Pat Koi,
Nagai and Lushai ranges.

The Indo-Gangetic Plains


The Indo-Gangetic plain is irrigated by three important rivers, the Ganges, Indus and Brahmaputra.
This plain is fertile and productive because of the alluvial soil brought by the stream of the rivers
and tributaries. Its major tributaries are Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej and Beas.
The Punjab plains are benefited by the Indus river system. The literal meaning of the term “Punjab”
is the land of five rivers. The Indus plain is known for its fertile soil.
The Thar Desert and Aravalli Hills are situated in between the Indus and Gangetic plains. The
Ganges river rises in the Himalayas, flows south and then towards the east.
The river Yamuna flows almost parallel to the Ganges and then joins it. The area between these two
rivers is called “doab” – the land between two rivers.
The important tributaries of the Ganges are the Gomati, Sarayu, Ghagra and Gandak.
In the east of India, the Ganges plain merges into the plains of Brahmaputra. The river Brahmaputra
rises beyond the Himalayas, flows across Tibet and then continues through the plains of northeast
India
The Indo-Gangetic plains has contributed to the rise of urban centres. The most important city on
the western side of the Gangetic plain is Delhi.
This plain has always been a source of temptation and attraction for the foreign invaders due to its
fertility and production wealth.
The rivers in this region served as arteries of commerce and communication. In ancient times it
was difficult to make roads so men and materials were moved by boat.

The Southern Peninsula


The plateau to the south of the Vindhya Mountains is known as the Deccan Plateau. It consists of
volcanic rock, which is different from the northern mountains, as these rocks are easier to cut.
The Western Ghats runs along the Arabian sea and the lands between these are known as Konkan
upto Goa and beyond that as Kanara.
The southern most part is known as Malabar Coast.
The passes in the Western Ghats like Junnar, Kanheri and Karlie linked the trade routes into the
Western ports.
The Deccan Plateau acted as the bridge between the north and south India.

The Anaimudi is the highest peak in the southern peninsula. Doddapetta is another highest peak in
the Western Ghats.
The major rivers of the southern peninsula are almost running parallel. Mahanadhi is at the eastern
end of the peninsula. Narmada and Tapti run from east to west. Other rivers like the Godavari,
Krishna, Tungabhadra and Kaveri flow from west to east.
These rivers make the plateau into fertile rice producing soil.
The region between Krishna and Tungabhadra, known as Raichur Doab remained a bone of
contention between the major kingdoms of the south.
As the southern peninsula is gifted with a long coastline, the people of this region took keen
interest in the maritime activities. A great deal of trade and commerce went on through the
seaways.

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