Thermal Physics

Thermal Physics
Temperature : A value related to the average Kinetic Energy of the molecules
Thermodynamic (Kelvin) scale
T k = T °c + 273.15
0K -> Absolute Zero, Minimum Internal Energy

1°c = 1K
Kelvin temperatures does not depend the property of any one substance such as the melting point of ice, but
rather a universal one.
The Thermodynamic scale has 2 fixed points:
1. 0K absolute zero
2. 273.16K The Triple point of water
Measuring temperature
by measuring the effects of the gain in energy
Some Properties used to measure temperature include:
1. Resistance (Resistor / Thermistor)

2. E.M.F. (Thermocouple)
3. Color of an electrically heated wire
4. Thermal Expansion
Thermocouple
Difference in temperature induces small EMF
measuring table
High range
Electrical thermometers can measure across a great range of temperatures, from 0 K to hundreds or even
thousands of kelvin
Boyle's Law
For a fixed mass of a gas at constant temperature P is inversely proportional to the Volume
1
P ∝
V
P V = K1
P1 V1 = P2 V2
Charles's Law
For a fixed mass of a a gas at constant pressure

T ∝ V
T
= K2
V
Pressure Law
For a fixed mass of a a gas at constant prssure

T ∝ P
T
= K3
P
PV
= K
T
K is related to the mass

Mole
The molecular mass expressed in grams
1
1
H2
1 Mole of hydrogen = 1 x 2 = 2 g
12 16
6
C 8
O2
1 mole of CO 2 = 12 × 1 + 16 × 2
Avogadro's number (N ) : Number of molecules in 1 mole of any substance

A
23
N A = 6.023 × 10
N
= NA
n
n -> number of moles

N -> number of molecules
Ideal Gases
A Gas that obeys the formula PV
T
= constant
Brownian Motion
Observation :
Smoke particles appear to be moving in random directions
Equation Of State
P V = nRT
PV
= R
nT
R -> universal gas constant

−1 −1
R = 8.31 J K mol
Name Value
Avogadro constant (N ) A 6.02 × 10
23
mol
−1
molar gas constant (R) 8.31 J K

−1
mol
−1
Boltzmann constant 1.38 × 10

−23
JK
−1
Microscopic Thermal Physics

Kinetic theory of ideal gases
1. All gases consist of small particles called molecules they behave like hard spheres.
2. Between 2 collisions the molecule is travelling with constant speed.
3. Molecules are moving in a straight line.
4. Inter-molecular forces are ignored.
5. Weight of the molecules is negligible compared to the volume occupied by the gas.
6. Volume of the molecules is negligible compared to the volume occupied by the gas.
7. No energy lost between collisions (Collisions are elastic).
1
2
PV = N m < v̄ >
3
N -> Number of molecules

m -> Mass of one molecule
v̄
2
-> Mean Square Velocity
Note
N
n
= NA -> Avogadro's number
n 1
=
N NA
1 ¯2
nRT = Nm < v >
3
3 n 1 ¯2
RT = m < v >
2 N 2
3 R 1 ¯
T = m < v2 >
2 NA 2
NA
= K -> Boltzmann's constant
3 1
¯2
KT = m < v >
2 2
2
¯2
Nm < v > -> Average K.E. per molecule
Zero'th Law Of Thermodynamic

Heat is transferred from hot regions to cold regions
Systems are at Thermal Equilibrium when they have the same temperature and have no Energy
transfer between them
First Law Of Thermodynamics

The change in Internal energy of a system is the sum of change in both heat energy delivered to the system and
work done by the system.
Δu = ΔQ + Δwork
u -> Internal Energy

Q -> Thermal Energy
Internal Energy : The sum of P.E. & K.E. of all molecules
u = Σ(P . E. +K. E. )N
Potential energy : Electric potential energy
Work done : Work done by the pressure of the gas

W ork = P × ΔV
Note :
Change in energy = Area under the graph

For Solids 50% K.E. & 50% P.E.
For Ideal Gases 100% K.E.
Internal energy of a system is a state dependent
P , V , Q -> u
Rate of change in Temperature depends on the difference in temperature of the two objects
Internal energy also increases during a change of state, but there is no change in temperature
Heat Capacity
Heat (Thermal) Capacity (C) : the amount of energy needed to change the temperature of an object by 1°c
Specific Heat (Thermal) Capacity (c) : the amount of energy needed to change the temperature of
1Kg of an
–
substance by 1°c
Q = mcΔT
Due to the heat energy lost to the surroundings, as not all the heat energy is given is used to rise the
C exp < C real
temperature.
to reduce
Reduce the difference by surrounding the apparatus with an insulator

E Q (Q) = P × t
Q
c =
mΔT
Note
When Calculating the specific latent capacity of a substance, more than one reading can be taken at different
power values to eliminate the power lost to the surroundings. as the rate of loss in energy is constant for all
values of Power assuming the temperature is the same
Important Example:
a tub filled with 80 Kg of Water of 20°c , How many Kgs of 90°c water is needed to raise the temperature of
the water in the tub from 20 to 45 assuming no heat energy is lost to the surroundings
Answer:
Energy lost by hot water = Energy gained by cold water
mcΔT H ot = mcΔT Cold
m × 45 = 80 × 25
m = 44.4Kg
Latent heat : Amount of energy needed to change the state of a substance without changing it's temperature
Specific Latent Heat (L) : amount of energy needed to change the state of
1Kg of a substance without changing
–
it's temperature
Q = mL
S. L. H . vaporization > S. L. H . f usion
Completely breaking the bonds between molecules

Overcoming Atmospheric pressure
Calculating energy loss
P × t = mL + E lost

Thermal Physics

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Thermal Physics

Temperature : A value related to the average Kinetic Energy of the molecules

Thermodynamic (Kelvin) scale

0K -> Absolute Zero, Minimum Internal Energy

The Thermodynamic scale has 2 fixed points:

Some Properties used to measure temperature include:

1. Resistance (Resistor / Thermistor)

For a fixed mass of a a gas at constant pressure

For a fixed mass of a a gas at constant prssure

K is related to the mass

Avogadro's number (N ) : Number of molecules in 1 mole of any substance

n -> number of moles

R -> universal gas constant

molar gas constant (R) 8.31 J K

Boltzmann constant 1.38 × 10

Microscopic Thermal Physics

N -> Number of molecules

Zero'th Law Of Thermodynamic

First Law Of Thermodynamics

u -> Internal Energy

Internal Energy : The sum of P.E. & K.E. of all molecules

Potential energy : Electric potential energy

Work done : Work done by the pressure of the gas

Change in energy = Area under the graph

Reduce the difference by surrounding the apparatus with an insulator

S. L. H . vaporization > S. L. H . f usion

Completely breaking the bonds between molecules

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